Group Theory

Arun Kumar∗

1 Group of automorphisms
Let G be a non-empty set and let S(G) be the collection of all bijections
on G. Then we know that (S(G), ◦) is a group called symmetric group
of G, where ◦ is the function composition. Now, assume that G has group
structure, i.e. there is a binary operation · on G which makes G into a group.
There is a subgroup of S(G) which is of our particular interst, namely group
of automorphisms. Let us first define an automorphism.

Definition 1.1. Let (G, ·) be a group. A map φ : G → G is called an

automorphism on G if ∀x, y ∈ G

1. φ(x · y) = φ(x) · φ(y),

2. φ is a bijective map.

In other words, an automorphism on G is an isomorphism on itself.

Notation. A(G): collection of all automorphisms of G.

Exercise 1.1. Let (G, ·) be a group and φ, ψ ∈ A(G). Then show that

1. Identity map on G is an automorphism.

2. φ ◦ ψ ∈ A(G),

3. φ−1 ∈ A(G) .

Hence conclude that (A(G), ◦) is a subgroup of (S(G), ◦).

Example 1.1. Let G = {e}, the trivial group. Then S(G) = A(G) ∼
= G.

Example 1.2. Let G = Z2 = {0, 1}, the two element group. Then it is easy
to verify that |S(G)| = 2. However identity map is the only automorphism.

Observation 1.1. A(G) may be properly contained in S(G).

∗
Department of Mathematics, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University - 221005
India. Email: [email protected]

1
 In general, it is not an easy task to compute A(G). However, we can
easily compute A(G) for some known groups.

Example 1.3. Group of automorphisms of a finite cyclic group

Let us first observe that if G is a cyclic group and φ : G → G is a
homomorphism then φ(x) = xm , ∀x ∈ G. As, if G =< a > and φ(a) =
y = am then for any x ∈ G, for some integer n φ(x) = φ(an ) = (φ(a))n =
(am )n = (an )m = xm .
Let |G| = n and φ : G → G be an automorphism. Then by above
observation φ(x) = xm for some positive integer m.
What is the relationship between m and n?
Let us show that m and n are coprime. Assume G =< a > and d =
gcd(m, n). Then O(a) = n and hence O(φ(a) = am ) = n. Now, note that
m
(am ) nd = (an ) d = e (since d/m and d/n). So, n/(n/d) (Why?) and this is
possible only when d = 1. Hence m amd n are coprime.
Note that the converse: ’if m and n are coprime then the map φ(x) = xm
is an automorphism’ is also true. Since there are integers α and β such that
α · m + β · n = 1 and so ∀x ∈ G, xα·m+β·n = x, i.e. xα·m = x. So, if
φ(x) = φ(y), i.e. xm = y m then xα·m = x = y α·m = y and hence φ is
one-one. Now if y ∈ G, choose x = y α and so φ(x) = xm = y α·m = y and
hence φ is onto.
Where are we heading? Claim: A(G) ∼ = U (n).
Define a map Ψ : A(G) → U (n) as Ψ(φ) = m, where φ(x) = xm , ∀x ∈ G.
Clearly, φ is well defined (by above observation).
Ψ is a homomorphism.
Let φ, χ ∈ A(G). Then for some m, l ∈ U (n), φ(x) = xm and χ(x) =
xl ∀x ∈ G. Now φ ◦ χ(x) = xm·l and so Ψ(φ ◦ χ) = m · l(mod)n. But
m · l(mod)n = m(mod)n · l(mod)n = Ψ(φ) · Ψ(χ).
Ψ is onto.
Again by above observation each m ∈ U (n) determines an automorphism,
namely x ,→ xm and so Ψ is onto.
Ψ is one one.
If Ψ(φ) = Ψ(χ) then m = l(modn). But this implies n/m − l and so
∀x ∈ G, xm−l = e. Hence ∀x ∈ G, φ(x) = xm = xl = χ(x) so Ψ is one-one.
Hence A(G) ∼ = U (n).

Example 1.4. Group of automorphisms of an infinite cyclic group

Recall that any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to Z. So it is enough
to compute A(Z). Let φ ∈ A(Z) then as in previous example φ is completely
determined by its generators 1 and −1. But since φ is an automorphism so
a ∈ G is a generator if and only if φ(a) is also a generator. So we have only
two possibilities, either φ(1) = 1 or φ(1) = −1. Hence A(Z) ∼ = Z2 .

Observation 1.2. If G is a cyclic group then A(G) is abelian.

2
Inner automorphisms
Let G be a group and let g ∈ G. Define a map Tg : G → G as follows.

Tg (x) = gxg −1 , ∀x ∈ G.

Exercise 1.2. Show that Tg is an automorphism of G.

Definition 1.2. (Inner automorphism)

Let G be a group. Then for each g ∈ G Tg is called an inner automorphism.

Remark. 1. If G is abelian then for each g ∈ G, Tg (x) = gxg −1 = gg −1 x =

x = Id(x), i.e. in case of abelian group the inner automorphisms
coincide with identity map.

2. If G is non abelian then there are x, y ∈ G such that xy 6= yx. But

then Tx (y) 6= y (How?) and so Tx is a non trivial inner automorphism.
Let Inn(G) denote the collection of all inner automorphisms of G.

Exercise 1.3. 1. If Inn(G) ∼

= {e} then conclude that G must be abelain.

2. Is it true that if A(G) is trivial then G must also be trivial?

3. Find an automorphism of Z6 which is not an inner automorphism.

Theorem 1.1. Inn(G) is a normal subgroup of A(G).

Proof. We first show that Inn(G) is a subgroup of A(G) and then prove the
normality.
Inn(G) is a subgroup of A(G)
Clearly Inn(G) 6= ∅, since Te = Id (identity map) ∈ Inn(G).
Now to show Inn(G) preservs function composition, we need to show
that ∀g1 , g2 ∈ G ∃h ∈ G such that Tg1 ◦ Tg2 = Th .
However, note that Tg1 ◦Tg2 (x) = Tg1 (Tg2 x) = Tg1 (g2 xg2−1 ) = g1 g2 xg2−1 g1−1 =
(g1 g2 )x(g1 g2 )−1 = Tg1 g2 (x).
So, what should we choose h?
Take h = g1 g2 .
Now, for any g ∈ G, can we think of a candidate for (T g)−1 ?. It s
not very hard to show that (show it!) (T g)−1 = Tg−1 .
Inn(G) is normal in A(G).
Let f ∈ A(G) and Tg ∈ Inn(G). Then we have to show an existence of
a h ∈ G such that f ◦ Tg ◦ f −1 = Th .
However again like above, let us compute ∀x ∈ G, f ◦ Tg ◦ f −1 (x) =
f ◦ Tg (f −1 (x)) = f (Tg (f −1 (x))) = f (gf −1 (x)g −1 ) = f (g)f f −1 (x)f (g −1 )
(since f is an automorphism) = f (g)x(f (g))−1 = Tf (g) (x).
Again, what should we choose h?
Take h = f (g).

3
Now, let us introduce a subgroup of a given group G, usually known center
of the group G and denoted by Z(G).

Definition 1.3. Z(G) = {g ∈ G : ∀x ∈ Ggx = xg}.

Exercise 1.4. Show that, yes! Z(G) is indeed a subgroup of G. Moreover

Z(G) is normal in G.

Some quick results regarding Z(G).

Observation 1.3. 1. G is abelian if and only if Z(G) = G ( how?)

2. G = Q8 (Quaternian group having eight elements). Then Z(Q8 ) =

{1, −1}. Hence a group may be non abelian having non-trivial center.

3. If G/Z(G) is cyclic then G must be abelian.

As if G/Z(G) =< aZ(G) > then for x, y ∈ G xZ(G) = am Z(G) and
yZ(G) = an Z(G) for some integers m and n. But this impliy x = am g
and y = an h for some g, h ∈ Z(G). Hence xy = am gan h = am an gh =
am+n gh = an+m gh = an am gh = an am hg = an ham g = yx (all this is
happening because g, h ∈ Z(G)).

Theorem 1.2. G/Z(G) ∼

= Inn(G).

Proof. We have already associated for each g ∈ G, an element of Inn(G)

namely Tg . So, if we want to define a map Ψ : G → Inn(G), what would
be the most natural choice?
Define ∀g ∈ G, Ψ(g) = Tg . We have already observed that Ψ is a homo-
morphism (where?) as Ψ(g1 g2 ) = Tg1 g2 = Tg1 ◦ Tg2 = Ψ(g1 ) ◦ Ψ(g2 ).
What is the kernal of Ψ?
g ∈ Ker(Ψ) if and only if Ψ(g) = Id if and only if Tg = Id if and only if
∀x ∈ G Tg (x) = Id(x) if and only if gxg −1 = x if and only if gx = xg if and
only if g ∈ Z(G).
Hence using Fundamental theorem of homomorphism G/Ker(Ψ) ∼ = Im(Ψ).
But note that Im(Ψ) = Inn(G) (why?). Hence G/Z(G) ∼ = Inn(G).

Let us apply this theorem to compute some Inn(G) and A(G).

Example 1.5. Let us compute Inn(Q8 ) and A(Q8 ). Note that Z(Q8 ) =
{1, −1}. Hence Q8 /Z(G) ∼ = Inn(Q8 ). But Q8 /Z(Q8 ) ∼
= Z4 or Q8 /Z(Q8 ) ∼
=
Z2 × Z2 . But by the one of the previous observations (if ’G/Z(G) is cyclic
then G must be abelian’) if Q8 /Z(Q8 ) ∼= Z4 then Q8 must be abelian. But
this is absurd since Q8 is non abelian.
Hence Q8 /Z(Q8 ) ∼= Z2 × Z2 and Inn(Q8 ) ∼= Z2 × Z2 .
Try to find A(Q8 ) (Ans.S4 ).

4
Example 1.6. Let us compute Inn(S3 ) and A(S3 ). Let us first compute
Z(S3 ). As we know that S3 = {e, (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)}. Now, note
that (12)(13) = (132) 6= (13)(12) = (123) so neither (12) ∈ Z(S3 ) nor
(13) ∈ Z(S3 ). Similarly (23)(123) = (13) 6= (123)(23) = (12) and so neither
(123) ∈ Z(S3 ) nor (23) ∈ Z(S3 ). Similarly it can be easily shown (show it)
that (132) ∈/ S3 .
Hence Z(S3 ) = {e}.
So, by above Theorem ??, S3 /Z(S3 ) ∼ = S3 ∼= Inn(S3 ).
Now note that (12)(123) = (23), (123)(12) = (13), (123)2 = (132) and
hence every element of S3 can be expressed in terms of (12) and (123)
only, i.e. S3 = {e = (12)2 , (12), (13) = (123)(12), (23) = (12)(123) =
(23), (123), (132) = (123)2 }. Now suppose φ ∈ A(S3 ) then by the above
observation φ is completely determined by φ(12) and φ(123). Since we know
that an automorphism preserves the order and as O(12) = 2, O(123) = 3.
So what are the possible values of φ(12) and φ(123)?
Here are the possibilities. φ(12) = (12), (13).(23) and φ(123) = (123), (132).
So, how many possible φ’s are there?
There are six possible choices for φ (write down all the possibilities).
Hence |A(S3 )| ≤ 6. Since Inn(S3 ) is a subgroup of A(S3 ) having six ele-
ments so Inn(S3 ) = A(S3 ) ∼ = S3 .

Exercise 1.5. Show that A(Z2 × Z2 ) ∼ = S3 .

Hint: Z2 ×Z2 =< (1, 0), (0, 1) > and so if φ ∈ A(Z2 ×Z2 ) so φ(0, 1)andφ(1, 0)
have the same order as (0, 1) and (1, 0) respectively.