~ EXERCISES

19. 4y" - 4y' + y = 0, y(O) = 1, y'(0) = -1.5

rn y" - y' - 6y = 0 2. y" + 4 y' + 4y = 0 20. 2y" + 5y' - 3y = 0, y(O) = 1, y'(O) = 4

3. 4y" + y = 0 4. y" - 8y' + 12y = 0 [Q y" + 16y = 0, y(1T/4) = -3, y'(?T/4) = 4

5. 9y" - 12y' + 4y = 0 6. 25y" + 9y = 0 22. y" - 2y' + 5y = 0, Y(1T) = 0, Y'(1T) = 2

dy 2
dy lID y" + 2y' + 2y = 0, y(O) = 2, y'(0) = I
8. dt2 - 6 d1 + 4y = 0
24. y" + 12y' + 36y = 0, y(l) = 0, y'(I) = I
00 y" - 4y' + By = 0 10. y" + 3y' = 0

d2y dy
[ITJ2-+2--y=0 25-32 Solve the boundary-value problem, if possible.
dt2 dt
25. 4y" + y = 0, y(O) = 3, Y(1T) = -4
d2y dy
12. 8 dt2 + 12 --;}t + 5y = 0 26. y" + 2y' = 0, y(O) = 1, y(l) = 2

d2p dP 27. y" - 3y' + 2y = 0, y(O) = 1, y(3) = 0

13. 100 dt2 + 200 di + IOIP = 0
28. y" + 100y = 0, y(O) = 2, Y(1T) = 5

29. y" - 6y' + 25y = 0, y(O) = 1, Y(1T) = 2

~ 14-16 Graph the two basic solutions of the differential equation ~ y" - 6y' + 9y = 0, y(O) = 1, y(I) = 0
and several other solutions. What features do the solutions have in
31. y" + 4y' + By = 0, y(O) = 2, y(1T/2) = I
common?
32. 9y" - 18y' + lOy = 0, y(O) = 0, Y(1T) = 1
d2y dy
14. --2 + 4 - + 20y = 0
dx dx
d2y dy 33. Let L be a nonzero real number.
15. 5 dx2 - 2 dx - 3y = 0 (a) Show that the boundary-value problem y" + Ay = 0,
y(O) = 0, y(L) = 0 has only the trivial solution y = 0 for
d2y dy
16. 9 --2 + 6- + y = 0 the cases A = 0 and A < O.
dx dx (b) For the case A> 0, find the values of A for which this
problem has a nontrivial solution and give the corre-
sponding solution.
17-24 Solve the initial-value problem.
34. If a, b, and c are all positive constants and y(x) is a solution
[ill2y" + 5y' + 3y = 0, y(O) = 3, y'(0) = -4
of the differential equation ay" + by' + cy = 0, show that
18. y" + 3y = 0, y(O) = 1, y'(O) = 3 limx_oo y(x) = O.

=================~ NONHOMOGENEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS

In this section we learn how to solve second-order nonhomogeneous linear differential equa-
tions with constant coefficients, that is, equations of the form

where a, b, and c are constants and G is a continuous function. The related homogeneous
equation

is called the complementary equation and plays an important role in the solution of the
original nonhomogeneous equation (1).
 CVVeseek a particular solution, so we don't need a constant of integration here.) Then,
from Equation 10, we obtain

, sin x I sin2x cos2x -

U2 = ---Ul = --- = = cosx - secx
cos x cos x cos x

• Figure 5 shows four solutions of the

differential equation in Example 7.

Yp(x) = -cos x sin x + [sin x - In(sec x + tan x)] cos x

i = -cos x In(sec x + tan x)

o
i Yp
\_-----------
-1

§ EXERCISES

1-10 Solve the differential equation or initial-value problem ~ 11-12 Graph the particular solution and several other solutions.
using the method of undetermined coefficients. What characteristics do these solutions have in common?
I. y" + 3y' + 2y = x2

2. y" + 9y = e 3x

3. y" - 2y' = sin 4x 13-18 Write a trial solution for the method of undetermined
4. y" + 6y' + 9y = 1 + x coefficients. Do not determine the coefficients.

[I] y" - 4y' + 5y = e- x

14. y" + 9y' = xe-x cos 7TX

7. y" + Y = eX + x3, y(O) = 2, y'(O) = 0 15. y" + 9y' = 1 + xe9x

8. y" - 4y = eXcosx, y(O) = 1, y'(O) = 2 ~ y" + 3y' - 4y = (x3 + x)eX

[!] y" - y' = xe"', y(O) = 2, y'(O) = I 17. y" + 2y' + lOy = x2e-x cos 3x

10. y" + y' - 2y = x + sin 2x, y(O) = 1, y'(O) = 0 [[] y" + 4y = e3x + xsin2x
19-22 Solve the differential equation using (a) undetermined coef-
ficients and (b) variation of parameters.
~ I 1
19. 4y" + y = cosx ~ y" - 3y + 2y = 1 + e-x
~ y" - 2y' + y = e2x

27. y "' - 2y + y = --
eX
I + x2
23-28 Solve the differential equation using the method of e-2x
variation of parameters. 28. y" + 4y' + 4y = -3-
X
23. y" + y = sec2x, 0 < x < 71/2

Second-order linear differential equations have a variety of applications in science and

engineering. In this section we explore two of them: the vibration of springs and electric
circuits.

We consider the motion of an object with mass m at the end of a spring that is either ver-

T
tical (as in Figure 1) or horizontal on a level surface (as in Figure 2).
In Section 6.4 we discussed Hooke's Law, which says that if the spring is stretched (or
compressed) x units from its natural length, then it exerts a force that is proportional to x:

equilibrium 0
position
where k is a positive constant (called the spring constant). If we ignore any external resist-
ing forces (due to air resistance or friction) then, by Newton's Second Law (force equals
mass times acceleration), we have

d2x
m--2 + kx = 0
dt
equilibrium position
This is a second-order linear differential equation. Its auxiliary equation is mr2 +k = 0
1 with roots r = ±wi, where w = Jk/m. Thus the general solution is
~m

C, Co
cos 0 = A sin 0 = - ~
A
(/5 is the phase angle)
@ EXERCISES

I. A spring has natural length 0.75 m and a 5-kg mass. A force of 12. Consider a spring subject to a frictional or damping force.
25 N is needed to keep the spring stretched to a length of I m. (a) In the critically damped case, the motion is given by
If the spring is stretched to a length of 1.1 m and then released x = cle" + c2te". Show that the graph of x crosses the
with velocity 0, find the position of the mass after t seconds. t-axis whenever C\ and C2 have opposite signs.
(b) In the overdamped case, the motion is given by
2. A spring with an 8-kg mass is kept stretched 0.4 m beyond its x = cle'" + C2e"', where rl > r2. Determine a condition
natural length by a force of 32 N. The spring starts at its equi- on the relative magnitudes of CI and C2 under which the
librium position and is given an initial velocity of 1 m/s. Find graph of x crosses the t-axis at a positive value of t.
the position of the mass at any time t.
[!I] A seriescircuit consists of a resistor with R = 20 ,0" an
rn A spring with a mass of 2 kg has damping constant 14, and inductor with L = I H, a capacitor with C = 0.002 F, and a
a force of 6 N is required to keep the spring stretched 0.5 m 12-V battery. If the initial charge and current are both 0, find
beyond its natural length. The spring is stretched 1 m beyond the charge and current at time t.
its natural length and then released with zero velocity. Find the
14. A series circuit contains a resistor with R = 24 ,0" an induc-
position of the mass at any time t.
tor with L = 2 H, a capacitor with C = 0.005 F, and a 12- V
4. A force of 13 N is needed to keep a spring with a 2-kg mass battery. The initial charge is Q = 0.001 C and the initial cur-
stretched 0.25 m beyond its natural length. The damping con- rent is O.
stant of the spring is C = 8. (a) Find the charge and current at time t.
(a) If the mass starts at the equilibrium position with a ffi (b) Graph the charge and current functions.
velocity of 0.5 mis, find its position at time t.
15. The battery in Exercise 13 is replaced by a generator produc-
(b) Graph the position function of the mass.
ing a voltage of E(t) = 12 sin lOt. Find the charge at time t.
5. For the spring in Exercise 3, find the mass that would produce 16. The battery in Exercise 14 is replaced by a generator pro-
critical damping. ducing a voltage of E(t) = 12 sin lOt.
(a) Find the charge at time t.
6. For the spring in Exercise 4, find the damping constant that
would produce critical damping.
ffi (b) Graph the charge function.
[I1] Verify that the solution to Equation I can be written in the
ffi 7. A spring has a mass of I kg and its spring constant is k = 100. form x(t) = A cos(wt + 8).
The spring is released at a point 0.1 m above its equilibrium
18. The figure shows a pendulum with length L and the angle ()
position. Graph the position function for the following values
from the vertical to the pendulum. It can be shown that (), as a
of the damping constant c: 10, 15, 20, 25, 30. What type of
function of time, satisfies the nonlinear differential equation
damping occurs in each case?
d2(} 9
ffi 8. A spring has a mass of 1 kg and its damping constant is -- 2 + -sin
dt L
()= 0
C = 10. The spring starts from its equilibrium position with a

velocity of I m/s. Graph the position function for the follow- where 9 is the acceleration due to gravity. For small values of
ing values of the spring constant k: 10, 20, 25, 30, 40. What () we can use the linear approximation sin () = () and then the
type of damping occurs in each case? differential equation becomes linear.
(a) Find the equation of motion of a pendulum with length
[!J Suppose a spring has mass m and spring constant k and let 1 m if () is initially 0.2 rad and the initial angular velocity
w = Jk/m. Suppose that the damping constant is so small is d()/dt = I rad/s.
that the damping force is negligible. If an external force (b) What is the maximum angle from the vertical?
F(t) = Fo cos wot is applied, where Wo "" w, use the method (c) What is the period of the pendulum (that is, the time to
of undetermined coefficients to show that the motion of the complete one back-and-forth swing)?
mass is described by Equation 6. (d) When will the pendulum first be vertical?
(e) What is the angular velocity when the pendulum is
10. As in Exercise 9, consider a spring with mass m, spring con-
vertical?
stant k, and damping constant C = 0, and let w = Jk/m.
If an external force F(t) = Fo cos wt is applied (the applied
frequency equals the natural frequency), use the method of
undetermined coefficients to show that the motion of the mass
is given by x(t) = CI cos wt + C2 sin wt + (Fo/(2mw))t sin wt.

II. Show that if Wo "" w, but w/wo is a rational number, then the
motion described by Equation 6 is periodic.
 are perfectly good functions but they can't be expressed in terms of familiar functions. We
can use these power series expressions for y, and yz to compute approximate values of the
functions and even to graph them. Figure 1 shows the first few partial sums To, Tz, T4, •••
(Taylor polynomials) for y,(x), and we see how they converge to Yl. In this way we can
graph both y, and yz in Figure 2.

,-------
-2.5
I 2.5
This would simplify the calculations in Example 2, since all of the even coefficients would
1 be O. The solution to the initial-value problem is
_________
.. J
I
-15
y(x) =x + i 1·5·9· .... (4n - 3) XZIl+1

Il~l (2n + l)!

~ EXERCISES

I. y' - y = 0 2. y' = xy

rn y' = xZy 4. (x - 3)y' + 2y = 0

is called a Bessel function of order O.

(a) Solve the initial-value problem to find a power series
expansion for the Bessel function.
(b) Graph several Taylor polynomials until you reach one that
00 y" - xy' - y = 0, y(O) = 1, y'(O) = 0
looks like a good approximation to the Bessel function on
10. y" + 2
x y = 0, y(O) = 1, y'(0) = 0 the interval [ - 5, 5].

=================~ REVI EW

I. (a) Write the general form of a second-order homogeneous (b) What is the complementary equation? How does it help
linear differential equation with constant coefficients. solve the original differential equation?
(b) Write the auxiliary equation. (c) Explain how the method of undetermined coefficients
(c) How do you use the roots of the auxiliary equation to solve works.
the differential equation? Write the form of the solution for (d) Explain how the method of variation of parameters works.
each of the three cases that can occur.
4. Discuss two applications of second-order linear differential
2. (a) What is an initial-value problem for a second-order differ-
equations.
ential equation?
(b) What is a boundary-value problem for such an equation?
3. (a) Write the general form of a second-order nonhomogeneous
linear differential equation with constant coefficients.
Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why.
If it is false. explain why or give an example that disproves the statement.

I, If YI and Y2 are solutions of y" + y = 0, then YI + Y2 is also

a solution of the equation.
2. If YI and Y2 are solutions of y" + 6y' + 5y = x, then
CIYI + C2Y2 is also a solution of the equation.

1-10 Solve the differential equation. 16. Use power series to solve the equation

I. y" - 2y' - 15y = 0 y" - xy' - 2y = 0

2. y" + 4y' + 13y = 0 17. A series circuit contains a resistor with R = 40 n, an inductor
3. y" + 3y = 0 with L = 2 H, a capacitor with C = 0.0025 F, and a I2-V bat-
tery. The initial charge is Q = 0.01 C and the initial current
4. 4y" + 4y' + y = 0 is O. Find the charge at time t.
2
dy dy 2
5. dx2 - 4 dx + 5y = e x 18. A spring with a mass of 2 kg has damping constant 16, and a
force of 12.8 N keeps the spring stretched 0.2 m beyond its
d2y dy natural length. Find the position of the mass at time t if it
6. -- 2 +- - 2y = x2
starts at the equilibrium position with a velocity of 2.4 m/s.
dx dx

d2y dy 19. Assume that the earth is a solid sphere of uniform density with
7. dx2 - 2 dx + Y = x cos X
mass M and radius R = 6370 km. For a particle of mass m
within the earth at a distance r from the earth's center, the
d2y
8. --2 + 4Y = sin 2x gravitational force attracting the particle to the center is
dx
-GM,m
d2y dy F, = 2
9. -- - - - 6y = I + e-2x r
dx2 dx
where G is the gravitational constant and M, is the mass of the
d2y
10. --, + y = csc x, 0 < x < 7T 12 earth within the sphere of radius r.
dx- -GMm
(a) Show that F, = R3 r.

11-14 Solve the initial-value problem. (b) Suppose a hole is drilled through the earth along a diame-
ter. Show that if a particle of mass m is dropped from rest
II. y" + 6y' = 0, y(I) = 3, y'(I) = 12 at the surface, into the hole, then the distance y = yet) of
12. y" - 6y' + 25y = 0, y(O) = 2, y'(O) = I the particle from the center of the earth at time t is given by

13. y" - 5y' + 4y = 0, y(O) = 0, y'(O) = I

14. 9y" + y = 3x + e-X, y(O) = 1, y'(O) = 2
where k2 = GMIR3 = giR.
(c) Conclude from part (b) that the particle undergoes simple
harmonic motion. Find the period T.
(d) With what speed does the particle pass through the center
of the earth?