IEEE Guide For Application of Power Electronics For Power Quality Improvement On Distribution Systems Rated 1 KV Through 38 KV

IEEE Guide for Application of Power
Electronics for Power Quality

Improvement on Distribution Systems
Rated 1 kV Through 38 kV
IEEE Power & Energy Society
Sponsored by the
Transmission and Distribution Committee
IEEE
3 Park Avenue IEEE Std 1409™-2012
New York, NY 10016-5997
USA
27 April 2012
Authorized licensed use limited to: Universidad Industrial de Santander. Downloaded on September 17,2021 at 10:11:48 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE Std 1409™-2012

Sponsor
Transmission and Distribution Committee

of the
IEEE Power & Energy Society
Approved 29 March 2012
IEEE-SA Standards Board
Abstract: Guidelines and performance expectations are provided for the application of power
electronic-based equipment on distribution systems of power providers to improve power quality.
It is a resource to electric utility providers as they enter into the competitive marketplace. It
provides detailed information about custom power devices as options to solve power quality
problems.
Keywords: backup stored energy system device, custom power, distribution series capacitors,
distribution static compensator, distribution static var compensator, dynamic voltage restorer,
flicker, harmonics, IEEE 1409, power conditioning, power quality, static voltage regulator, transfer
switch, voltage fluctuations, voltage sags
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5997, USA
Copyright © 2012 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

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v
Participants
At the time this IEEE guide was completed, the Power Quality Solutions Working Group had the following
membership:
David Mueller, Chair

D. Daniel Sabin, Vice Chair
Richard Bingham David Kreiss Greg Rauch

Math Bollen Frank Lambert Alvin Razon
Reuben Burch Thomas W. LaRose Brad Roberts
James L. Burke Theo Laughner Denis Ruest
Ernst Camm Kevin Little Robert Saint
Gary Chang Mike Lowenstein Ambra Sannino
Randy Collins Tom McDermott John Schwartzenberg
Larry Conrad Alex McEachern Matt Seeley
Fouad Dagher Mark F. McGranaghan Michael T. Sheehan
Osmani Demirci Chris McKissack Michael Shepherd
Andy Dettloff Harshad Mehta Georges Simard
Doug Dorr Chris Melhorn Jeff Smith
Russ Ehrlich Tom Menten Doug Staszesky
Alan Fraser Stephen Middlekauff Michael Swearingen
Bill Garlatz Bill Moncrief Ken Szediol
Dave Gilmer Alejandro Montenegro Steve Tatum
Eric Gunther Larry Morgan Rao Thallam
Mark Halpin Malte Mosters Michael Thesing
Dennis Hansen Ram Mukherji Tony Thomas
Fred Hensley Matt Norwalk Grazia Todeschini
Gil Hensley Ray O’Leary Robert Tucker
Ron Hotchkiss Magnus Olofsson Timothy D. Unruh
Michael R. Ingram Gregory L. Olson Marek Waclawiak
Jon Jipping Marty Page Dan Ward
Eric John Gilson Paulillo Charles Williams
Brian K. Johnson Ben Pedersen Brian Wong
John Kennedy Scott Peele Neil H. Woodley
Albert Keri Michael Pehosh Chris Wyatt
Thomas Key Charles Perry Francisc Zavoda
Morteza Khodaie Dean Philips
Mike Kotch Alberto Prudenzi
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have
voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention:
William J. Ackerman Andy Dettloff Eric Gunther

Santiago Barcon Kevin Donahoe Ajit Gwal
Craig Befus Carlo Donati Dennis Hansen
Richard Bingham Gary Donner Edward Hare
William Bloethe Neal Dowling David Harris
Frederick Brockhurst Gary Engmann Steven Hodder
Chris Brooks Carl Fredericks Werner Hoelzl
Ted Burse Fredric Friend Robert Hoerauf
William Bush Bill Garlatz John Houdek
William Byrd Dave Gilmer R. Jackson
Brent Cain Mietek Glinkowski Brian K. Johnson
Arvind K. Chaudhary Edwin Goodwin John Kennedy
James Cleary Thomas Grebe Yuri Khersonsky
Michael Coddington Randall Groves Morteza Khodaie
vi
Jim Kulchisky Marty Page David Singleton
Saumen Kundu Donald Parker James Smith
Chung-Yiu Lam Bansi Patel Jerry Smith
Theo Laughner Christopher Petrola John Spare
Kevin Little Iulian Profir Gary Stoedter
Greg Luri Reynaldo Ramos Peter Sutherland
Gary Michel John Roach David Tepen
Bill Moncrief Michael Roberts Eric Udren
Daniel Mulkey Charles Rogers Timothy D. Unruh
Jerry Murphy Thomas Rozek John Vergis
Michael S. Newman Robert Saint Carl Wall
David Nichols Bartien Sayogo Dan Ward
Joe Nims Robert Schuerger Larry Young
Gregory L. Olson Ken Sedziol Jian Yu
Lorraine Padden Nikunj Shah Francisc Zavoda
Gil Shultz
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this guide on 29 March 2012, it had the following
membership:
Richard H. Hulett, Chair

John Kulick, Vice Chair
Robert M. Grow, Past President
Judith Gorman, Secretary
Satish Aggarwal Alexander Gelman Oleg Logvinov

Masayuki Ariyoshi Paul Houzé Ted Olsen
Peter Balma Jim Hughes Gary Robinson
William Bartley Young Kyun Kim Jon Walter Rosdahl
Ted Burse Joseph L. Koepfinger* Mike Seavey
Clint Chaplin John Kulick Yatin Trivedi
Wael Diab David J. Law Phil Winston
Jean-Philippe Faure Thomas Lee Yu Yuan
Hung Ling
*Member Emeritus
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:
Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative

Michael Janezic, NIST Representative
Julie Alessi
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Document Development
Matthew J. Ceglia
IEEE Client Services Manager, Professional Services
vii
Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std 1409-2012, IEEE Guide for Application of Power Electronics for Power
Quality Improvement on Distribution Systems Rated 1 kV Through 38 kV.
This guide introduces and defines the technology of custom power. This technology involves devices and
circuit configurations of power electronic equipment used in distribution systems of power providers rated
1 kV through 38 kV for the purposes of mitigating problems associated with power quality. The concept of
custom power is the employment of power electronic or static controllers in medium voltage distribution
systems for the purpose of supplying a level of power quality that is needed by electric power customers
that are sensitive to rms voltage variations. Custom power devices include static switches, converters,
injection transformers, master control modules, and/or energy storage modules that have the ability to
perform current interruption and voltage regulation functions in a distribution system to improve power
quality.
For voltage sag, swell, and interruption mitigation, the following custom power controllers are examined:
dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) devices, static voltage regulator (SVR) devices, backup stored energy
system (BSES) devices, and transfer switch (TS) devices. For harmonic and reactive compensation, the
following devices are reviewed: distribution static compensator (distribution STATCOM) devices,
distribution static var compensator (SVC) devices, and distribution series capacitors.
This guide includes definitions, general need guidelines, performance objectives, electrical environments,
input/output criteria, performance measurements, case studies, bibliography, and engineering tradeoffs. It
also addresses power assessment techniques.
viii
Contents
1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 2
2. Normative references.................................................................................................................................. 2
3. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 2
4. General needs ............................................................................................................................................. 7

4.1 Definition of custom power ................................................................................................................. 7
4.2 Description of power quality phenomena ............................................................................................ 7
4.3 Typical rate and range of power quality phenomena in distribution systems .................................... 15
4.4 Range of available solutions.............................................................................................................. 18
4.5 Role of custom power solutions......................................................................................................... 19
5. Configurations and performance objectives ............................................................................................. 19

5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 19
5.2 Components of custom power technology......................................................................................... 20
5.3 Voltage sag and interruption protection devices................................................................................ 20
5.4 Reactive power and harmonic compensation devices........................................................................ 31
6. Application considerations ....................................................................................................................... 35

6.1 General system considerations........................................................................................................... 35
6.2 Specific engineering issues for voltage sag and interruption protection devices............................... 36
6.3 Specific engineering issues for reactive power and harmonic compensation devices ....................... 47
7. Performance measurements...................................................................................................................... 49
7.1 Where to monitor............................................................................................................................... 49
7.2 What to monitor................................................................................................................................. 50
8. Case studies .............................................................................................................................................. 54

8.3 Custom power park............................................................................................................................ 69
9. Economics ................................................................................................................................................ 72
9.3 Description of the various methods of economic evaluation ............................................................. 75
Annex A (informative) Bibliography .......................................................................................................... 77
ix
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1. Overview
1.1 Scope
This guide introduces and defines the emerging technology of custom power. This technology involves
devices and circuit configurations of power electronic equipment used in utility power distribution systems
rated 1 kV through 38 kV for the purposes of mitigating problems associated with power quality. This
guide also includes definitions, general need guidelines, performance objectives, electrical environments,
input/output criteria, performance measurements, case studies, bibliography, and engineering trade-offs.
The proposed document addresses power assessment techniques as specified by IEEE Std 1250TM-2011 1,
which defines power quality terms and phenomena, and IEEE Std 1159TM-2009, which provides a
recommended practice for measuring power quality.
1
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
1
IEEE Std 1409-2012
IEEE Guide for Application of Power Electronics for Power Quality Improvement on Distribution Systems Rated 1 kV
Through 38 kV
1.2 Purpose
This document provides guidelines and performance expectations for the application of power electronic-
based equipment on utility distribution systems to improve power quality and control in these distribution
systems. It can be a resource to utilities as they enter into the marketplace, providing detailed information
about custom power devices as options to solving power quality problems.
2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of
the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies. 2
IEEE Std 519TM-1992, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical
Power Systems. 3
IEEE Std 1159-2009, IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality.
IEEE Std 1250-2011, Guide for Identifying and Improving Voltage Quality in Power Systems.
3. Definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. The IEEE Standards
Dictionary: Glossary of Terms and Definitions 4 should be consulted for terms not defined in this clause.
backup stored energy system (BSES): A device that disconnects a protected load from the power
provider supply within milliseconds of the detection of a disturbance and supplies the entire load using
stored energy. Typical sources for the stored energy are batteries, flywheels, or superconducting magnetic
coils.
BSES: See: backup stored energy system.
custom power: The concept of employing power electronic (static) controllers in 1 kV through 38 kV
distribution systems for supplying a compatible level of power quality necessary for adequate performance
of selected facilities and processes.
custom power controller: An active power electronic device, consisting of equipment, installation, and/or
apparatus with the ability to perform current interruption and/or voltage regulation in the distribution
system to improve power quality.
custom power park: A concept for providing improved power quality to an industrial or commercial
office park development serving multiple tenants with varying power quality requirements utilizing a
combination of custom power controllers and other power quality improvement devices. Also referred to as
a premium power park, the concept may also include multiple electrical feeds, energy conversion
equipment with multiple fuels, and integrated energy storage.
2
The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
3
IEEE publications are available from The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
4
IEEE Standards Dictionary: Glossary of Terms and Definitions is available at http://shop.ieee.org.
2
IEEE Std 1409-2012
Through 38 kV
dip: See: sag.
distribution series capacitor: A fixed capacitor connected in series with the distribution circuit and
provided with high-speed mechanical bypass protection. While it can be an effective solution for flicker
caused by varying loads, this device is not considered a custom power controller.
distribution STATCOM: A power electronics-based waveform synthesis device that is shunt connected
through a transformer to a distribution circuit for the purpose of instantaneous voltage regulation, power
factor correction, and reactive power control. The compensator may also have the capability of injecting
higher than fundamental frequency current vectors into the distribution circuit at the point of common
coupling to perform active filtering (mitigation) of current harmonics. The term distribution STATCOM
(distribution static compensator) specifically applies to equipment used for power quality improvement in
distribution applications. See also: static shunt compensator.
DVR: See: dynamic voltage restorer.
dynamic voltage restorer (DVR): A power electronics-based waveform synthesis device that is series
connected directly into the primary distribution circuit by means of a set of series-connected single-phase
injection transformers. The principal function of the dynamic voltage restorer is to inject or absorb real
power during a short-duration change in the primary feeder voltage. This device may be coupled with
energy storage capability. Its controller may also have the capability of injecting higher than fundamental
frequency voltage vectors into the distribution circuit to perform active filtering (mitigation) of voltage
harmonics.
flicker: Impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus whose luminance or
spectral distribution fluctuates with time.
NOTE—Flicker is defined by IEC 60050-161 [B12]. 5, 6
gate turn-off (GTO) thyristor: Variant of the thyristor with controlled turn-off initiated by large negative
current pulse to gate, capable of slow pulse-width-modulation waveform synthesis.
GTO: See: gate turn-off thyristor.
high-speed mechanical transfer switch (HSMTS): A transfer switch that utilizes vacuum switches to
transfer a load from a primary feed to a secondary with transfer times as fast as 1.5 cycles.
hybrid transfer switch: A transfer switch that employs a static switch in parallel with a vacuum switch to
transfer a load from a primary feed to a secondary with transfer times as fast as 1.5 cycles.
IGBT: See: insulated gate bipolar transistor.
IGCT: See: integrated gate commutated thyristor.
insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT): A power, voltage-controlled semiconductor device with turn-
on and turn-off capability, capable of high switching frequencies in pulse-width modulation waveform
synthesis.
integrated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT): A variant of the thyristor with turn-off controlled by a
large current (up to rating of load current) pulse. The IGCT is faster than an ordinary gate turn-off thyristor.
5
Notes in text, tables, and figures of a standard are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement
this standard.
6
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex A.
3
IEEE Std 1409-2012
Through 38 kV
LES: See: line energy supply.
line energy supply (LES): A supply scheme for the DVR in which the energy injected into the distribution
circuit during voltage sag compensation is drawn from the system during the sag event by a diode bridge
rectifier that is connected to the dc-link of the DVR converter.
MCT: See: MOS controlled thyristor.
mechanical transfer switch (MTS): A transfer switch that utilizes mechanical switching components to
transfer a load from a primary feed to a secondary with typical transfer times that range from 100 ms to
approximately 10 s. While it is an effective solution for loads that can tolerate a momentary interruption,
this device is not considered a custom power controller.
MOS controlled thyristor (MCT): A variant of the thyristor with two internal power MOSFETs
controlling the device turn-on and turn-off, with superior turn-on/turn-off performance allowing higher
switching frequencies in PWM waveform synthesis.
MTS: See: mechanical transfer switch.
notch: A switching (or other) disturbance of the normal power voltage waveform, lasting less than 0.5
cycles, which is initially of opposite polarity than the waveform and is thus subtracted from the normal
waveform in terms of the peak value of the disturbance voltage. This includes complete loss of voltage for
up to 0.5 cycles.
NOTE—Voltage notching characteristics are defined in IEEE Std 519-1992.
phase jump: The change in voltage phase angle during a voltage sag as compared to the phase angle of the
voltage before the voltage sag. Also referred to as phase-angle jump or phase shift, it can be different for
each of the three phases in a three-phase system.
phase shift: See: phase jump.
power quality: The concept of powering and grounding sensitive equipment in a manner that is suitable to
the operation of that equipment.
NOTE—Power quality is defined in IEEE Std 1100TM-2005 [B16].
power quality disturbance: Any deviation of the voltage and/or current from the nominal sinusoidal
waveform at rated amplitude and frequency, resulting in disruption, misoperation, or damage to equipment
or processes.
premium power park: See: custom power park.
sag: A decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for durations of
0.5 cycles to 1 minute.
NOTE—Sag is defined in IEEE Std 1159-2009.
SCR: See: semiconductor controlled rectifier.
semiconductor controlled rectifier (SCR): An alternative name used for the reverse-blocking triode-
thyristor. See also: thyristor.
NOTE—The name of the actual semiconductor material (selenium, silicon, etc.) may be substituted in place of the
word semiconductor in the name of the components.
4
IEEE Std 1409-2012
Through 38 kV
SES: See: stored energy system.
SSB: See: static circuit breaker.
static circuit breaker or solid-state breaker (SSB): A device usually based on gate turn-off (GTO) and
semiconductor controlled rectifier (SCR) thyristors capable of providing sub-cycle interruption on faulted
feeders. SSBs that are designed for use at medium or high voltage, utilize snubbing networks across the
switching elements (e.g., GTOs or SCRs). The snubbing networks can carry current across the terminals of
the SSB, even when the switching elements are in their off-state. The use of an integral series mechanical
switch can be used to interrupt the small leakage current, which flows through the snubbing network.
static series compensator: See: dynamic voltage restorer.
static series/shunt compensator: A power-electronics controller designed to provide voltage

compensation to protect a sensitive load from voltage disturbances using a series element. It also provides
current compensation using a shunt element to protect a power system from a load that would otherwise
impart harmonic distortion, flicker, or power factor problems.
static shunt compensator: A power electronics-based waveform synthesis device that is shunt connected
through a transformer to the transmission or distribution circuit for the purpose of instantaneous voltage
regulation, power factor correction, and reactive power control. The compensator may also have the
capability of injecting higher than fundamental frequency current vectors into the distribution circuit at the
point of common coupling to perform active filtering (mitigation) of current harmonics. In the context of
this guide, only the application in distribution systems will be considered. See also: distribution
STATCOM.
static transfer switch (STS): A transfer switch that utilizes thyristors or gate-turnoff thyristors to transfer a
load from a primary feed to a secondary with subcycle transfer times.
static var compensator (SVC): A shunt-connected device with thyristor switching of passive reactive
components (capacitors and reactors) in continuous and/or discrete steps, which exchanges a continuously
controlled reactive current with the power system to control electrical parameters of the line at the point of
common coupling. SVC is typically used for voltage control, reactive power compensation, and power
factor correction in both transmission and distribution applications. In the context of this guide, only the
application in distribution systems will be considered.
static voltage regulator (SVR): A controller capable of providing voltage boost during a voltage sag,
constituted by a three-phase transformer supplying the load, equipped with thyristor switches that rapidly
change taps on one (or more) of the secondary windings. Such a device may also be designed to provide
voltage buck during voltage swells.
stored energy system (SES): A supply scheme for the dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) in which the
energy injected into the distribution circuit during voltage sag compensation is drawn from the system
during normal operation and stored in a proper system to be later released to the dc-link of the DVR
converter. The SES may use any storage media with energy extraction/recharge rates suitable for
instantaneous voltage sag mitigation.
STS: See: static transfer switch.
SVC: See: static var compensator.
SVR: See: static voltage regulator.
swell: An increase to between 1.1 pu and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for
durations from 0.5 cycles to one minute.
5
IEEE Std 1409-2012
Through 38 kV
NOTE—Swell is described further in IEEE Std 1159-2009.
TCR: See: thyristor-controlled reactor.
thyristor: A bistable semiconductor device comprising three or more junctions that can be switched from
the “off” state to the “on” state or vice versa, such switching occurring within at least one quadrant of the
principal voltage-current characteristic.
thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR): A reactor whose susceptance is controlled by continuously varying

the firing angle of a series static switch constituted by two antiparallel thyristors.
thyristor crowbar: A semiconductor shorting switch consisting of a single (or series connection of
multiple) thyristor device(s) used to short circuit the secondary turns of the series injection transformer at
the onset of an overcurrent condition in the protected downstream load. The thyristor crowbar is typically
rated with sufficient thermal capacity to maintain the shorted secondary current until the primary side
mechanical bypass switch can close effectively removing a series compensating device from the circuit
during the period of the overcurrent condition.
thyristor switched capacitor (TSC): A capacitor that is switched on and off by timed firing of a series
static switch constituted by two antiparallel thyristors.
transfer switch (TS): A switch arranged to permit transferring a conductor connection from one circuit to
another without interrupting the current.
NOTE—Transfer switch is defined in IEEE Std C37.100-1992 [B20].
transient: Pertaining to or designating a phenomenon or a quantity which varies between two consecutive
steady states during a time interval that is short compared to the time scale of interest. A transient can be a
unidirectional impulse of either polarity or a damped oscillatory wave with the first peak occurring in either
polarity.
NOTE—Transient is defined in IEC 60050-161 [B12].
TS: See: transfer switch.
TSC: See: thyristor switched capacitor.
uninterruptible power supply (UPS): A backup stored energy system that protects a load from power
outages using a stored energy system. Typical sources for the stored energy are batteries or flywheels. The
runtime of an uninterruptible power supply is shorter (usually several minutes) than more robust standby
power generators that may run for hours, but sufficient to allow time to bring an auxiliary power source on
line, or to properly shut down the protected equipment.
voltage change: A variation of the rms or peak value of a voltage between two consecutive levels sustained
for definite but unspecified durations.
voltage distortion: Any deviation from the nominal sine waveform of the ac line voltage.
NOTE—Voltage distortion is also defined in IEEE Std 1100-2005 [B16].
voltage fluctuation: A series of voltage changes or a cyclical variation of the voltage envelope.
NOTE—Voltage fluctuation is also defined in IEC 61000-2-1 [B13].
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4. General needs
4.1 Definition of custom power
The concept of custom power is the employment of power electronic or static controllers in medium
voltage distribution systems for the purpose of supplying a level of power quality that is needed by electric
power customers that are sensitive to rms voltage variations and voltage transients. Custom power devices,
or controllers, are devices that include static switches, converters, injection transformers, master control
modules, and/or energy storage modules that have the ability to perform current interruption and voltage
regulation functions in a distribution system to improve power quality.
A custom power controller is part of a special class of all power conditioning devices. Power conditioning
technology in general includes all device solutions used to correct the problems faced by end-user loads in
response to voltage sags, voltage swells, voltage interruptions, flicker, harmonic distortion, and voltage
regulation problems. While the term “power conditioning” has no voltage boundary, the term “custom
power” is bound by the scope of this guide to include power conditioners with input and/or output voltage
ratings between 1 kV and 38 kV. This scope limits the location of custom power devices to a primary
(medium voltage) distribution system. This scope limitation does not mean that there are not similarities
between low voltage power conditioning devices and custom power devices; rather, the technologies used
at medium voltage and at low voltage are frequently very similar.
4.2 Description of power quality phenomena
The term power quality is often used in conjunction with problems arising from malfunctioning power
electric equipment that is supplied with a voltage that is somehow imperfect. The most important cause for
the increasing concern about power quality problems is the dramatic increase in sensitive microprocessor
and power electronic equipment being used to control assembly line production, to automate office work,
and to enhance the home. Important compatibility gaps have developed between power electronics
manufacturers, power producers, and power users, in that many of these utilization systems are too
sensitive for the electrical environment in which they are being placed.
This article describes the power quality conditions that can exist on a medium voltage distribution system,
which custom power controllers are frequently designed to mitigate. This section is drawn from IEEE Std
1159-2009.
4.2.1 Transients
An impulsive transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition of voltage,
current, or both, that is unidirectional in polarity (primarily either positive or negative). Impulsive transients
are normally characterized by their rise and decay times. These phenomena can also be described by their
spectral content. The most common cause of impulsive transients is lightning. Due to the high frequencies
involved, impulsive transients are damped quickly by resistive circuit components and are not conducted
far from their source. There can be significant differences in the transient characteristic from one location
within a building to another.
An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition of voltage,
current, or both, that includes both positive and negative polarity values. An oscillatory transient consists of
a voltage or current whose instantaneous value changes polarity rapidly. Oscillatory transients with a
primary frequency component greater than 500 kHz and a typical duration measured in microseconds (or
several cycles of the principal frequency) are considered high frequency oscillatory transients. These
transients are usually due to some type of switching event. High frequency oscillatory transients are often
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the result of a local system response to an impulsive transient. A transient with a primary frequency
component between 5 kHz and 500 kHz with a duration measured in the tens of microseconds (or several
cycles of the principal frequency) is termed a medium frequency transient. For example, back-to-back
capacitor energization results in oscillatory transient currents in the tens of kHz. Cable switching results in
oscillatory voltage transients in the same frequency range. A transient with a primary frequency component
less than 5 kHz, and with a duration lasting from 0.3 ms to 50 ms, is considered a low frequency transient.
This category of phenomena is frequently encountered on subtransmission and distribution systems and is
caused by many types of events, primarily capacitor bank energization (see Figure 1). Capacitor bank
energization typically results in an oscillatory voltage transient with a primary frequency between 300 Hz
and 900 Hz.
Figure 1 —Example oscillatory transient waveform caused by a capacitor energizing
4.2.2 Short duration RMS voltage variations
IEEE Std 1159-2009 describes the characteristics of a voltage sag as a decrease to between 0.1 pu and
0.9 pu in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for durations of 0.5 cycles to 1 m. It also describes
a voltage swell as an increase to between 1.1 pu and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or current at the power frequency
for durations from 0.5 cycles to 1 m. An interruption is the complete loss of voltage (<0.1 pu) on one or
more phase conductors for a period between 0.5 cycles and 60 s. The voltage sag characteristics will often
depend upon the fault location and other system conditions. A power system fault can cause either
temporary voltage rises (swells) or voltage drops (sags), or a complete loss of voltage (interruptions). See
Figure 2, Figure 3, and Figure 4 for example events.
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Figure 2 —Example waveform of a voltage sag
Figure 3 —Example waveform of a voltage swell
NOTE—This waveform occurred on an unfaulted phase of the event depicted in Figure 2.
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Figure 4 —Example waveforms of a voltage interruption

Terminology used to describe the magnitude of a voltage sag is often confusing. A “20% sag” can refer to a
sag that results in a voltage of 0.8 pu or 0.2 pu. This guide will indicate the remaining voltage throughout.
Just as an unspecified voltage designation is accepted to mean line to line potential, so an unspecified sag
magnitude will refer to the remaining voltage. For example, an 80% sag refers to a disturbance that resulted
in a remaining voltage of 0.8 pu.
4.2.3 Long duration RMS voltage variations
Long duration variations can be either overvoltages or undervoltages depending on the cause of the
variation. Overvoltages can be the result of load switching (e.g., switching off a large load), or variations in
the reactive compensation on the system (e.g., switching on a capacitor bank). Poor system voltage
regulation capabilities or controls result in overvoltages. Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also
result in system overvoltages. Figure 5 presents an overvoltage caused by a transformer failure.
Undervoltages are the result of the events that are the reverse of the events that cause overvoltages. A load
switching on or a capacitor bank switching off can cause an undervoltage until voltage regulation
equipment on the system can bring the voltage back to within tolerances. Figure 6 presents an undervoltage
initiated by a power provider. Overloaded circuits can also result in undervoltages. The decrease to zero of
the supply voltage for a period of time in excess of one minute is considered a sustained interruption.
Voltage interruptions longer than one minute are often permanent in nature and require manual intervention
for restoration. Figure 7 presents a sustained interruption due to the operation of an upline circuit breaker.
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Figure 5 —Overvoltage on Phase A with a 48-hour duration due to transformer failure
Figure 6 —Undervoltage with a 12-hour duration due to voltage reduction

initiated by power provider
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Figure 7 —Sustained interruption with a 7-hour duration due to an upline fault
4.2.4 Voltage imbalance
Voltage imbalance (or unbalance) is defined as the ratio of the negative or zero sequence component to the
positive sequence component. The negative or zero sequence voltages in a power system generally result
from unbalanced loads causing negative or zero sequence currents to flow. Imbalance can be estimated as
the maximum deviation from the average of the three phase voltages or currents, divided by the average of
the three phase voltages or currents, expressed in percent. The voltage imbalance estimation will be close to
the sequence components ratio if phase-to-phase measurements are used, the harmonic content is low, and
the zero sequence content is small. The primary source of voltage imbalance less than two percent will
usually be from unbalanced single-phase loads on a three-phase circuit. Voltage imbalance can also be the
result of capacitor bank anomalies, or voltage regulator misoperation. Severe voltage imbalance (greater
than 5%) will often be the result from single-phasing conditions.
4.2.5 Waveform distortion
Waveform distortion is defined as a steady state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power frequency
principally characterized by the spectral content of the deviation. There are five primary types of waveform
distortion: dc offset, harmonics, interharmonics, notching, and noise.
4.2.5.1 DC offset
The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc offset. This phenomenon can
occur as the result of a geomagnetic disturbance or due to the effect of half-wave rectification. Incandescent
light bulb life extenders, for example, may consist of diodes that reduce the rms voltage supplied to the
light bulb by half-wave rectification. Direct current in alternating current networks can be detrimental due
to an increase in transformer saturation, additional stressing of insulation, and other adverse effects.
4.2.5.2 Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer multiples of the frequency
at which the supply system is designed to operate (termed the fundamental frequency; usually 50 Hz or
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60 Hz). Harmonic distortion exists due to the non-linear characteristics of devices and loads on the power
system. Harmonic currents result from the normal operation of non-linear devices on the power system.
IEEE Std 519-1992 provides guidelines for harmonic current and voltage distortion levels on distribution
and transmission circuits. Figure 8 and Figure 9 show example voltage and current waveforms with
harmonic distortion.
Figure 8 —Example voltage waveform with 2.24% total harmonic distortion
Figure 9 —Example current waveform with 13.9% total harmonic distortion
4.2.5.3 Interharmonics
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the frequency at which
the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz) are called interharmonics. They can appear
as discrete frequencies or as a wide-band spectrum. Interharmonics can be found in networks of all voltage
classes. The main sources of interharmonic waveform distortion are static frequency converters,
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cycloconverters, induction furnaces, and arcing devices. Power line carrier signals can also be considered
as interharmonics.
4.2.5.4 Notching
Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of power electronics devices
when current is commutated from one phase to another. Voltage notching represents a special case that falls
between transients and harmonic distortion. Since notching occurs continuously (steady state), it can be
characterized through the harmonic spectrum of the affected voltage. However, the frequency components
associated with notching can be quite high and may not be readily characterized with measurement
equipment normally used for harmonic analysis. See Figure 10.
Figure 10 —Example waveform with notching
4.2.5.5 Noise
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower than 200 kHz
superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in phase conductors, or found on neutral
conductors or signal lines. Noise in power systems can be caused by power electronic devices, control
circuits, arcing equipment, loads with solid-state rectifiers, and switching power supplies. Improper
grounding often exacerbates noise problems. Noise consists of any unwanted distortion of the power signal
that cannot be classified as harmonic distortion or transients.
4.2.6 Voltage fluctuations
Voltage fluctuations are systematic variations of the voltage envelope or a series of random voltage
changes. Any load that has significant time variations, especially in the reactive component, can cause
voltage fluctuations. Continuous, rapid variations in load current magnitude can cause voltage variations
often referred to as flicker. The term flicker is derived from the impact of the voltage fluctuation on lighting
intensity. Arc furnaces are the most common cause of voltage fluctuations on the transmission and
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distribution system. See Figure 11. Refer to IEEE Std 1453TM-2011 [B18] for a recommended practice for a
measurement protocol and limits for flicker.
Figure 11 —Example voltage waveform showing flicker due to an arc furnace
4.3 Typical rate and range of power quality phenomena in distribution systems
Table 1 presents voltage sag rates for rms variation less than 60 s in duration for various voltage
magnitudes as determined by the results of a survey of distribution substations and primary distribution
feeders, described by Sabin [B30]. The survey was conducted by EPRI from 1993 to 1995 and included
277 monitoring locations across the United States at system voltages ranging from 4 kV to 33 kV. Monitors
were installed at substation locations and on distribution feeder locations. The feeder locations were mostly
downline from a substation circuit breaker.
Table 1 —Short duration RMS variation rates for substation locations

of the EPRI DPQ project, from 6/1/1993 to 6/1/1995, rates in events per 365 days,
60 s temporal aggregation, treated using sampling weights
RMS voltage
< 0.9 pu < 0.8 pu < 0.7 pu < 0.5 pu < 0.1pu
Minimum 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
CP05 11.9 5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
CP50 44.0 22.8 12.1 5.2 1.5
Mean 56.3 28.7 18.4 8.9 3.6
CP95 135.2 66.3 51.0 27.0 13.5
Maximum 207.6 103.4 70.5 56.3 35.7
In Table 1, the CP05, CP50, and CP95 values are the 5th, 50th, and 95th percentile values, respectively.
From Table 1, the average EPRI DPQ substation monitor experienced about 29 short duration voltage sags
and interruptions per 365 days in which the rms voltage fell below 0.8 pu. Additionally, from the CP95
value listed for events less than 0.9 per unit we can say that less than 5% of the substation locations
experienced more than 135 sags per year with a retained voltage less than 0.9 per unit. The CP05 value
listed for events less than 0.9 per unit says that less than 5% of the substations experienced less than 11.9
voltage sags per year with a retained voltage less than 0.9 per unit. From Table 2, the average feeder
location also experienced about 31 sag and interruption events per 365 days.
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Table 2 —Short duration RMS variation rates for feeder locations of the EPRI DPQ project from
6/1/1993 to 6/1/1995, rates in events per 365 days, 60 s temporal aggregation,
treated using sampling weights
RMS voltage
< 0.9 pu < 0.8 pu < 0.7 pu < 0.5 pu < 0.1pu
Minimum 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
CP05 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
CP50 40.9 25.0 16.6 8.4 2.2
Mean 56.3 30.7 21.2 12.5 4.9
CP95 153.9 76.8 55.2 31.7 15.6
Maximum 225.2 121.9 97.1 85.7 61.7
Table 3 presents voltage harmonic distortion indices from the EPRI DPQ Project. The EPRI DPQ Project
statistics are computed from the 95 substations that were active from 6/1/1993 to 3/1/1995. From Table 3,
the typical EPRI DPQ substation measured an average of 1.35% voltage total harmonic distortion (THDV).
The typical feeder location monitored during the project had an average value of THDV of 1.68%. From
Table 3, 95% of the measurements at the EPRI DPQ Project substations were below 1.89%, and 99% of the
measurements at the substations were below 2.17%.
Table 3 —Average THDV rates for monitoring project locations of EPRI DPQ project from
6/1/1993 to 3/1/1995, based on 16 million three-phase, single-cycle waveform snapshots
Monitor location Average 95th Percentile 99th Percentile

of THDV of THDV of THDV
Substation average 1.35% 1.89% 2.17%
Feeder average 1.68% 2.34% 2.70%
The CEA Canadian PQ survey was conducted from 1996 to 2000. Each of the 413 sites was surveyed for a
continuous period of one week. The survey covered nine utilities covering all of Canada. The statistic
validity for each index of the survey is detailed in the CEATI Report [B3]. The results were also published
in 2001 by Ethier et al. [B10]. Table 4 shows the voltage THD (95th percentile) recorded during the same
survey, for medium voltage and low voltage sites. Table 5 presents aggregated data (phase and temporal
over one minute) for dips, swells, and short interruptions for 405 sites.
NOTE—For each index measured, some data may have been rejected for miscellaneous reasons. This is why the total
number of sites reported in Table 4 and Table 5 is different, and in both cases lower than the total number of sites
monitored.
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Table 4 —Ten-minute average values measured at the point of common coupling

during the Canadian PQ survey
Monitor location 95th Percentile
of THDV
Low voltage (279 sites) 3.84%
Medium voltage (118 sites) 3.56%
Table 5 —Aggregated data (phase and temporal over one minute) for dips, swells, and
short interruptions recorded at 405 sites during the Canadian PQ survey
Global Results by Summation
Number of sites surveyed: 405 / 413
209 sites with events
Factors Amplitude 16-100ms 100-500ms 500ms-1s 1-3s 3-20s 20-60s
SWELL80 > 180% 0 0 0 0 0 0
SWELL40 140-180% 1 1 0 0 0 0
SWELL20 120-140% 13 3 2 0 0 0
SWELL10 110-120% 147 12 3 0 0 0
DIP15 85-90% 641 138 98 92 404 61
DIP30 70-85% 329 145 42 23 16 21
DIP60 40-70% 95 62 7 7 14 3
DIP90 10-40% 23 29 5 3 1 1
DSI < 10% 4 11 11 22 69 6
Global Results by Phase Aggregation

SWELL80 > 180% 0 0 0 0 0 0
SWELL40 140-180% 1 1 0 0 0 0
SWELL20 120-140% 7 3 2 0 0 0
SWELL10 110-120% 129 5 2 0 0 0
DIP15 85-90% 441 99 35 44 185 42
DIP30 70-85% 225 102 23 13 9 11
DIP60 40-70% 76 41 5 3 5 1
DIP90 10-40% 18 15 4 2 0 2
DSI < 10% 2 3 4 11 27 4
Global Results by Temporal Aggregation one-minute

SWELL80 > 180% 0 0 0 0 0 0
SWELL40 140-180% 1 1 0 0 0 0
SWELL20 120-140% 3 1 1 1 2 0
SWELL10 110-120% 129 5 2 0 0 0
DIP15 85-90% 282 49 15 32 169 67
DIP30 70-85% 165 86 14 22 14 15
DIP60 40-70% 61 26 5 5 11 10
DIP90 10-40% 11 6 4 4 2 3
DSI < 10% 2 2 2 7 28 6
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4.4 Range of available solutions
Table 6 presents a summary of solutions available to solve power quality problems. The list is not meant to
be exhaustive; it should be considered as a list of typical options.
Table 6 —Range of example solutions for power quality problems

Power quality Solutions available to power providers Solutions available to power customers
phenomena
Voltage sags and • backup stored energy system • “hold-in” coil ridethrough device for
swells • line reactor motor contactors
• modification of protection scheme, line • constant voltage (ferroresonant)
sectionalizing transformer
• static or hybrid transfer switch • backup stored energy system (UPS
• static series compensation systems, battery systems,
• static voltage regulator superconducting magnetic energy
• tree trimming storage [SMES] systems, flywheel
energy storage systems)
• line conditioner
• static or hybrid transfer switch
• static series compensation
• static voltage regulator
• reprogramming of controls of sensitive
device
• voltage regulator
Voltage • backup stored energy system • backup stored energy system

interruptions • modification of protection scheme, line • coil ridethrough device for motor
sectionalizing contactors
• static or hybrid transfer switch • line conditioner
• tree trimming • static or hybrid transfer switch
Impulsive and • high energy surge arrester • line conditioner
oscillatory transients • preinsertion resistors and inductors • surge arrester
• synchronous closing • line reactor
Harmonic distortion • passive filters and active filters • line conditioner
• static shunt compensation with harmonic • passive filters and active filters
cancellation algorithm • static shunt compensation with harmonic
cancellation algorithm
Noise • grounding and shielding
• filter
• line conditioner
Flicker • construction of new/upgraded feeder • static var compensation
• construction of new substation • static shunt compensation
• distribution series capacitors
• static var compensation
• static shunt compensator (distribution
STATCOM)
• connection to bus with higher short-circuit
capacity
Protection of non- • combination series and shunt • combination series and shunt
linear load from compensation compensation
voltage sags, and
cancellation of
harmonic currents
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4.5 Role of custom power solutions
For customers with sensitive loads, achieving the level of power quality necessary to ensure trouble free
operation can prove to be expensive. It is often possible to improve quality through a systematic program
that may include the following actions:
a) Improving line insulation and insulation coordination

b) Rerouting of service to selected critical loads on the customer site
c) Improving grounding arrangements
d) Installing passive filters
e) Reprogramming of the controls for a sensitive load
However, these measures may still not achieve the desired level of power quality. To gain further
improvement, some additional power conditioning or backup power source would be required. Custom
power devices provide the option of providing a large scale power quality solution on the supply side of the
distribution network. In many cases, this can provide the most economic solution to establishing the
required level of power quality. Custom power controllers may be implemented either by the power
provider or by the power user.
5. Configurations and performance objectives
5.1 Introduction
This section provides basic configurations for the electrical and mechanical arrangements of the
components making up the custom power systems that are employed for power quality improvement at the
primary distribution feeder level. Series compensators are designed to protect the load (sensitive processes)
from the system (voltage sags or swells originating in the interconnected transmission and distribution). In
a complementary fashion, shunt compensators protect the system by providing voltage regulation and
reactive power compensation from the load (fluctuating loads, non-linear loads, or switching of large
loads). When the shunt compensator is combined with energy storage and a solid-state circuit breaker, it
can supply power for a critical load during complete utility service interruptions. These systems include the
controllers listed in Table 7.
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Table 7 —Summary of mitigation capabilities of various custom power controllers

Mitigation device Sag/swell Interruption Reactive (flicker) Harmonic
compensation compensation compensation compensation
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) X
Static Voltage Regulator (SVR) X
Static Transfer Switch (STS) X X
Backup Stored Energy System X Xa Xb
Devices (BSES)
Static Circuit Breaker (SSB) X X
Static shunt compensator Xc X X
(Distribution STATCOM)
Static var compensator (SVC) X
Distribution series capacitor X
Series/shunt compensator X X X
a
Duration of compensated interruption limited by the stored energy.
b
Possible, but not used in practice.
c
See Footnote 4.
5.2 Components of custom power technology
Custom power devices should be able to react in real time to the state of the distribution system and rapidly
adjust to maintain the required level of power quality. The key technology that has made custom power
devices possible is the turn-on/turn-off solid-state switch. Developments in power electronic technologies
including the gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), and the integrated
gate commutated thyristor (IGCT) mean that devices with operational capabilities suitable for high power
applications are now available at a cost that makes them economically possible for distribution power
levels. Also important to realizing this technology have been the advances made in microcontrollers, signal
processors, fiber optic communications, and techniques to series-connect solid-state switches.
At the heart of many custom power devices is a three-phase voltage source inverter. The inverter is
controlled by a system that constantly monitors the distribution line and compares the data with a reference
signal. Connection of the inverter to the distribution line is via a transformer. To reduce unwanted
harmonics generated by the inverter, filters are used to smooth the output waveform. The inverter itself
consists of individual circuit blocks that incorporate the switching semiconductors, firing circuits, snubber
network, anti-parallel diodes, and heat sinks. Modules are commonly connected at the dc side of an inverter
to facilitate energy transfer between phases.
To fully implement some of the functions of custom power controllers, some form of energy storage
module may be necessary. A number of technologies are now at sufficient stages of maturity to be
considered as viable alternatives for custom power applications. These include the following devices:
a) capacitors
b) batteries
c) flywheel energy storage
d) superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
5.3 Voltage sag and interruption protection devices
5.3.1 Dynamic voltage restorer (DVR)
The purpose of a dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) is to mitigate the effects that voltage sags and
interruptions have on a sensitive customer’s load. A DVR is a waveform synthesis device based on power
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electronics that is series-connected directly into the primary distribution circuit by means of a set of single-
phase injection transformers.
The DVR can be configured to use line energy supply (LES) to provide the energy that is to be injected into
the distribution circuit from the utility feeder. For example, LES systems can draw the energy from the
incoming affected line, as in Figure 12. In this system configuration, when the voltage of one or more
phases of the incoming supply drops below a preset threshold, the DVR injects a controlled amount of
voltage into the affected phase or phases to boost the load voltage back to a more suitable level. The load
therefore is buffered from the disturbance.
LES is an alternative to a stored energy system (SES) where the injected energy is provided from some
form of onboard, pre-charged energy source (e.g., dc energy-storage capacitors, flywheel energy storage,
superconducting magnetic energy storage, or batteries), as in Figure 13.
A DVR may be configured to operate as a standby compensator where the inverter is not actively in the
circuit until triggered by a power quality event that requires action to restore the incoming source voltage to
acceptable quality. Alternatively, the DVR may be continually on-line providing voltage injection during
idle conditions that will be able to offset the voltage drop due to load current through the series injection
transformer.
This type of device is generally limited in its design to providing correction for voltage sags that have a
minimum voltage no lower than about 50% of the normal voltage.
Figure 12 —Basic configuration for a LES DVR utilizing energy from the affected line
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Figure 13 —Basic configuration for a SES DVR

The dynamic voltage restorer in its most basic form is capable of supplying continuously variable
capacitive or reactive series compensation to a distribution feeder. One control function achievable with the
dynamic voltage restorer is that it can inject a lagging voltage in quadrature phase relationship with the
system voltage, making it suitable for fault current limitation applications. Because the dynamic voltage
restorer generates the injection voltage from a PWM waveform, it is also capable of reducing the level of
harmonic voltages present on the distribution system.
In the event of a short duration change in system voltage, the dynamic voltage restorer can inject or absorb
real power, given sufficient energy storage capability. During this time, the dynamic voltage restorer uses
the energy storage interface to provide real power at the dc terminals of the inverter, which is in turn
injected as a voltage across the series winding of the injection transformer at a magnitude sufficient to
restore the load side voltage to the reference value.
Because the dynamic voltage restorer only needs to supply the missing portion of the supply voltage, it can
be smaller than other devices that decouple the load from the feeder and supply it with the full rated power
(see 5.3.4).
5.3.2 Static voltage regulator (SVR)
A traditional step-voltage regulator is a regulating transformer in which the voltage of the regulated circuit
is automatically controlled in steps by means of mechanically switched taps. It performs this action without
interrupting the load. Such a transformer can boost or buck the voltage supplied to the load with a delay on
the order of a few seconds. In contrast, a static voltage regulator (SVR) employs thyristors or GTO as the
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switching elements so that the SVR can achieve voltage correction within about one cycle. However, this
type of device is generally limited in its design to providing correction for voltage sags that have a
minimum voltage no lower than about 50% of the normal voltage. There are a number of possible circuit
arrangements for the SVR, two of which are presented in Figure 14 and Figure 15.
Figure 14 —First example of a static voltage regulator configuration
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Figure 15 —Second example of a static voltage regulator configuration

When the supply voltage returns to its initial value after the voltage sag, a temporary overvoltage will occur
on the load side due to the time required by the conducting thyristor to switch off. For example, a 20%
voltage sag for the SVR configuration shown may generate a 20% overvoltage for a maximum duration of
half a cycle (thyristor conduction period).
The SVR maintains constant voltage to the load during sags and therefore requires added current to be
drawn from the supply. Since the supply has a limited short-circuit level at the point of common coupling,
the added current withdrawn will accentuate the voltage sag upstream of the SVR.
5.3.3 Transfer switch (TS)
A transfer switch (TS) is designed to protect critical loads from distribution disturbances. This is
accomplished by transferring the critical load from a preferred feeder to an alternate feeder when the
preferred feeder is faulted but the alternate is not. The TS contains two or more “switches” that allow a
transfer from one source to another. Using ideal switches, a simple diagram of TS is shown in Figure 16.
Under normal operation, S1 is closed and S2 is open. When a disturbance is detected on the preferred
source, S1 opens and S2 closes, thus supplying the load through the alternate source.
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Figure 16 —Basic diagram of a transfer switch
5.3.3.1 Mechanical transfer switch (MTS)
The mechanical transfer switch (MTS) has often been used in applications requiring loads to be switched to
a backup power source (e.g., alternate feeder, backup generator, etc.) when disturbances, such as sustained
interruptions, occur on the preferred feeder. Typically a rather inexpensive device, the MTS has been used
for many years. Unfortunately, due to the nature of the electromechanical switches used in the MTS, a
“seamless” transfer is not obtainable. Typical transfer times can range from about 100 ms up to
approximately 10 s as described by the IEEE Motor Bus Transfer WG [B14]. Some work is currently in
progress that involves incorporating vacuum switches in this type of application to obtain approximate
transfer times between 1.5 and two cycles (see 5.3.3.3). This device is not considered a customer power
controller but is listed here for completeness. Note that locations with MTS systems are good potential
applications for the static transfer switch because much of the required wiring and bus work is already in
place.
For applications where part or all of the load may be more tolerant of power quality variations, a possible
solution is diesel engine backup power using a mechanical transfer switch with a short-duration energy
storage ride-through scheme for a relatively seamless transition to the diesel backup power. Flywheels,
batteries, or capacitors are examples of energy storage for this ride-through scheme.
5.3.3.2 Static transfer switch (STS)
A basic static switch consists of two thyristors connected in anti-parallel as in Figure 17. This type of
configuration provides a simple on/off capability for ac signals. During the positive-half cycle of the
voltage signal, SCR1 is forward biased and conducts current (gate signal is applied). During the negative
half-cycle, SCR1 is reverse-biased and SCR2 is forward-biased (with gate signal) and conducts current.
This is the basic operation that allows the switch to supply a load. By connecting another static switch in a
similar manner to an alternate source, the single-phase STS is derived. A single-phase diagram of a typical
STS is shown in Figure 18. Note the use of a series mechanical switch to interrupt the small leakage
current, which flows through the snubbing network.
The three-phase STS is developed with the addition of four thyristor pairs. With the addition of isolating
switches needed to disconnect the STS from the distribution system for maintenance and testing, and two
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three-phase mechanical bypass switches, which perform a slower back-up transfer when the STS is out of
service for maintenance or testing, the enhanced static transfer switch configuration shown in Figure 19 is
obtained.
Figure 17 —Basic configuration for a static transfer switch
Figure 18 —Basic configuration for a static transfer switch
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Figure 19 —One-line diagram for an enhanced static transfer switch configuration

Figure 19 includes the addition of bypass switches and a load isolation switch, which allows the STS units
to be taken out of service while continuing to serve the load.
The break-before-make transfer, which is sometimes referred to as open-transition, is a typical operating

characteristic of the STS. A true break-before-make transfer means that during transfer, the preferred and
alternate sources are never paralleled; each phase of the two sources never feeds the load at the same time.
This type of transfer allows the current to go to zero in each phase of the preferred-source thyristors before
the alternate source begins conducting. All three phases are switched sequentially, 120° apart. Depending
upon how the STS is controlled, it is possible to gate the alternate-side thyristors before the zero-current
crossing on the preferred side is reached, thus allowing the alternate source to “force” the preferred source
to commutate (turn off). This transfer is known as a make-before-break transfer. Whether or not the two-
thyristor pairs produce crosscurrents (e.g., back-feeding a fault) is dependent upon voltage levels and
phase, load power factor, and the control algorithm being implemented. Depending upon the control
algorithm, this method can result in either all three phases being switched at the same time or each phase
being switched separately (sequential switching).
The low voltage STS has been used in the industry for over 25 years. Due to the ratings associated with
these devices, they were limited to applications in the 480 V range up to about 1 MVA. Low voltage static
switches have also been standard devices in most UPS systems.
Recently, due to the development of higher rated thyristors, medium voltage STS systems ranging up to
35 kV at 35 MVA have become available, thus allowing the STS to be a facility-wide solution. High
voltage static transfer switches are currently not available.
The almost seamless transfer of the load from the preferred feeder to the alternate feeder is made possible
with the use of solid-state devices. The most common solid-state device used in STS systems is the
thyristor. The thyristor was first developed in 1957 and offers one of the highest power-handling
capabilities of solid-state devices. The GTO thyristor has also been tested for use in the STS.
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5.3.3.2.1 Thyristor
The thyristor is one of the simplest of devices to control. The thyristor requires only two things to operate:
forward biasing and a gate current. Applying a positive voltage forward biases the thyristor. Once the
thyristor is forward biased, a gate signal can be applied and the thyristor will begin to conduct. The current
path during conduction is from the anode to the cathode. Once the device begins to conduct, it is latched on
and the gate signal can be removed. The voltage drop across the thyristor during conduction is typically 2 V
to 3 V.
The thyristor cannot be turned off from the gate. Only when the anode to cathode current tries to go
negative, under the influence of the circuit in which the thyristor is connected, does the thyristor turn off.
Due to the high power ratings that have been available, thyristors have been the preferred solid-state device
used in STS systems. The thyristor is a proven device with lower cost with respect to other devices of
similar type (e.g., GTO).
5.3.3.2.2 Gate turn-off (GTO) thyristor
The gate turn-off thyristor, often called GTO, is very similar to the thyristor in that it requires a gate signal
and forward bias in order to conduct, and ceases to conduct when the anode to cathode current tries to go
negative. The difference lies in turning the thyristor off. Unlike the thyristor, which is a line-commutated
device, the GTO can be turned off with the gate. During conduction, if a large enough negative gate signal
is applied, the device will cease to conduct. The gate signal required to turn the device off is typically one-
fifth to one-third the amount of the anode current.
Unfortunately, due to the nature of the device, such functionality sacrifices the availability of high power
ratings. GTOs are currently not available in ratings equivalent to that of the thyristor, and in order to
control when the GTO is turned off, a significant amount of power is required. For these reasons, the GTO
is not currently being used in stand-alone STS systems, but has worked its way into the design of other
protection devices.
5.3.3.3 High-speed mechanical transfer switch (HSMTS)
Due to the increased cost of the medium voltage STS, some manufacturers have decided to reduce the cost
of the device by replacing the traditional thyristor with a vacuum switch. The objective of reducing the
price of the switch is obtained but at the cost of increasing transfer time. Typical transfer times associated
with the HSMTS are about 1.5 cycles, with no crossover time (paralleling of the two sources). Therefore,
this approach is only a viable solution if the particular load in need of protection can withstand a 1.5 cycle
long system disturbance. The efficiency of the device is also somewhat higher than the thyristor-controlled
switch at approximately 99% or greater.
5.3.3.4 Hybrid transfer switch
A hybrid transfer switch is a special class of mechanical transfer switch that employs a static switch in
parallel with a vacuum switch, as shown in Figure 20. During normal operation, the preferred-source
vacuum switch conducts, thus supplying power to the load. When the need for a transfer arises, the vacuum
switch opens and the appropriate thyristor is gated. The opening of the vacuum switch produces an arc
voltage, which in turn forward biases one of the preferred-source thyristors. Once this occurs, the load
current begins to conduct through the preferred-source static switch. The load is then transferred to the
alternate source similar to the standard STS. Once the alternate-source static switch picks up the load, it is
then transferred to the alternate-source vacuum switch. This method increases efficiency dramatically and
eliminates the need for cooling devices.
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Figure 20 —Hybrid transfer switch
5.3.4 Backup stored energy system devices (BSES)
A backup stored energy system (BSES) device disconnects a protected load from the utility supply within
milliseconds of the detection of a disturbance and supplies the entire load using stored energy (see Figure
21). Typical sources for the stored energy are batteries or flywheels. A BSES unit typically consists of a
static source transfer switch, stored energy module, converter module, and master control. It is not unusual
for the controls of a BSES to be designed to start a diesel or gas generator that is used to carry the protected
load during longer interruptions. Some systems provide for a soft loading of the backup generator, during
load transfer, to maintain generator voltage and frequency.
One of the main advantages of this BSES compared to a dynamic voltage restorer or a static voltage
regulator is that it is able to carry a load through a voltage interruption. Because of this, however, its
storage requirements are higher. BSES are typically designed to have the energy stored to carry a load at
full power for up to 30 s to 60 s.
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) can be classified as a BSES system. There are two fundamental
types of UPS systems: on-line systems, which are in series with the load, and off-line systems, which are
shunt-connected and only supply the load during a disturbance. Generally, off-line systems have lower
losses in the steady-state running condition.
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Figure 21 —Back-up stored energy system
5.3.5 Static circuit breaker
Usually based on GTO and SCR thyristors, the static circuit breaker is connected directly in series with the
line and is capable of providing subcycle interruption on faulted feeders.
The GTO components of the breaker provide the rapid interruption capability. For protection coordination,
it is sometimes necessary to allow conduction of the fault current for a short duration. However, GTOs are
not capable of conducting high surge currents. To facilitate the coordination, a parallel SCR switch with an
optional current limiting reactor may also be employed to conduct the fault. In this way, the GTO breaker
element provides rapid subcycle switching for the clearing of upstream and downstream faults, and the
SCR breaker element supports limited fault current for the clearing of downstream faults by slower
conventional downstream protective devices.
The solid-state breaker is typically constructed from a number of anti-parallel, air-cooled GTO modules. In
normal operation, the GTO element is closed, providing uninhibited flow of current. Under a fault or
abnormal condition, the static circuit breaker detects the rise in both steady state current and the rate of
current change (that is, a large di/dt) and opens rapidly to interrupt the current flow. For highly reactive
loads such as transformers, the breaker should be programmed to modulate (or “soft start”) current flow to
limit the inrush current on closing.
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5.4 Reactive power and harmonic compensation devices
5.4.1 Static shunt compensator (distribution STATCOM)
A typical static shunt compensator consists of three single-phase voltage source inverters with a common
dc bus. Connection to the distribution network is via a standard distribution shunt transformer. Hence
simply by altering the transformer turns ratio, the static shunt compensator can be made suitable for all
classes of distribution voltages. In its basic form, the static shunt compensator injects a voltage in phase
with the system voltage, thus providing voltage support and regulation of var flow. Because the device
generates a synchronous waveform, it is capable of generating continuously variable reactive or capacitive
shunt compensation at a level up to the maximum MVA rating of the static shunt compensator. An
advantage of the inverter method is that the amount of compensation the device can provide varies linearly
with the line voltage. For instance, at 70% voltage, the static shunt compensator can provide 0.7 pu
compensation, whereas a switched capacitor bank is only capable of providing about 0.5 pu support.
The static shunt compensator can also be used to reduce the level of harmonics on the distribution system.
The use of high frequency inverters to synthesize the necessary signal allows the device to inject complex
waveforms to cancel current harmonics generated by non-linear loads. Because the static shunt
compensator continuously checks the line waveform with respect to a reference ac signal, it always
provides the correct amount of harmonic compensation. By a similar argument, the static shunt
compensator is also suitable for reducing the impact of oscillatory voltage transients.
When coupled with a solid-state breaker (mounted upstream of the static shunt compensator) and energy
storage, the static shunt compensator can be used to provide full voltage support to a critical load (see
5.3.4). In the event of supply disturbance, the solid-state breaker isolates the line and the static shunt
compensator supports the entire load from its own energy storage. The time interval over which the critical
load can be maintained is determined by the amount of energy storage provided while the load power level
that can be carried is limited by the MVA rating of the static shunt compensator inverters and transformer.
The term STATCOM (static compensator) is typically used to describe a static var device used in both
transmission and distribution applications. However, the term distribution STATCOM (distribution static
compensator) specifically applies to equipment used for power quality improvement in distribution
applications.
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Figure 22 —Example diagram of static shunt compensator
5.4.2 Static var compensators (SVCs)
5.4.2.1 Fixed capacitor/thyristor controlled reactor (FC/TCR)
The TCR operates as a gradually variable reactor, while the addition of the FC allows the combination to
also look capacitive. The unit consists of one reactor in each phase, controlled by a thyristor switch. The
reactive power is changed by controlling the current through the reactor by means of varying the firing
angle on the thyristor valve (that is, by controlling the duration of the conducting interval in each half cycle
by issuing gating pulses to the thyristors). The on-state interval is controlled by delaying the firing of the
thyristor valve in relation to the natural current zero. A fixed harmonic filter provides the capacitive vars
necessary for voltage regulation. With the filter supplying vars, the TCR controls the amount of reactive
power supplied. If capacitive reactive power were not necessary, then the standalone TCR would be
sufficient.
The expected characteristics of a TCR are as follows:
a) Continuous control
b) Small transient disturbances
c) Generation of harmonic currents
FC/TCRs are employed where control requirements demand finer resolution that is not possible or
economical with switched capacitor steps. For example, in applications where the short circuit ratio is low,
very small compensation steps are needed to reduce flicker. A large number of small binary-switched
capacitor steps would be required, increasing the cost and complexity of a solution that only used a fixed
capacitor array. The FC/TCR combination can provide a more effective and lower cost solution when finer
resolution is necessary.
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5.4.2.2 Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)
A typical TSC installation consists of several sets of thyristor switched capacitors. The major components
include capacitors, thyristor switches, fuses, and possibly a soft-start resistor system. The control valve, or
switch, is often an anti-parallel connected thyristor/diode or thyristor/thyristor pair. A parallel diode would
keep the capacitors charged while in standby. The control gates the thyristor on when the voltage difference
between the capacitor voltage and system voltage is at its minimum. In many cases, switching occurs with
no voltage difference. Reactors can be added to the circuit to limit the change in current when the system
voltage is lower than the capacitor voltage. The thyristor commutates off at a natural current zero, leaving
the capacitor charged and ready to be switched at the next system voltage peak with the same polarity.
When the TSC is started, a resistor in series with the capacitors can ensure that they are charged slowly,
thereby avoiding high inrush currents and system disturbances. After the capacitors are initially charged, a
contactor can automatically bypass the resistor.
The expected characteristics of a TSC are as follows:
a) Stepwise control
c) Low harmonic distortion
d) Low losses
e) Redundancy and flexibility
5.4.2.3 TCR/TSC (thyristor controlled reactor/thyristor switched capacitor)
With a combined TCR/TSC compensator, continuously variable reactive power is obtained throughout the
complete control range as well as full control of both the inductive and the capacitive parts of the
compensator. This is a very advantageous feature permitting optimum performance during large
disturbances in the power system.
The expected characteristics of a TCR/TSC combination are as follows:
a) Continuous control
c) Low generation of harmonics
d) Low losses
e) Redundancy
f) Flexible control and operation
5.4.3 Distribution series capacitor
The distribution series capacitor offers a viable solution to problems associated with high impedance line
characteristics. These problems include voltage fluctuations caused by rapidly varying loads, poor power
factor levels, and insufficient fault current to remove faulted feeders. The distribution series capacitor bank
is designed to reduce flicker problems caused by repetitive or sporadic loads with a momentarily or
constantly poor power factor, to increase available fault currents, and to instantaneously compensate for
poor power factor as load demand increases.
The distribution series capacitor as shown in Figure 23 has been recognized as an economical solution to
the flicker problem. However, it was dormant for many years due to specific application problems
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including subsynchronous resonance, increased fault current, protection system requirements, and high
maintenance.
However, with the advancement in protection systems (MOVs instead of protective gaps) and an increased
understanding of the impact of series compensation in the distribution network, the distribution series
capacitor can prove to be an extremely viable and economical solution to problems such as flicker.
Traditional solutions available to the power provider to the flicker problem include increasing the feeder
voltage, constructing a new/upgraded feeder, and constructing a new substation. These engineering
solutions expand and strengthen the distribution circuit. However, traditional solutions cannot be applied to
all flicker problems in a timely manner because the projected load growth may not justify the immediate
expansion or because environmental restrictions may prohibit a distribution system expansion. Solutions
available to the power consumer include control and timing changes for arc furnaces.
Under normal conditions, the distribution series capacitor negates the feeder reactance. The line current that
causes the voltage drop along the feeder reactance creates a desired voltage rise across the series capacitor.
Consequently, voltage regulation is instantaneous and self-regulating. A voltage regulator or switched
shunt capacitor cannot provide this feature. A series capacitor provides significant flicker level reduction
only at the load side of the series capacitor, and not on the source side.
Therefore, it is necessary to select the location and the reactance of the series capacitor such that the flicker
levels are satisfactory all along the feeder both on the source side and on the load side of the compensation.
Moreover, the series capacitor reactance should be smaller than the total source reactance at the location of
application so that overcompensation will not cause undesirable overvoltages or oscillations.
It should also be understood that the flicker-reducing nature of the distribution series capacitor is such as to
improve the voltage at the motor terminals and increase the inrush current on the source side of the
capacitor.
Figure 23 —Simplified one-line diagram of distribution series capacitor
5.4.4 Combined voltage and current compensation devices
5.4.4.1 Static series/shunt compensator
The static series/shunt compensation controller is designed to provide both voltage compensation to protect
a sensitive load from voltage disturbances and to provide current compensation to protect a power system
from a load that would otherwise impart harmonic distortion, flicker, or power factor problems.
A series element of the static series/shunt compensation controller compensates for power system voltage
disturbances by acting as a variable voltage source. The series element introduces whatever voltage is
required so that the sum of the power system voltage and the controller’s voltage is sinusoidal at rated
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voltage. A static series/shunt compensation controller should be capable of compensating for a variety of
voltage sag and swell disturbances.
Likewise, the parallel element of the static series/shunt compensation controller provides compensation of
non-linear load currents. The idea is to inject whatever non-linear currents are required by the load from the
static series/shunt compensation controller, rather than from the power system. If the controller current
equals the distortion current drawn by the load, the net current supplied by the power system is sinusoidal
and the load current is totally compensated.
6. Application considerations
6.1 General system considerations
The application of any device on a distribution system requires some consideration of the complete system.
The application of custom power devices is quite complex because the specification of such devices
requires an intimate knowledge of both the load (customer requirements) and the system. Misapplication
could result in the device not performing its required function and/or costing far more than it should due to
lack of understanding of the problem.
The following is a list of some of the considerations that might be addressed when applying these devices:
a) System strength (available short circuit current)

b) Voltage level and grounding
c) Load size and power factor
d) Harmonic content of load
e) Harmonic capability of location
f) Interaction of multiple devices
g) Necessary speed
h) Effect of multiple reclosing
i) Interaction of device with system
j) Sensitivity of load
k) Stored energy, duration of sag or fault
l) Speed and recharge time or device
m) Real and reactive power capability
n) Need for independent phase control
o) Immunity against transients
p) Immunity against faults
q) Contribution to ferroresonance
r) Presence of distributed generation
s) Motor starting
t) Protective device coordination
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6.2 Specific engineering issues for voltage sag and interruption protection
devices
The following is a sample of some of the specific engineering issues associated with the application of
custom power devices that provide sag mitigation on distribution systems. This class of devices includes
dynamic voltage restorers, static voltage regulators, and transfer switches.
6.2.1 Requirements of dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) controllers
Many factors influence the shape and duration of the sag, such as the type, impedance, and location of the
fault: the load and transformer connections; mutual coupling; and protective devices in the circuit. The
location of faults is essentially a random characteristic and may involve any combination of the three
phases and/or neutral. Faults may be on an adjacent feeder or the same feeder as a sensitive customer. If the
fault is on the same feeder, then its type and location relative to the customer also influence the waveshape.
6.2.1.1 Independent phase control
A large majority of voltage sags seen on primary distribution circuits are single-phase events. Another
significant group of faults is comprised of two-phase sags. Therefore, a dynamic voltage restorer operates
on each phase independently and compensates for disturbances on any phase or any combination of phases.
Since a sag on one phase may also result in a swell on another phase, the dynamic voltage restorer is
capable of handling both sags and swells simultaneously.
6.2.1.2 Phase jump
Voltage sags can present a phase jump, due to the difference between the source impedance and the
impedance between the fault and the monitoring point as shown by Bollen [B2]. The value of the phase
jump associated with a sag depends on the location of the fault and on the remaining voltage of the sag. For
sags due to transmission system faults, the phase jump is small, typically less than 5º. For sags due to
distribution system faults, phase jumps up to 60º may occur, with the during-fault voltage lagging the pre-
fault voltage. For three phase faults, the phase jump is in first approximation proportional to the drop in
voltage and normally equal in all three phases. For single-phase and two-phase faults, the phase jump is
normally different in the three phases, and complicated relations exist between phase jump and retained
voltage, with 60º (lagging as well as leading) being possible for faults at any voltage level. Transformation
between voltage levels through three-phase transformers also contributes to phase jumps. The phase jump
can be measured in a number of different ways, which may result in different numerical values. A
discussion on measurement methods is outside of the scope of this document.
Phase jump considerations can make it difficult to size dynamic voltage restorers for an application. Figure
24 presents an ideal (i.e., synthetic) voltage sag to 0.5 pu with no phase jump. The voltage rms value can be
computed using a sliding-window rms algorithm and is presented in Figure 25, which shows a minimum
voltage of 0.5 pu. Figure 26 presents the missing voltage from the voltage sag in Figure 24, which is the
instantaneous difference in voltage between the voltage waveform before the sag and the waveform during
the sag. The missing voltage is the voltage that, if added to the waveform from Figure 24, would give a
voltage waveshape without any disturbance. For this case, the peak value of the missing instantaneous
voltage matches the peak value of the missing rms voltage.
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Figure 24 —Ideal voltage sag to 50% with no phase jump
Figure 25 —RMS voltage of ideal voltage sag to 50% with no phase jump
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Figure 26 —Missing voltage required for injection by DVR for full compensation
for an ideal voltage sag to 50% with no phase jump
Figure 27 —Ideal voltage sag to 50% with -30º phase jump

Figure 27 presents another ideal voltage sag to 0.5 pu, but with a -30° phase jump. Note that Figure 28,
which presents the rms value for this waveform, appears very similar to rms value of a voltage sag that has
no phase jump. However, the missing voltage for the sag with phase jump (Figure 29) has a peak voltage
magnitude of 1.0 pu. Therefore, the peak value of the missing instantaneous voltage is twice the peak value
of the rms voltage. For the theoretical case of a voltage sag with a phase jump of 180°, the peak magnitude
of the missing voltage would be 1.5 pu. However, phase jumps typically associated with distribution
system faults are in the range of -30° to +30°. A dynamic voltage restorer with a maximum of 0.5 pu
voltage injection capability, which is a common design value, will not be able to compensate the sag shown
in Figure 27 to 1.0 pu. The difference between instantaneous voltage compensation and rms compensation
needs to be addressed when sizing a DVR.
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Figure 28 —RMS voltage of ideal voltage sag to 50% with -30º phase jump
Figure 29 —Missing voltage required for injection by DVR for full compensation
for an ideal voltage sag to 50% with -30º phase jump
When the DVR has a voltage injection limitation, the control algorithm and headroom will determine the
resulting output waveform. For example, a DVR with 50% injection capability can correct this sag by
injecting at most 0.5 pu rms voltage (or an instantaneous maximum of 0.707 times the nominal rms
voltage). The DVR’s controls now have several options for handling this sag. One possibility is to
maximize the rms output voltage. In this case, the voltage injection would be at -60° and would yield 1.0 pu
rms output voltage, albeit with a 60° phase error. A second possibility is to inject voltage in phase with the
pre-sag voltage; this yields an output voltage of 0.866 pu with a -30° phase error. If the controls attempt to
insert the required voltage (0.866 pu at 30°) with the correct phase angle, the DVR will run out of
headroom at 0.5 pu. As a result the output waveform will be clipped, and will not be sinusoidal. The
controls could inject a voltage waveform which yields an output waveform that is not clipped and contains
the correct phase trajectory, but this will result in an output waveform of 0.707 pu at -15° pu. Deeper sags,
and/or larger phase jumps, exacerbate this problem.
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6.2.1.3 Importance of event characteristics
Phase jump, magnitude, and waveshape have different degrees of importance to different loads. Three-
phase ac motor drives with front-end rectifiers are very sensitive to voltage magnitude and phase
unbalance. Thyristor-based power supplies (such as in dc drives) need accurate zero-crossing information,
so phase jump and waveshape are important. Typically, ac motor contactors are not as sensitive to phase
jump and waveshape; however, voltage magnitude and point-on-wave of the initiation of the event play a
key role in tripping the contactor. For optimal performance, the compensator is sized to inject the voltage
required for any expected disturbance. Otherwise, the control algorithm will be tailored to the load to
minimize equipment misoperation when the dynamic voltage restorer cannot fully compensate for all likely
disturbances.
6.2.1.4 Transformer saturation
If the transformer for a DVR is not sized properly, saturation can occur. Upon detecting a sag, the dynamic
DVR will apply voltage on its secondary, which in turn injects voltage onto the line via the primary. The
point-on-wave at which correction begins will determine the flux state of the transformer. If the transformer
saturates due to a lack of flux “headroom,” the magnetizing currents will become very large. Without
protection, the power electronics can be exposed to damaging over-currents. The protection scheme will
likely remove the DVR from this situation and thus will not be on-line to correct the sag. To avoid
saturation under all conditions, the transformer and controls are sized to handle two times the normal
steady-state flux requirement at maximum rms injection voltage without saturating.
6.2.1.5 Nearby upstream faults
A dynamic voltage restorer cannot be integrated into a system without carefully considering the effect on
circuit configuration of the power provider and protective devices in the circuit. The dynamic voltage
restorer is an additional energy source to the system and is a series device. Therefore, it is capable of
delivering energy to the system at any time (e.g., during faults) and it has a continuous current path. The
dynamic voltage restorer cannot operate if the source circuit is broken immediately upstream or
downstream of the dynamic voltage restorer.
Adjacent transmission line and distribution feeder faults appear as sags, so the DVR will provide voltage
injection to compensate as required, to the limits of its rating. The DVR unit’s function is to compensate for
transmission faults and adjacent feeder recloser operation and the resulting sags. The recloser operation on
adjacent feeders should be assessed when sizing the energy storage requirement of a DVR. Long faults (and
sags) increase the energy storage requirement and system cost.
6.2.1.6 Effect on upstream loads
An open circuit upstream of the DVR is a particularly interesting situation. To illustrate the problem, a
simple, single-phase equivalent circuit with a DVR, an upstream recloser, and another load between the
DVR and the recloser representing the combined parallel upstream load is shown in Figure 30 and Figure
31. Figure 30 shows the normal steady-state operation and the direction of current flow through the system.
Figure 31 shows the new current path after a recloser operation. The DVR is now the only energy source on
the load-side of that phase. It will try to maintain V2 at its pre-event magnitude, frequency, and phase. The
input voltage to the DVR, V1, is related to the DVR output by a voltage divider. The direction of current is
now reversed (i.e., a large phase jump in voltage V1 and current I1) through the upstream load, which
could create a damaging situation. This simple diagram depicts passive loads with no coupling from the
other phases, which is not representative of many applications. Active upstream loads could cause
additional unknown effects. These effects are discussed further by Middlekauf et al [B24].
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Recloser I2 SSC
Zline I1
+ + +
AC
Source
V1 V2 Zload
_ Zupstream _ _
Figure 30 —Circuit with DVR and closed upstream recloser (V1=V2)
Recloser I2 SSC
Zline I2
+ + +
AC
Source
V1 V2 Zload
_ Zupstream _ _
Figure 31 —Circuit with DVR and open upstream recloser

There are a number of possibilities for mitigating this problem. In each case, unfortunately, the DVR
cannot protect the load and the customer will experience a disturbance. However, the opportunity for a
damaging problem is eliminated and the system protection will operate normally.
Communication could be used to send a signal to the DVR that the recloser is going to operate and the
dynamic voltage restorer would be removed from the line (i.e., bypass). This may not be feasible since a
communications wire would have to be run from the recloser to the DVR along the utility lines, and the
bypass would have to operate relatively quickly. Another possibility would be for the DVR to have some
method of power flow direction sensing capability, possibly sensing when there is a change in current
direction at an upstream branch. A seemingly simple solution would be for the DVR to detect when it sees
zero volts for a specified time and remove itself from the line under the assumption that there has been a
recloser operation. This will not work under most situations, however, since a single-phase recloser
operation will not normally cause the voltage on that phase downstream of the recloser to go to zero, due to
coupling to the other phases through transformers, loads, etc. This solution is a bit precarious since it may
result in many unnecessary bypasses; however, making the specified time too long could result in damage
to upstream loads.
6.2.1.7 Downstream faults
The DVR should be virtually transparent to conventional protection and fault clearing devices. The series
connection of a DVR means that it can contribute or limit downstream fault current. Upon detection of a
fault (over current), there are two options: bypass the DVR power electronics or not. This choice is based
on available fault current at the point of connection and the power electronics ability to handle over current.
If bypass is required, it is done with a thyristor crowbar designed for rated fault current. The bypass
operates before inverters are damaged and before conventional switchgear operate to clear the fault.
When a DVR senses a downstream over-current condition, the primary concern is to protect the DVR
system. Since the alternatives are either to remain in line and tolerate the fault or to bypass and isolate from
the circuit, contribution to downstream fault current is of minimal concern.
However, if bypass-and-isolate is needed to protect the power electronics, the DVR controls should be able
to distinguish between inrush currents and actual downstream faults. Again, this is limited by the ability of
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DVR power electronics to tolerate temporary over-current without failure. The breakers employed for
bypass-and-isolation are controlled by the DVR.
If the power electronics can tolerate a maximum temporary overcurrent and remain in-line, the DVR can
add some percent (1% to 2%) of impedance to the circuit. This is due to series transformer impedance and
silicon resistance of the power electronics. The primary concern is therefore downstream coordination with
the slightly reduced fault current.
6.2.1.8 Response time
The custom power device’s controls will have a finite response time. This is typically on the order of
milliseconds. Due to these speed limitations, as well as bandwidth limitations and slow transient response
of magnetic elements, very fast transients will be difficult to identify and correct. High order harmonics and
high frequency or fast transients (e.g., capacitor switching or lightning transients) will most likely pass
through these devices with no correction. Likewise, an additional problem is created upon sag recovery.
Once the line voltage has recovered, the device’s controls will not react infinitely fast, so there may be a
brief overvoltage seen by the load, as the compensator will continue to inject voltage onto the restored line
voltage.
6.2.1.9 Recovery of sag problems
Most loads such as large ac motors and transformers will draw a large inrush current upon system recovery
from a voltage sag. This inrush current can create problems such as blowing of fuses or tripping of
breakers. With optimal operation of a sag mitigation device, the load voltage will not see a disturbance and
thus will not cause an inrush current. If the sag mitigation device cannot fully correct the sag, the load will
see a sag and an inrush may occur to re-magnetize transformer windings, accelerate motors, and recharge
capacitors. This may cause the sag mitigation device to go into current-limit mode to prevent damage to its
power semiconductors and other relatively fragile devices. As a result, the output (load) voltage may be
reduced by the sag mitigation device, prolonging the sag at the load even though the power line has
recovered completely. Therefore a good bypass scheme is important for the sag mitigation device, so as not
to inject additional disturbances that affect the load into the system.
6.2.1.10 Interaction with static switch
The DVR should be placed downstream of a transfer switch. The transfer switch provides protection from
sustained interruptions should one of the distribution feeds be lost. The downstream DVR will take care of
transmission-fault related voltage sags. This arrangement will inherently limit “fighting” between the two
devices. The transfer switch controls should be set to choose the best source of power and the DVR will
correct sags that the switch cannot improve.
This arrangement is a premium-type of solution from performance and cost perspective. Similar
performance can be achieved with an on-site transmission substation and DVR with no switch. Reliability
is limited by the transmission in both arrangements, and a DVR is needed to alleviate transmission-related
sags in either case.
6.2.2 Requirements of static voltage regulator (SVR) devices
The rating of an SVR needs to be the same as the full rating of the load that it will protect. This is because
the SVR will carry the entire load during sag or swell events. An SVR is not effective during voltage
interruptions since there will be no voltage to transform.
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A DVR device injects voltage in a fashion that is added to the sagged waveform. In contrast, an SVR uses
transformers to boost voltage and therefore is multiplying the sagged voltage by a ratio. For example, if the
utility grid voltage sags to 0.5 pu, then the SVR can correct the voltage to 1.0 pu by using a transformer
ratio of 2:1. A DVR can boost the voltage to 1.0 pu by using the full output of its line energy or stored
energy supplies. However, for a voltage sag to 0.4 pu, the same SVR can correct the voltage magnitude to
only 0.8 pu using that same 2:1 ratio, while the DVR can boost the voltage by 0.5 pu to 0.9 pu. A voltage
sag to 0.2 pu can be compensated only to 0.4 pu by a SVR, but can be boosted to 0.7 pu by a DVR.
An SVR can be configured to have a 1:1 transformer winding ratio to act solely as a load protection device.
However, it can also be configured to operate as a step-down transformer in lieu of a traditional step-down
transformer.
During a voltage sag in which the SVR switches to full 2:1 voltage boost, the current drawn by the unit can
be twice as high as normal. Therefore, upstream protection devices need to be coordinated to not operate in
response to the higher current levels during SVR operation.
The SVR does not compensate for the change in the voltage waveshape that occurs during voltage sag. If
the load is sensitive to changes in waveshape, such as phase jump, then it may still misoperate during the
event even though the magnitude of the voltage is within design requirements. An arcing waveform such as
the one depicted in Figure 32 would be a difficult waveform to correct with an SVR.
Since an SVR is designed to operate with individual phase control, an SVR may also correct for
unbalanced voltages during steady-state operation.
Figure 32 —Voltage waveform measured downline of an arcing fault
6.2.2.1 System strength
The SVR is designed to provide up to 50% boost. Maximum boost is limited to less than 50%, however, if
the system is not strong enough to support twice normal current. The SVR does not have energy storage, so
a distribution voltage collapse could occur on a weak system as the SVR pulls more current, making the
voltage drop due to line impedance larger causing further voltage depression. This would make the SVR
select an even higher tap, pulling even more current and increasing the voltage drop. Upstream overcurrent
relays need to be coordinated for this characteristic.
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The SVR may present an economic approach for sag relief on moderately strong systems (that is, systems
with fault current greater than twice rated current, but that experience fairly deep sags). The available fault
current enables the SVR to provide its entire available 50% boost, and the deep sags make use of all
available boost.
6.2.2.2 Upstream faults
If the fault occurs between the SVR and feeder bus, the SVR cannot operate because there is no longer a
closed current path. Therefore, during breaker or recloser operation immediately upstream from an SVR,
the SVR cannot provide any compensation, as the problem is a momentary interruption.
An SVR, like a DVR, operates in the same way for adjacent feeder and transmission faults. However, an
SVR may often be an economic solution when adjacent feeder faults are the major cause of sags. The SVR
normally provides up to 50% voltage boost and does not require energy storage. This is well suited for the
long, deep sags normally caused by adjacent distribution feeder faults.
6.2.2.3 System response
The SVR can respond within a fraction of a millisecond to restore input voltage to the proper output
voltage, since passing from a lower tap to a higher tap will force the turn-off of the conducting thyristor.
Therefore, the passing from a higher tap to a lower tap can be done only when a zero current crossing
occurs. This can take up to half a cycle, and during this period the output can be as high as 1.5 pu (when the
shunt transformer is connected downstream) to 2 pu (when the shunt transformer is connected upstream)
depending on the configuration of the SVR.
6.2.3 Requirements of backup stored energy system (BSES) devices
Since a BSES unit disconnects the protected load from the utility system, its voltage converters will be
rated to carry the entire rating of the protected load. This differs from a dynamic voltage restorer device,
which only injects voltage onto the depressed utility voltage and may need only to be sized to carry up to
half the rating of the protected load. The maintenance and operating costs of the energy storage system are
an important consideration of a BSES solution.
The most important consideration for the BSES isolation switch is response time. The switch should isolate
from the normal utility supply in subcycle intervals. This means a thyristor-based static switch will be
required. Both overcurrent and overvoltage protection are needed. The isolation switch will be rated to
handle any leading and lagging power factor as well as any line harmonics. Normally, some type of forced
air-cooling is required.
Another important aspect is physical space considerations. A superconducting coil is much smaller
physically than an equivalently rated battery bank, but a cryostat and refrigeration system are also needed
negating some of the size advantage. The capacitors and battery options have many more electrical
connections to deal with than the superconducting coil, but all options will require some maintenance. All
options will also require some sort of cooling, so system efficiency should be evaluated. An estimate of the
number of operations that the energy storage system can handle in its lifetime is also an important
parameter in determining which system to choose.
The charger is needed to power the energy storage system to normal levels during startup and after
discharges. This device, normally a six-pulse rectifier, is needed to transform the ac supply to dc that is
required by the energy storage device. The most important parameter here is charging time. The charger
should not be too large that its operation would cause a voltage sag disturbance.
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6.2.4 Requirements for static transfer switches (STS)
Regardless of the specific STS technology that is employed, there are certain criteria that are important for
the proper operation of the devices.
6.2.4.1 Independent feeders
In order for an STS to be effective in protecting critical loads from power system disturbances, the two
source feeders should be relatively independent of one another. For example, a system disturbance on the
preferred feeder should not cause the alternate feeder voltage to fall out of desired limits. If this were the
case, when a disturbance occurred on the preferred feeder, the STS would be transferring the load to a
feeder of poor quality power. This scenario would result in the load being unprotected from the
disturbance.
The following list describes preferred situations for STS installations:
a) Preferred and alternate feeders fed from different substations. This configuration allows the utmost
protection. For example, if the preferred feeder substation trips, the alternate feeder will not lose
power. One possible source of failure for this configuration is if the transmission system feeding
both substations has a disturbance. This situation would obviously result in both feeders
experiencing the disturbance.
b) Preferred and alternate feeders fed from different substation transformers. If both feeders are fed
from the same substation, using different substation transformers offers increased isolation for each
feeder. If both feeders are fed from the same transformer, a fault on either feeder could cause the
transformer circuit breaker to trip, resulting in a loss of both feeders. Using two transformers allows
the transformer feeding the fault to be taken off line without affecting the unfaulted feeder.
c) Different right-of-way (ROW) for preferred and alternate feeders. Using different ROW increases
the independence of system disturbances on the feeders. Assuming the same ROW was being used,
and a fault occurs on the line (downed pole, fallen tree, etc.), the probability of both feeders
experiencing the fault increases considerably.
d) Fault studies are essential in determining the independence of each feeder during system
disturbances. These studies are usually available from the power provider. Fault data from previous
years can also offer insight into the dependence of parallel feeders.
6.2.4.2 Feeder capacity for load
One obvious requirement of the system is that both feeders have the capacity to supply the entire load
individually. For example, if two existing feeders are sharing a load, and an STS is to be installed using
each of these feeders as the preferred and alternate sources, it is quite possible that one or both of the
existing feeders does not have the capacity to supply the entire load. If the STS transfers the load to a
feeder with lacking capacity, the voltage level may drop considerably, resulting in a voltage sag. Reserve
capability to protect loads from sags has a cost to the power provider that should factor into the total cost of
the project.
6.2.4.3 Synchronization
Synchronization of the two sources is not required but is recommended. Typical STS systems can transfer
the load when the two sources are out of phase, but particular loads may be adversely affected by the phase
change (e.g., motor loads). Therefore, it is recommended that both sources be in phase to allow a seamless
transfer of the critical load.
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6.2.4.4 Source availability
The STS should not be used in applications where both sources are not available all of the time. For
example, a standby generator cannot be used as the single alternate source because the generator cannot
reach full speed in the required time. Startup time for typical diesel generators can take up to 10 s to 20 s.
6.2.4.5 Transfer time
The total transfer time consists of detection time, decision time, and switching time. The detection and
decision times are reduced using advanced algorithms that characterize the incoming waveforms and
calculate the appropriate action to be performed. The total transfer time of the STS is dependent upon many
factors such as the characteristics of the system (voltage levels, phasing, power factor), control algorithm,
and the type of disturbance, whether it be a sag, swell, interruption, etc. The typical transfer time for an
STS is around 0.5 cycles.
6.2.4.6 Reducing transfer time
The transfer time can be reduced with the use of commutator circuits. These external circuits use additional
storage elements and power electronics to force the thyristor to turn off. This method is usually employed
in dc-dc converters and dc-ac converters that use thyristors. Due to the increased complexity, price, and
failure possibility, this method is usually not implemented in STS systems.
Another option for decreasing the transfer time is to use a GTO instead of a thyristor. The reason the
thyristor-controlled STS has varying transfer times is because the device cannot be readily turned off. The
GTO, on the other hand, offers the functionality of being turned off upon command. This would allow the
STS transfer to be independent of the system. Unfortunately, the GTO has many drawbacks such as:
a) Limited range of ratings are available,

b) The price for such devices is significantly higher than the standard thyristor, and
c) The gate drive requires significant amounts of power, thus reducing efficiency and increasing
system costs.
For reasons such as these, the GTO is not currently being utilized in STS systems.
A type of forced commutation is often used that can decrease the time it takes to transfer the load. This is
accomplished by firing the appropriate alternate-side thyristor while the preferred side is conducting. When
coordinated correctly, the alternate-side thyristor will begin conducting, thus reverse-biasing the
corresponding preferred-side thyristor. In these conditions, the transfer time is normally less 0.25 cycles.
However, the possibility of forcing the commutation depends not only on the control implemented, but also
on circuit conditions.
6.2.4.7 Functionality
The STS should be capable of performing certain basic functions. These functions consist of detecting
certain anomalies and successfully performing the appropriate operation to protect the load or the system
supply. The basic scenarios that are of concern are source-side sustained interruptions, balanced three-
phase faults on source, single-line-to-ground faults on source, and load-side faults.
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6.2.4.7.1 Source side disturbances
The most basic function is operation due to a source-side sustained interruption. A source-side breaker
opens, dropping the terminal voltage of the STS to zero. Under such circumstances, the STS should
successfully transfer the load from the source with the sustained interruption to the alternate source. This
capability should be available for both sources.
The single-line-to-ground fault is one of the most common causes of power system disturbances. During
such an event, the STS should successfully transfer the load from the faulted source to the non-faulted
source for all three phases. This capability should be available for both sources.
Although not as common as the single-line-to-ground fault, the STS should successfully transfer the load
for a fault across all three phases of the preferred source. This capability should also be available for both
sources.
6.2.4.7.2 Load-side fault
For a load-side fault, the STS should inhibit a transfer to or from either source. Thus, the fault will not be
transferred from one source to the other. If the capability is not available, and the fault is allowed to
propagate to the other source, both sources may fail.
6.2.4.7.3 Out-of-phase transfers
The ideal situation is for both the preferred and alternate feeders to be in phase in order to create an almost
seamless transfer. Quite often, keeping the two sources in phase is not possible; when they cannot be kept
in phase then the STS is required to be able to transfer the load with both sources out of phase.
6.2.5 Before restoration to normal system configuration
The STS will normally be designed to switch back to the normal supply after the voltage is restored,
although continued use of the backup supply could be used in some cases. The following factors should be
considered in designing the control for switching back to the normal supply:
a) Voltage magnitude on the normal source

b) Pphase angle of the normal source relative to the backup source
c) Time delay after the voltage is restored
6.3 Specific engineering issues for reactive power and harmonic compensation
devices
6.3.1 Requirements of static shunt compensator (distribution STATCOM)
The distribution STATCOM is often applied to weak systems to compensate for (relatively) large loads that
cycle on and off and create irritating flicker. A distribution STATCOM can control only voltage or a
combination of voltage and power factor. In some cases, the theoretical inrush of a motor started on a
system requiring a distribution STATCOM for compensation will be greater than the available fault current
at the motor-system-distribution STATCOM point of common coupling. In this case, it is impossible to
distinguish between a motor start and actual fault. The duty and coordination of downstream breakers
should therefore be assessed when applying the distribution STATCOM.
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6.3.1.1 System strength
The distribution STATCOM is made for weak systems. The distribution STATCOM is a source of vars,
and a strong system (i.e., a system with low impedance) can support load var demand without experiencing
a significant voltage drop. Weak systems are much more likely to experience voltage variations due to
changes in var demand. Such a system usually has a much higher impedance to reactive power than active
power.
Application of a distribution STATCOM on a weak distribution system near a large inductive load can
enhance the performance of that system to a level approaching the capability of a subtransmission system.
Coordination and adequacy for increased fault duty of nearby protective devices need to be assessed.
Because the distribution STATCOM uses a power electronic inverter, the output current is independent of
system voltage. As a rule of the thumb, an inverter-based distribution STATCOM can compensate for
voltage variation up to the maximum rated power of the distribution STATCOM divided by the short
circuit level at the point of common coupling.
6.3.1.2 Independent phase control
Single-phase loads such as welders and induction heating should make use of independent phase control of
the distribution STATCOM to balance the three-phase system. However, the application of a three-to-
single phase converter as part of the distribution STATCOM may offer an economic means of supply and
phase balance for single-phase loads.
6.3.1.3 Load characteristics
Load variations determine both the size requirements and the control system requirements for the
compensation. Types of loads that can be important include the following:
a) Motor starting
b) Welders
c) Arc furnaces
d) Chippers
e) Rock crushers
Loads with very fast variations (e.g., arc furnaces, welders) usually require a control based on the load
current variations or the var variations. It may be possible to compensate for loads with slower variations
(even if they are frequent variations) with a voltage control only.
6.3.1.4 Coordination with other power factor correction equipment on the circuit
The shunt compensation should be coordinated with other compensation on the system. Switched capacitor
banks may be installed on distribution circuits or at the substation. These have their own controls for
switching, and the static compensation should be coordinated with these existing (or future) compensation
systems.
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6.3.1.5 Coordination with voltage regulators on the circuit
Voltage regulators are designed to control the voltage based on the voltage setting and the load current for
load drop compensation. The voltage regulator controls will be much slower than the controls for static
shunt compensation. The controls should be coordinated to avoid getting into a situation where the
compensation systems are fighting each other. Also, if the shunt static compensation is downline from a
voltage regulator, the impact on line drop compensator settings should be determined. It may not be
advisable to use line drop compensation in these cases.
7. Performance measurements
This clause deals with characterizing the power quality levels, as specified in 4.3, where a custom power
device has been, or will be, applied. The clause will explain where to monitor, what to monitor, how long
to monitor, and how to analyze the monitoring data.
7.1 Where to monitor
This clause discusses the appropriate points in the power system to place monitoring instruments for the
characterization of power quality in the custom power device environment. Monitoring equipment should
be installed to capture power quality events on both the supply side and load side of the custom power
device to verify its proper operation.
Monitoring at utility substations or customer premises should be limited to the supplying distribution feeder
or a common substation bus, a location with common voltages to the proposed custom power device or
device utilization point.
7.1.1 Before custom power controller installation
The electrical system performance characteristics for a proposed custom power location determine the
location(s) to be monitored. Monitoring, at an electrical location close to the proposed custom power
device, will capture voltage levels, current levels, kVA, in addition to electrical system events that the
custom power device will be required to correct. The benefits provided under this level of monitoring can
be applied on a utility system or customer distribution system. The monitored data provides the necessary
quantities to economically justify the size and location of the device.
7.1.2 After custom power controller installation
Once a custom power controller has been installed, it is necessary to perform performance verification
monitoring. This should be done on both the load and line side of the custom power device. When the
design and/or implementation of a custom power solution is undertaken, potential transformers (PTs) and
current transformers (CTs) for the purpose of power quality monitoring should be specified. The devices
should have the appropriate accuracies to characterize the electrical power quality environment in which
the custom power will operate. PT and CT connections used for metering and relaying can be utilized if the
appropriate accuracies and connection configuration are present. Providing this monitoring data will allow
utility engineers, designers, and end users the necessary information to verify proper operation, protection,
and possible costs related to the installation of the custom power device.
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7.2 What to monitor
Before embarking on a monitoring project, the end result of the monitoring is considered. In other words,
will the monitoring data be used to evaluate the current state of the power system, or to diagnose a
particular problem on the power system?
Evaluative monitoring is used to evaluate or “benchmark” the power quality levels on a given system. This
type of monitoring is typically performed at the utility system level. Evaluative monitoring normally
implies that the data-gathering method of a monitoring project results in data that can be validated.
The end product of evaluative monitoring is a collection of power quality events that “benchmark” or give
a base value of the power quality levels of the system under study. The data can be used to develop charts
and graphs that describe the overall power quality levels on the system. Typically, utilities will benchmark
their system over a one-year period or longer. Each successive year’s data is compared to the previous
year’s data, which provides a roadmap for the utility. This roadmap informs the utility of the trend of the
power quality on their system.
This relates to custom power devices in several ways. First, the types and frequency of occurrence of power
quality events are an important consideration before a custom power device can be specified and installed.
Second, after the custom power device has been installed, monitoring can be used to validate the
performance of the custom power device.
In a perfect world with endless resources, the power quality monitor would capture everything when an
event happened. However, when performing system-wide monitoring projects, the question of, “What
needs to be monitored?” should be seriously considered.
Monitors typically measure only two quantities: voltage and current. All other parameters, such as kW,
kWhr, PF, THD, etc. are all calculated values or values derived from the measured quantities of voltage and
current.
7.2.1 Monitoring voltages
Because the utility supplies voltage to the customer and the customer’s load draws current from the system,
voltage is perhaps the most important parameter to measure. Any deviation in the voltage level or
waveform will typically manifest itself in the load current. If the monitoring site is a three-phase site, the
instrument should be configured to measure a three-phase, four-wire system. Most commercially available
instruments have the capability to be configured as follows:
a) Three-phase, three-wire (delta)

b) Three-phase, four-wire (wye)
c) Single-phase, three-wire (typical residential service)
d) Single-phase, two-wire (typical 120-volt outlet)
By monitoring the voltage, the availability of the system to supply the end-use equipment can be evaluated.
One reason for specifying and installing custom power devices is to provide a more reliable voltage source
for a particular facility or load.
7.2.2 Monitoring currents
Monitoring the phase currents on a system can be invaluable. In fact, characterizing loads on the system
requires the measurement of phase currents. Phase currents are also required to determine power or energy
parameters. Information pertaining to the location or direction of an event can be derived if the phase
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currents are captured during an event. In order to properly size a custom power device, the phase currents
of the loads that will be fed by the custom power device should be accurately characterized. This
characterization needs to include not only the magnitude of the current, but harmonic content and peak
magnitude of the load current during startup.
7.2.3 Characterizing power quality measurements
Analyzing power quality measurements has become increasingly more sophisticated over the past decade.
It is not enough to simply look at RMS quantities of the voltage and current. Disturbances that occur on the
power system have durations in the millisecond time frame, equipment is more sensitive to these
disturbances, and there is more equipment connected to the power systems that cause disturbances or power
quality problems. For these reasons, it is important to have a monitoring system that can capture, store, and
evaluate all the power quality variations that occur on the power system.
This subclause describes various power quality variations and the methods used to analyze them.
7.2.3.1 Transients
Transients are normally characterized by the actual waveform, although summary characteristics can be
useful. The most common characteristics include information on the peak magnitude (positive and
negative), frequency content (other than fundamental), time of occurrence, and rise time. These four
characteristics relate to the cause of the events and describe their effects on load equipment. Also, this
information allows correlations to then be performed with the measurement data against other system
information such as lightning databases, customer complaint databases, and system operation databases.
It is important to understand a monitor’s definitions and characterization methods. For example, some
instruments report the absolute peak of the waveform, while other instruments may report the maximum
deviation from the nominal sinusoidal waveform. In instances where the latter definition is used, the phase
position of the transient will also be important in assessing the potential for equipment malfunction.
Thresholds for triggering transients can also differ between instruments. Therefore, the number and
severity of measured transients will be subject to the instrument’s triggering techniques and
characterization algorithms.
7.2.3.2 Short duration variations
For analyzing single events, a plot of the rms magnitude versus time generally characterizes short duration
variations. For single events, this method is adequate. The time of the occurrence, the depth of the sag, and
the duration of the sag are generally sufficient to characterize the short duration variation. When an entire
system is involved, either customer or utility, it may be preferable to analyze a group of events together.
This group may consist of multiple sites for multiple days or just one site for one day. Whatever the case,
the data should be presented in an easily understood fashion as illustrated in Figure 33, which displays the
magnitude versus the duration of events that occurred during a particular time period for a monitoring
system.
Since voltage sags can involve one or more phases of the three phase system, and may include multiple
voltage levels and durations, the number of points plotted on a magnitude-duration curve for each event
should be carefully assessed and plotting criteria applied consistently. If aggregation techniques are used,
different aggregation criteria can significantly skew the results.
Using a magnitude-duration plot of this type allows clear identification of many events on one graph. It is
easy to see how many events occurred on the power system for the given time period and monitoring
system. The magnitude-duration plot in Figure 33 plots the magnitude (minimum voltage in percent during
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the event) and the duration of the event (time in cycles that voltage was outside thresholds of the monitor)
for each event recorded by the monitor or monitors. Plots of this type typically include an overlay like the
ITIC Curve [B21], as shown for reference.
Since the magnitude-duration plots are only two dimensional and offer very little information as to the
number events that occurred at a particular magnitude or duration, other methods for analyzing short
duration variations include magnitude three dimensional bar charts as illustrated in Figure 34. Three
dimensional bar charts not only illustrate the magnitude and duration of the events recorded, but they
illustrate the number of events recorded for a particular magnitude and duration.
The number of events at a particular magnitude and duration is very valuable when specifying custom
power devices. An example would be if a short duration variation was recorded with a magnitude of 20%
and had duration of 12 cycles, and if this type of event occurred only once during the monitoring period, it
may not be economical to protect for an event of this type. On the contrary, if an event of this magnitude
and duration occurred once every month, then a custom power device that could protect the load from this
type of event may be warranted.
Figure 33 —Example magnitude-duration scatter plot used to represent RMS

voltage variations with overlaid sensitivity lines defined by the
Information Technology Industries Council
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Figure 34 —RMS variation magnitude-duration column chart
7.2.3.3 Long duration variations
Long duration variations are those changes in voltage magnitude that typically last longer than one minute.
As with short duration variations, these events are generally characterized by a change in rms magnitude
over time. These events are influenced by the voltage regulation system. Three-dimensional bar charts or
histograms may be the most useful methods of characterizing the performance at a location.
7.2.3.4 Waveform distortion
The harmonic components of the load current are important because the custom power device will need to
supply that “type” of current to the load. Measurements of both voltage and current harmonic distortion
should be made in order to characterize the load to be supplied by the custom power device, as well as to
characterize the performance of the device itself. A detailed discussion of harmonic analysis practices can
be found in IEEE Std 519-1992.
7.2.4 Monitoring duration
This subclause considers the issue of how long to monitor power quality. Examples of previous power
quality monitoring projects will be cited as well as theories on the amount of power quality data that is
required to accurately characterize an environment.
The duration of any monitoring project should be long enough to accurately characterize the power quality
environment under study. Some conditions can be characterized in a relatively short time, while others may
require a year or more to accurately characterize. In these cases, predictive analysis may be required based
on historical data.
Harmonic distortion tends to be a steady state phenomenon. Therefore, shorter duration monitoring periods,
as short as a few weeks, may be sufficient to capture all of the operating conditions and adequately
characterize the current and voltage waveform distortion at the point of concern.
Transients and short and long-term disturbances require a significantly longer monitoring period. Since
most voltage sags are related to power system faults, a year or more of monitoring may be required to
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determine the magnitude of the problem. Since the electric power system configuration constantly changes
and weather conditions and other physical phenomena are not predictable, forecasting power system
performance may be difficult. In these situations, it may be necessary to rely on historical data maintained
by the utility. Although not always an accurate prediction of the future, these data may form the basis for an
economic justification for the installation of a custom power device.
If equipment sensitivity levels are known, it may be that only the load magnitude and harmonic distortion
level are required to specify a custom power device. In this case, the monitoring duration need only be long
enough to characterize the load.
Once a custom power device has been installed, monitoring on a continuous basis is recommended for the
ongoing assessment of the performance of the installed custom power devices.
8. Case studies
This section presents a series of case studies where custom power controllers were installed to mitigate a
power quality problem. Each case study presents a problem statement, the solution chosen, and a summary
of the installation’s results.
8.1.1 Dynamic voltage restorer (DVR)
8.1.1.1 Problem statement
An industrial facility that produces microprocessors for the personal computer industry approached its
power provider, asking how to reduce its susceptibility to voltage sags as described by La Rose [B23]. Its
process starts with pure silicon wafers and finishes with microprocessors available for shipment to market.
Individual processes are doping, etching, baking the wafers, and packaging. Baking is in the critical path of
the facility’s overall operation and one of the most sensitive steps in the process. In twelve months before
the installation of a custom power controller, the plant experienced 14 voltage sag events that were capable
of adversely affecting production.
The semiconductor plant was served by three 69 kV lines feeding two 30/40/50 MVA transformers in a
double-ended configuration. The total plant load is about 45 MVA. Under normal circumstances, the load
is split evenly between the two transformers. The entire plant load can be served from one transformer in
the event of a contingency.
8.1.1.2 Solution
Two independent DVRs with stored energy systems were installed with one on each of the plant’s two
feeders. The inverter rating of each DVR system was 6 MVA at 12.47 kV with 1800 kJ of stored energy.
Each device can boost a 20 MVA load voltage as much as 0.3 pu, and is configurable with multiple
load/boost taps to a maximum load of 1200 amps. The DVR units were physically located at the
semiconductor plant and were electrically in series between each 12.47 kV feeder and the semiconductor
plant switchgear. Each DVR unit was composed of three 2 MVA inverter modules connected in parallel at
the injection transformer. The energy storage subsystems were capable of maintaining maximum voltage
injection on all three phases for a minimum of twenty cycles at 60 Hz. Both DVR units were equipped with
supplemental cooling to accommodate the industrial facility’s desert environment.
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8.1.1.3 Results
As of January 2001, the DVRs had compensated for over 72 power quality disturbances that could have
caused process interruptions for the end-user. There were no voltage sag occurrences at the industrial
facility that were not mitigated by the devices. Three voltage sags were deeper than the devices were
designed to mitigate. These did cause production disruption, but the devices mitigated the sags to their
maximum ability, reducing the impact to production. One DVR unit was damaged in June 1999 due to a
vacuum circuit breaker malfunction. The unit was repaired and placed back in service in December 1999.
During the repair, the other unit carried most of the plant’s critical load at a reduced boost capability. The
power provider and the DVR manufacturer report that the DVR units have operated with availability above
98% between December 1999 and January 2001. Figure 35 shows the source voltages of a three-phase sag
to 0.67 pu, where the load side was corrected to 0.97 pu.
Figure 35 —Five-cycle, three-phase voltage sag to 0.67 pu
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8.1.2 Transfer switch (TS)
Due to neighboring load density increases, an automotive components plant was experiencing progressively
worse reliability as described by Jipping et al. [B22]. The plant represented 10 MVA of load. The plant’s
problems were mostly attributed to sustained interruptions originating on the two 40 kV subtransmission
feeders to the facility. After conversion to a preferred feeder in 1992, in which all plant load was placed on
the most reliable feeder, the plant did experience improved reliability. However, even with the preferred
feeder, the plant was still subject to power quality disturbances and sustained interruptions on the preferred
feeder and to voltage sags due to faults on adjacent feeders.
In 1995, the customer experienced seventeen disturbances, thirteen of which were due to voltage sags on
the preferred feed. During that year, company personnel performed an in-plant power quality audit. The
audit revealed a diverse collection of process control equipment. Some newer equipment was configured
with constant voltage transformers for voltage sag protection. Other microprocessor-based controls had
UPS systems for ride-through protection. However, most of the facility had no protection and would drop
out or shut down in response to voltage sags to 0.9 pu.
8.1.2.2 Solution
Because the power provider had a special manufacturing contract (SMC) with the automotive plant, service
guarantee payments were being paid to the manufacturer. In an effort to improve reliability at the substation
and avoid the SMC service guarantee payments, the power provider investigated the application of several
different custom power controllers (see Dettloff et al. [B6]). The goal of the service improvement project
was to reduce the customer’s exposure to sustained interruptions and voltage sags from an unsatisfactory
level in 1995 to no more than two per year.
In November 1996, a 15 kV, 600 A static transfer switch (STS) was installed at the automotive components
plant. The STS consisted of two 15 kV SCR switches with isolating and bypass motor operated air break
switches as shown in Figure 36. The facility was fed from the power provider’s 40 kV subtransmission
system through two transformers that step 40 kV down to 13.8 kV.
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Figure 36 —One-line diagram of power provider's STS
8.1.2.3 Results
Power quality monitoring for evaluation of system disturbances was also installed. In addition to this
monitoring, the STS was equipped with full SCADA to allow operation from the power provider’s system
operations center. During the first year of operation, the STS transferred 47 times for a variety of system
disturbances. Table 8 lists the number of transfers and associated causes. Nine potential disturbances to the
customer were avoided: five from sustained interruptions, and four from voltage sags on the preferred feed.
The remaining 38 power quality disturbances would not have caused a disturbance to the customer. Upon
installation of the STS, the SMC service guarantee payments were avoided, giving the STS a payback time
of approximately two years.
The number of transfers was anticipated based upon the conservative voltage settings initially placed on the
STS. After installation, the voltage settings on the STS were adjusted to avoid unnecessary transfers from
system events while still avoiding disturbances to the customer.
Table 8 —System disturbances and STS transfers

Disturbance cause Number of transfers
Voltage sag 13
Sustained interruption 5
Capacitor switching 8
Substation transformer energization 9
Unknown 12
The STS was 96.6% available during its first year, with downtime being attributed to setting adjustments
and to air conditioning unit and gate drive component replacements. The STS was available 99.9% of the
time in its second year of service. Figure 37, Figure 38, and Figure 39 show examples of the performance
of the system during a carry-over event.
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Figure 37 —Example of STS operation as recorded at the preferred source (monitor P)
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Figure 38 —Example of STS operation as recorded at the alternate source (monitor A)
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Figure 39 —Example of STS operation as recorded at the load (monitor L)
8.1.2.4 Performance for multiple events
Figure 40 summarizes the performance results for another STS, located in the Southwestern US. The STS
is rated for 1000 A at 12.47 kV. It has a split-bus configuration (main-tie-main) and serves approximately
16 MVA of load. The measurements were collected during a nine-month period from October 1999
through July 2000. The lines on the voltage sag magnitude-duration scatter plot connect pairs of related
measurements. For each pair, the lower right data point represents the rms voltage variation measured at the
source side of the STS. The upper left data point corresponds to the rms voltage variation measured at the
load side of the STS.
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Figure 40 —Summary of STS transfers during significant voltage sags and interruptions
8.1.3 Backup stored energy system devices (BSES)
A semiconductor manufacturer with manufacturing processes sensitive to rms voltage variations

approached its power provider to determine what solutions were available to mitigate the effects of voltage
sags and interruptions as described by Roberts [B28]. The local utility had been cooperative in attempting
to minimize disturbances, however some form of disturbance mitigation was deemed necessary. During six
months in 1999, a total of 13 disturbances of different nature were recorded at the entrance to the plant (see
Table 9). The number of disturbances was considered too high and caused concern about loss of “in-
process” wafers and meeting production schedules.
Table 9 —Utility power disturbances (March–August 1999)

Type disturbance Quantity
Shallow voltage sags (down to 80%) 3
Deep voltage sags (down to 50%) 9
Momentary event (less than 50%) 1
The plant was served by two incoming utility feeders at 12.47 kV. The local utility employed a looped
69 kV sub-transmission feeder arrangement to the adjacent substation servicing the facility. Most of the
utility disturbances were weather induced on the transmission lines, which resulted in voltage sags
simultaneously affecting both transformers in the substation and causing voltage sags on both feeders.
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8.1.3.2 Solution
A 12.47 kV, 12.5 MVA BSES system was selected in order to protect the semiconductor plant from both
voltage sags and momentary interruptions. Among other alternatives considered was a conventional low
voltage 480 V UPS system distributed throughout the facility to protect only the most critical equipment in
the clean room areas totaling 4000 kVA, along with a static transfer switch between the two incoming
utility feeders at 12.47 kV. The BSES was the more cost effective alternative because it offered protection
for the entire FAB facility, required no space in the building, and could be installed without interruption of
utility power. In addition, the local utility was willing to cooperate in providing space for installation in the
substation and sharing part of the installation cost.
The chosen solution was based on an IGBT inverter design rated for 30 seconds of ride-through at full load.
The system was designed to operate (turn on and run on battery power) any time the incoming utility
voltage deviated ±10% for more than one to two milliseconds. The modular design was based on a
313 kVA/250 kW power module arranged in outdoor containers with eight power modules, for a total
capacity of 2500 kVA/2000 kW in each container. Measurement of the wafer FAB electrical load showed a
total demand peak between 10 MVA and 11 MVA in the summer. Load growth projects indicated an
increase between 12 MVA and 13 MVA in the future. Based on these values, the initial capacity of the UPS
was chosen to be 12.5 MVA/10 MW with future expansion to 15.0 MVA/12.5 MW.
Figure 41 —One-line diagram of BSES system
8.1.3.3 Results
The system was placed into service in mid-August 2000 and experienced the first utility disturbance within
two weeks. During the first ten months of service, a total of fifteen utility events, listed in Table 10, were
mitigated by the BSES. Figure 42 shows the voltage on phase B affected by a sag with 52% retained
voltage and duration 100 ms. The BSES system responded to this event and provided nominal voltage to
the load (see Figure 43). The voltage did not sag in the other two phases during this event.
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Table 10 —Listing of utility disturbances mitigated by BSES
Date Time [hrs:min:s] Duration [s] Duration [cycles] Comment

08/30/00 16:34:03 1.0 61 75% voltage sag
09/02/00 11:54:16 1.5 87 56% voltage sag
10/22/00 05:56:55 0.7 42 Not logged
12/09/00 06:24:31 0.7 43 84% voltage sag
12/27/00 00:26:04 0.6 38 85% voltage sag
01/12/01 04:07:25 0.6 33 86% voltage sag
02/02/01 16:36:31 1.6 93 64% voltage sag
02/02/01 16:55:27 0.7 39 Not logged
02/17/01 00:44:29 0.6 36 79% voltage sag
02/25/01 05:53:41 0.6 37 82% voltage sag
03/04/01 13:28:24 1.27 76 82% voltage sag
03/06/01 08:53:00 0.7 43 85% voltage sag
04/01/01 07:04:41 0.7 44 85% voltage sag
05/18/01 23:43:23 0.6 36 85% voltage sag
06/14/01 06:33:55 0.6 37 85% voltage sag
Figure 42 —Utility-side phase B voltage during recorded single-phase voltage sag event
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Figure 43 —BSES output (load) voltage and current during a single-phase voltage sag
8.2.1 Static shunt compensator (distribution STATCOM)
An industrial facility had two existing rock crushing operations with a third going into service as described
by Volkommer [B35]. The operation produced minerals that are used in construction and agriculture. The
crushing process reduced raw material from a foot or more in diameter to a final product that varied from
five inches to powder, depending on the end use. The first operation utilized several motors of various
ratings (two rated at 250 hp, four rated at 200 hp, and five rated at 75 hp). The second operation used two
200 hp motors and two 125 hp motors. The planned third operation used two 250 hp motors and multiple
fractional hp motors. All of the multi-horsepower motors were 480 volt three-phase.
A distribution feeder 18 km in length on a grounded-wye system served the site. Approximately 1000 other
customers were connected to this feeder. The combined rock crushing operations were expected to have a
maximum coincident running load of 3 MVA for all operations with a power factor ranging from 75% to
93%. The inrush power factor when starting an individual motor starting was 28%.
When planning for the new third rock crushing operation, the first question to answer was what would be
the effect on the voltage at the point of common coupling when starting the largest motor (1.8 MVA) or
when the motor is almost stalled by the load? However, because 17 multi-horsepower motors were
involved, simultaneous starting of more than one motor was examined. Simulations and site power quality
monitoring demonstrated that unacceptable flicker of approximately 8% to 12% ΔV/V would occur if the
third operation were connected (Figure 44). It was concluded that this level of voltage fluctuation would
exceed the power provider’s acceptable criteria of approximately 4% ΔV/V and would adversely affect
other customers on the feeder. Figure 45 shows the effect of the distribution STATCOM voltage support.
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Figure 44 —Simulation of locked-rotor conditions on the primary crusher

with the distribution STATCOM off-line
Figure 45 —Simulation of locked-rotor conditions on the primary crusher

with the distribution STATCOM on-line
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8.2.1.2 Solution
A distribution STATCOM unit was installed and went on-line in January 1998. Its inverter had a rating of
±2 MVA and was connected in shunt with the 12.47 kV feeder. The installation also included a parallel
2 MVAr switched capacitor bank, thereby producing a controllable reactive range of -2 MVAr to +4
MVAr, with a dynamic range of 0 MVAr to 4 MVAr.
8.2.1.3 Results
The distribution STATCOM was shown to be successful in mitigating flicker at this rock crushing facility.
Voltage measurements at the plant with the distribution STATCOM off-line are shown in Figure 46. The
measurements were recorded at the 1500 kVA transformer serving the primary crusher and at a grain
elevator 2.4 km upstream. With the distribution STATCOM off-line, many customers served by this feeder
experienced objectionable flicker. Figure 47 shows the voltage at the same locations with the distribution
STATCOM on-line. The flicker was reduced at the rock crusher, and was reduced more at the location
2.4 km upstream.
Figure 46 —Voltage at a rock-crushing facility (distribution STATCOM off-line)
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Figure 47 —Voltage at the rock-crushing facility (distribution STATCOM on-line)
8.2.2 Static var compensators (SVCs)
A container ship cargo terminal was supplied by two 13.2 kV feeders with cross-tie capability. The marine
terminal employed seven rail-mobile cranes to on-load and off-load container ships for transfer to and from
rail and trucking connections. These cranes utilized variable speed silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) direct
current (dc) drives to power the dc crane motors. Because the seven cranes constituted the terminal’s
largest electrical loads, the use of SCR dc drives caused an extremely poor facility power factor, which was
often less than 40%. In addition, the start and stop working cycle of the cranes caused rapidly fluctuating
demand, complicating efforts to correct the poor power factor. Heavy distortion caused by the SCR drives
also produced significant harmonic currents during high demand periods.
As a 13.2 kV supply voltage customer, a significant portion of the marine terminal’s monthly electric bill
was based on the highest 15-minute averaged demands measured during on peak and off peak times. The
terminal’s demand was billed as the greater of the peak kW or 90% of the peak measured kVA. Any power
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factor less than 90% would therefore result in additional demand charges for the terminal. For billing
purposes, worst-case reactive load conditions of 4462 kVA, 1772 kW, and 39.7% power factor had been
observed. However, poorer power factor at lower load conditions was also observed.
8.2.2.2 Solution
A static var compensator (SVC) system was employed to achieve power factor correction at the terminal by
using cycle-by-cycle compensation. It employed a power factor correction system to keep up with the
dynamic nature of the crane loads including regenerative transients caused by crane hoist lifting and
lowering operations. In addition to its dynamic response, the SVC was to accomplish reactive load
compensation without injecting additional transients and provide the harmonic filtering necessary for the
existing operating environment.
To build the necessary reactive power management system, two 2400 kVAr units were installed. Since the
two incoming electric utility feeders each fed essentially half of the marine terminal’s loads, the two SVC
units were connected via 13.2 kV/600V transformers on opposite sides of the cross-tie between the billing
metering cabinets and the outgoing site distribution feeders. They operated as separate compensating
systems, but because they used downstream parameters for control, they could operate in parallel during
closed tie supply conditions.
8.2.2.3 Results
The SVC units were installed at the marine terminal in January 1997. Figure 48 and Figure 49 illustrate a
sample of measurement data showing the effect of the units’ operation.
Figure 48 —Uncompensated real and reactive power measured at PCC
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Figure 49 —Compensated real and reactive power measured at PCC
8.3 Custom power park
8.3.1 Problem statement
The site selected for this custom power park was an established industrial park with eleven industrial
customers that collectively represented a demand of 15 MW, as described by Volkommer [B35]. The
tenants were primarily light manufacturers with some miscellaneous service activities. The distribution
system was a mix of overhead and underground. Two of the customers represented 10 MW of load. Of
these, one had reported that voltage sags and interruptions were disrupting its process, which was resulting
in production downtime, damaged material, and disposal costs. The other customer ran a process 24 hours a
day and had concerns about outages that lasted longer than an hour to an hour and a half, which jeopardized
its product and equipment. The remaining nine customers within the park represented a variety of
manufacturing businesses. Many of these facilities included a high level of technology in their production
processes, making their manufacturing susceptible to power disturbances and voltage variances.
Two substations served the industrial park as shown in Figure 50. The first was served from four different
138 kV transmission circuits and included three transformers serving approximately 8150 customers and
three additional distribution stations at 13.2 kV and 34.5 kV. The other substation included two
transformers serving two 13.2 kV feeders with voltage regulation per feeder and serving approximately 370
customers.
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Figure 50 —One-line diagram of custom power park
8.3.2 Solution
The utility selected three different power quality equipment devices to be integrated into the park. A high
speed mechanical transfer switch (HSMTS) was placed on a 13.2 kV feeder with a 2 MVA DVR device
downstream of it to serve one of the critical customers. The switch was fed with the preferred and alternate
feeders stemming from two different substations. The DVR and HSMTS were interfaced through a fiber
optic communication system to ensure they worked as an integrated system providing enhanced power
quality to the downstream load. The interface allowed each piece of equipment to perform as designed as a
single power quality device and allowed them to be linked such that they compliment each other,
particularly at the capability boundary of each device. The DVR was sized to handle voltage sags down to a
retained voltage of 62%. The HSMTS was set to transfer to the alternate feeder (assuming the feeder
parameters were within specification) for voltage sags 62% and below.
The third device was a 4500 kVAr SVC, labeled as “ASVC” in Figure 50, that was installed on the
alternate feed to the critical customer, which also served several additional customers in the park. The
primary purpose of this device was voltage support.
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8.3.3 Results
The DVR and transfer switch were placed in service in June 2002. In the first eight months of service, the
combination DVR/HSTMS corrected 25 events. The waveforms of feeder voltage and load voltage for one
of these events are shown in Figure 51, which depicts a single-phase voltage sag with retained voltage 69%
and duration of three cycles. The retained voltage is above the threshold for transfer switch to operation, so
the sag was corrected to about 100% by the intervention of the DVR alone.
The second example shows a three-phase voltage sag resulting in a retained voltage of 62% as shown in
Figure 52. This voltage sag caused the transfer to the alternate source and tripping of the DVR due to high
post-transfer inrush current of the induction motor load. Despite the tripping of the DVR after the transfer,
the resulting voltage profile at the load was still of sufficient quality not to affect the customer (see Figure
52).
15000
10000
Feeder Voltage [V]
5000
-5000
-10000
-15000
0.5 0.546 0.592 0.638 0.684 0.73
Time (s)
20000
15000
Customer Voltage [V]
10000
5000
-5000
-10000
-15000
-20000
0.5 0.546 0.592 0.638 0.684 0.73
Time (s)
Figure 51 —Correction of single-phase voltage sag by the DVR in the custom power park
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15000
10000
Feeder Voltage [V]

5000
-5000
-10000
-15000
0.5 0.546 0.592 0.638 0.684 0.73
Time (s)
15000
10000
Customer Voltage [V]
5000
-5000
-10000
-15000
0.5 0.546 0.592 Time 0.638 0.684 0.73
Figure 52 —Correction of three-phase sag by HSMTS transfer

from preferred to alternate feeder
9. Economics
Power quality improvement technologies, including custom power options, have costs associated with them
in a variety of different categories (capital costs, maintenance costs, operational costs, etc.). These costs can
be converted to equivalent annualized costs for comparisons with other technology alternatives. One needs
to determine both the annualized costs associated with poor power quality and the annualized costs
associated with improving power quality through the application of custom power devices. Hence, an
economic evaluation can be performed for each custom power controller considered to determine if its
implementation can be cost justified.
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The consequence of voltage sags and interruptions on sensitive processes is, in most cases, the stoppage of
production. By installing a custom power controller for protection from voltage sags and interruptions, a
number of production stops can be avoided. The economic evaluation consists, in this case, in comparing
costs associated with the custom power solution with savings due to avoided production stops. Therefore,
the cost associated with a production interruption has to be calculated, and the impact of different
disturbances needs to be evaluated from an economical point of view. Typical costs and savings for voltage
sag and interruption protection devices are summarized in Table 11.
Table 11 — Costs and savings for a voltage sag-interruption protection device

Initial Operational
Costs —Device —Losses
—Turnkey installation —Maintenance
—Power system improvement
Savings —Financial savings due to avoided production stops
—Energy-related savings
9.1.1 Cost of production interruption
The cost of a production interruption can be captured primarily through the following three major
categories:
a) Product-related losses, such as loss of product/materials, lost production capacity, disposal charges,
increased inventory requirements, etc.
b) Labor-related losses, such as idled employees, overtime, cleanup, repair, etc.
c) Ancillary costs such as damaged equipment, lost opportunity cost, and penalties due to shipping
delays
Annex A of IEEE Std 1346-1998 [B17] includes a more detailed explanation of the factors to consider in
determining the costs associated with power quality disruptions. Annex A includes a sample evaluation
form for determining the cost of a power quality related event.
If all of the power quality related costs are considered, the total annualized financial loss may be calculated
through the multiplication of the financial loss per event by the number of events per year.
Power quality events can also cause a partial shutdown of the plant, having a lower associated cost than a
total production interruption. To account for the impact of different events on the equipment, weighting
factors can be used. The weighting factors are developed using the cost of a momentary interruption as the
base. Usually, a momentary interruption causes a complete process disruption. Voltage sags of different
magnitude and duration will have an impact that is some portion of this total shutdown. The associated cost
will be a percentage of the cost of production interruption. Using a 100% weighting factor for a total
shutdown, voltage sags will have a lower percentage cost. For example, if a certain voltage sag event
involves half the cost of a total shutdown, then it will be given a weighting factor of 50%. The weighting
factors can be used to calculate an equivalent number of interruptions for the sensitive customers, which,
multiplied by the interruption event cost, give the total annual impact of all considered disturbances.
9.1.2 Costs of custom power solutions
Costs associated with a custom power solutions for voltage sag and interruption protection can be classified
as initial cost (i.e., investment) and operational cost (i.e., outlays incurred throughout the life of the
project).
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The initial cost consists of the following three major components:
a) Cost of the device, i.e., one-time capital outlay of custom power equipment and related materials
b) Turnkey installation costs. Costs to be considered with turnkey installation include:
1) Conceptual engineering, including facility monitoring and data analysis
2) Project development and engineering, including construction drawing
3) Construction and project management, including equipment start-up
4) Other ancillary costs such as shipping, rigging, and permits
c) Cost of power system improvement (if necessary). A typical example is the addition of a redundant
feeder for installation of a transfer switch.
Operational costs include all costs related to the operation of the device, mainly losses and maintenance.
Other cost terms to be considered in this category may be extended warranty costs, costs associated with
ongoing power quality monitoring, permit renewal fees, and property taxes.
9.1.3 Savings
The financial savings due to power quality event avoidance will likely vary for each custom power
controller under consideration. For example, a certain custom power controller may be expected to mitigate
80% of annual power quality events while another device may be expected to mitigate 95% of the annual
power quality events experienced. Thus, the total annualized financial savings due to power quality event
avoidance may be calculated by multiplying the estimated cost of a production interruption by the expected
number of avoided production stops. (It may be necessary to use the equivalent number of interruptions, as
indicated in 9.1.1.)
If the installed custom power solution also performs other functions, besides sag/interruption
compensation, which provide economic benefit to the plant (e.g., power factor improvement, peak shaving,
harmonic reduction), then the corresponding savings should also be considered. These energy-related
savings further augment the total savings associated with installation of the custom power device.
The same principle of comparison of costs and savings can be used for evaluating the possibility of
installing custom power devices for compensation of reactive power, mitigation of flicker, and harmonic
reduction. These devices are characterized by different costs and savings, the latter generally related to
better utilization of energy. Costs and savings for reactive power and harmonic compensation devices are
summarized in Table 12.
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Table 12 — Costs and savings for a reactive power and harmonic compensation device
Initial Operational
Costs —Device —Losses
—Turnkey installation —Maintenance
—Power system improvement
Savings —Possibility of re-using equipment —Energy-related savings (losses reduction)

(e.g., capacitor banks) —Increased production
—Reduced or avoided penalties
9.2.1 Costs
Initial cost consists of device and turnkey installation costs (see 9.1.1). No power system improvement is
generally required for installing these devices. Operational costs include losses, maintenance, and other
cost terms, as indicated in 9.1.2.
9.2.2 Savings
The installation of devices for harmonic/reactive power compensation can lead to initial savings when the
device replaces other equipment previously used for the same purposes. This is the case for capacitor banks
or passive filters that can be sold or, more likely, re-used in other locations in the system, thus causing an
indirect benefit.
Operational savings associated with installation of reactive power compensation/harmonic reduction

devices are connected to the following:
a) Lower energy consumption due to reactive power compensation (i.e., lower losses)
b) Increased productivity due to harmonic reduction
c) Avoidance of penalties set by the utility for harmonic/flicker generation
9.3 Description of the various methods of economic evaluation
If the savings, or return, associated with application of a custom power solution exceeds the cost, or
investment, over a specified time period (e.g., two or three years), the application can be considered viable.
In evaluating the most cost-effective custom power controller application, several methods can be
considered to rank the solution alternatives. These methods include the following:
a) Payback method
b) Net present value method
c) Equivalent annualized costs and savings
d) Internal rate of return method
9.3.1 Simple payback method
This method calculates the time required to pay back the initial investment in the custom power solution.
The payback for an application involving a custom power solution is the total annual return, or savings, as
determined in 9.2.2. The total investment is determined in 9.2.1. The payback period is the total investment
divided by the total annual savings.
For example, assume the total initial investment required is $1 million, and once the custom power
controller is in place, the total annual savings achieved is $500,000 throughout the life of the custom power
75
IEEE Std 1409-2012
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device. After two years, the initial investment will be paid off, and from the third year on, the one million
dollar investment will provide an annualized $500,000 return. The simple payback method is sufficient for
purposes of quick estimation. However, if the payback period is long, then the time value of money should
be considered.
9.3.2 Net present value (NPV) method
To avoid the shortcomings of the simple payback method, the net present value method can be used. In this
method, the time-value of money is considered, and inflation is taken into account. The total annual savings
are discounted to the year that the investment was made at the cost of the capital, i.e., the year the money
was borrowed. Let us assume the initial investment is the same one million dollars at a cost of capital of
10%. The total annual savings again is $500,000, and the analysis will be as presented in Table 13.
Table 13 —Present value of savings

Year Savings PV of savings
1 $500,000 $454,545
2 $500,000 $413,223
3 $500,000 $375,657
If one assumes the savings are linear throughout the year, the initial investment is paid in approximately 29
months. Hence, the consideration of the cost of money increases the payback by an additional five months.
For solution alternatives involving a long payback, the NPV method should be used.
9.3.3 Equivalent annualized costs and savings
In this method, the interest assumed for the cost of capital is used to convert all costs and savings to an
equivalent annualized number over a specified lifetime. For instance, if the assumed lifetime of the
technology is 10 years, the initial costs are converted to an equivalent annual cost over the 10 years and
added to the annual maintenance and operation costs. This is compared with the annual savings expected
from the technology to get a net benefit.
9.3.4 Internal rate of return (IRR) method
The internal rate of return is the discount rate (cost of capital) at which the present value of the future
savings equates to the initial investment. It can be found by trial and error, or calculated using financial
models. The IRR method is generally used to qualify a group of solution alternatives that can be allowed to
proceed.
For example, a firm has a cost of capital (or interest cost for borrowing) of 7% and there are five solution
alternatives being considered. The IRR for Solution 1 is 15%; Solution 2 is 12%; Solution 3 is 8%, and
Solution 4 and Solution 5 are 6%. The first three solutions will be considered further as the investor will
make money after paying the interest, and the last two solutions will be discarded, as they will not recoup
the cost of capital.
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IEEE Std 1409-2012
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Annex A
(informative)
Bibliography
Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use
only.
[B1] ANSI C84.1-2006, American National Standard Voltage Ratings (60 Hz) for Electric Power Systems
and Equipment. 7
[B2] Bollen, M. H. J., “Understanding Power Quality Problems: Voltage Sags and Interruptions,” IEEE
Press, New York, 1999.
[B3] CEATI, Canadian Power Quality (PQ) Survey 2000/Revision 1, Report no. T984700 5103, May
2003. 8
[B4] Chan, K., Kara, A., Daehler, P., Guay, J., Tinggren, R., “Innovative System Solutions for Power
Quality Enhancement,” Conference Proceedings of 15th Conference on Electrical Distribution Engineering
(CIRED ‘99), Nice, France, June 1999.
[B5] Clouston, J., Gurney, J. H., “Field Demonstration Project of a Distribution System Static
Compensation Used to Mitigate Flicker,” Proceedings of IEEE PES Winter 1999 Meeting, New York, New
York, pp. 1138-1141.
[B6] Dettloff, A., Sabin, D., “Power Quality Performance Component of the Special Manufacturing
Contracts Between Power Provider and Customer,” Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on
Harmonics and Quality of Power, Orlando, Florida, October 2000, pp. 416-424.
[B7] Domijan, A., Montenegro, A., “Premium Power Park: The Next Step in Power Quality,”
Proceedings of the Caribbean Colloquium on Power Quality (CCPQ), June 2003, pp. 1-8.
[B8] Domijan, A., Montenegro, A., Keri, A., Mattern, K., “Simulation Study of the World's First
Distributed Premium Power Quality Park,” Proceedings of International Conference on Harmonics and
Quality of Power ICHQP2004, September 2004.
[B9] EPRI TR-112692, “Waveform Characteristics of Voltage Sags: Statistical Analysis,” Palo Alto,
California, April 1999.
[B10] Ethier, G., Tremblay, M., Zavoda, F., Simard, G., “Performance of a Canada-Wide Power Quality
Survey,” Official Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Power Quality 2001, presented at Power
Systems World 2001 Conference and Exhibit, Chicago, Illinois, September 2001.
[B11] Hingorani, N., “Introducing Custom Power,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 32, no.6, June 1995, pp.41-48.
[B12] IEC 60050-161, International Electrotechnical Vocabulary, Chapter 161: Electromagnetic
Compatibility. 9
[B13] IEC 61000-2-1, Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)—Part 2: Environment—Section 1:
Description of the Environment—Electromagnetic Environment for Low-Frequency Conducted
Disturbances and Signaling in Public Power Supply Systems.
7
ANSI publications are available from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor,
New York, NY 10036, USA (http://www.ansi.org/).
8
Document availability information can be obtained at www.ceati.com.
9
IEC publications are available from the Sales Department of the International Electrotechnical Commission, 3 rue de Varembé, PO
Box 131, CH-1211, Geneva 20, Switzerland (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United States from the
Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA
(http://www.ansi.org).
77
IEEE Std 1409-2012
Through 38 kV
[B14] IEEE Motor Bus Transfer Working Group, “Motor Bus Transfer,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, vol.8, no.4, October 1993, pp.1747-1758.
[B15] IEEE PES TF on Simulation of FACTS and Custom Power Controllers, “Benchmark Systems for
Digital Computer Simulation of a Static Transfer Switch,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol.16,
no.4, Oct. 2001, pp.724-731.
[B16] IEEE Std 1100-2005, IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Sensitive
Electronic Equipment (Emerald Book).
[B17] IEEE Std 1346-1998, IEEE Recommended Practice for Evaluating Electric Power System
Compatibility with Electronic Process Equipment.
[B18] IEEE Std 1453-2011, IEEE Recommended Practice—Adoption of IEC 61000-4-15:2010,
Electromagnetic compatibility, (EMC)—Testing and Measurement Techniques—Flickermeter-Functional
and Design Specifications.
[B19] IEEE Std 1585, IEEE Guide for Functional Specification of Dynamic Voltage Restorers (DVR).
[B20] IEEE Std C37.100-1992, IEEE Standard Definitions for Power Switchgear.
[B21] Information Technology Industry Council, “ITI (CBEMA) Curve Application Note,” 1996.
[B22] Jipping, J. E., Carter, W. E., “Application and Experience with a 15 kV Static Transfer Switch,”
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 14, no. 4, October 1999, pp. 1477-1481.
[B23] La Rose, T., “Custom Power Reduces Wafer Production Losses: A Case Study,” Official
Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Power Quality 2000, presented at Power Systems World 2000
Conference and Exhibit, Boston, Massachusetts, October 2000, pp. 69-77.
[B24] Middlekauff, S. W., Collins, E. R., Jr., “System and Customer Impact: Considerations for Series
Custom Power Devices,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 13, no. 1, January 1998, pp. 278-283.
[B25] Nilsson, S., “Special Application Considerations for Custom Power Systems,” Proceedings of IEEE
PES Winter 1999 Meeting, New York, New York, pp. 1127-1132.
[B26] Reed, G., Takeda, M., Iyoda, I., “Improved Power Quality Solutions Using Advanced Solid-State
Switching and Static Compensation,” Proceedings of IEEE PES Winter 1999 Meeting, New York, New
York, pp. 1132-1137.
[B27] Ribeiro, P. F., Johnson, B. K., Crow, M. L., Arsoy, A., Liu, Y., “Energy Storage Systems for
Advanced Power Applications,” Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 89, no. 12, pp. 1744-1756.
[B28] Roberts, B., “Overview of Experience with World’s Largest Medium Voltage Uninterruptible Power
Supply in a Utility Substation,” Official Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Power Quality 2001,
presented at Power Systems World 2001 Conference and Exhibit, Chicago, Illinois, September 2001.
[B29] Sabin, D. D., “An Assessment of Distribution System Power Quality,” Volume 2: Statistical
Summary Report. EPRI Report TR-106294-V2, Palo Alto, California, May 1996.
[B30] Sabin, D. D., Brooks, D. L., Sundaram, A., “Indices for Assessing Harmonic Distortion from Power
Quality Measurements: Definitions and Benchmark Data,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 14,
no. 2, April 1999, pp. 489-496.
[B31] Sabin, D. D., Smith, J., “Static Switch Primer,” EPRI Report TR-111697, Palo Alto, California,
December 1998.
[B32] Sao, R. C. K., Lehn, P. W., Iravani, M. R., Martinez, J. A., “A Benchmark System for Digital Time-
Domain Simulation of a Pulse-Width-Modulated D-STATCOM,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
vol.17, no.4, Oct. 2002, pp.1113-1120.
[B33] Thallam, Eckroad, S., “Multimode Battery Energy Storage System for Custom Power Applications,”
Proceedings of IEEE PES Winter 1999 Meeting, New York, New York, pp. 1147-1150.
78
IEEE Std 1409-2012
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[B34] Volkommer, H., “DSTATCOM Stamps Out Voltage Flicker,” Transmission and Distribution World,
December 1998.
[B35] Volkommer, H., Carmichael, L., Peel, M., “Premium Power Park Project—Progress Report,”
Proceedings of the EPRI PQA 2001 Conference, May 2001, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
[B36] Welch, G. V., “Medium Voltage High Speed Static Transfer Switching System,” presented at the
panel session “Application of Static Transfer Switches for Enhanced Power Quality,” IEEE/PES Winter
Power Meeting, Tampa, Florida, February 2, 1998.
[B37] Woodley, N. H., Morgan, R. L., and Sundaram, A., “Experience with an Inverter-Based Dynamic
Voltage Restorer,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 14, no. 3, July 1999, pp. 1181-1185.
[B38] Wyatt, C., Mattern, K., Fitchett, D., Volkommer, H., and Carmichael, L., “A Premium Power Park—
Meeting the Needs of Customers and the Utility,” Proceedings of the EPRI PQA 2003 Conference,
Monterey, California, June 2-4, 2003.
79

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IEEE Guide for Application of Power

Electronics for Power Quality

IEEE Power & Energy Society

IEEE Guide for Application of Power

Transmission and Distribution Committee

Approved 29 March 2012

IEEE-SA Standards Board

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright © 2012 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 978-0-7381-7152-4 STD97231

Comments on standards should be submitted to the following address:

Secretary, IEEE-SA Standards Board

Laws and regulations

Updating of IEEE documents

David Mueller, Chair

Richard Bingham David Kreiss Greg Rauch

William J. Ackerman Andy Dettloff Eric Gunther

Richard H. Hulett, Chair

Satish Aggarwal Alexander Gelman Oleg Logvinov

Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative

4. General needs ............................................................................................................................................. 7

5. Configurations and performance objectives ............................................................................................. 19

6. Application considerations ....................................................................................................................... 35

8. Case studies .............................................................................................................................................. 54

Annex A (informative) Bibliography .......................................................................................................... 77

BSES: See: backup stored energy system.

dip: See: sag.

DVR: See: dynamic voltage restorer.

NOTE—Flicker is defined by IEC 60050-161 [B12]. 5, 6

GTO: See: gate turn-off thyristor.

IGBT: See: insulated gate bipolar transistor.

IGCT: See: integrated gate commutated thyristor.

LES: See: line energy supply.

MCT: See: MOS controlled thyristor.

MTS: See: mechanical transfer switch.

NOTE—Voltage notching characteristics are defined in IEEE Std 519-1992.

phase shift: See: phase jump.

NOTE—Power quality is defined in IEEE Std 1100TM-2005 [B16].

premium power park: See: custom power park.

NOTE—Sag is defined in IEEE Std 1159-2009.

SCR: See: semiconductor controlled rectifier.

SES: See: stored energy system.

SSB: See: static circuit breaker.

static series compensator: See: dynamic voltage restorer.

static series/shunt compensator: A power-electronics controller designed to provide voltage

STS: See: static transfer switch.

SVC: See: static var compensator.

SVR: See: static voltage regulator.

NOTE—Swell is described further in IEEE Std 1159-2009.

TCR: See: thyristor-controlled reactor.

thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR): A reactor whose susceptance is controlled by continuously varying

NOTE—Transfer switch is defined in IEEE Std C37.100-1992 [B20].

NOTE—Transient is defined in IEC 60050-161 [B12].

TS: See: transfer switch.

TSC: See: thyristor switched capacitor.

NOTE—Voltage distortion is also defined in IEEE Std 1100-2005 [B16].

NOTE—Voltage fluctuation is also defined in IEC 61000-2-1 [B13].

4.1 Definition of custom power

4.2 Description of power quality phenomena