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 FOUNDATIONS
OF
MATHEMATICS
Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Calculus

Philip Brown
Texas A&M University at Galveston


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My mother, Ria Brown, who passed away on February 3, 2014, was

the source of much of the inspiration for this book. Indeed, there are
many exercises and examples included in this book that she collected
over a period of forty years as a high school mathematics teacher in
South Africa. Her greatest passion was for Euclidean Geometry. Some
of her insights and approach to teaching geometry are included in
Chapter 9 of this book. This book is dedicated to her, in loving
memory.
 CONTENTS
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments

1 The Laws of Algebra

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Numbers
1.3 Fractions and Inequalities
1.4 Notation for Sets
1.5 Intervals of the Real Line and Set Intersections
1.6 Absolute Value of a Real Number
1.7 Algebraic Operations
1.7.1 Addition and Subtraction
1.7.2 Multiplication
1.7.3 Division
1.7.4 Recurring Decimals and Irrational Numbers
1.8 An Algebraic System on the Set of Real Numbers
1.8.1 Foil
1.9 Natural Numbers as Exponents
1.10 Order of Operations
1.11 Laws of Division
1.12 Decimal Notation
1.12.1 Decimal Representation of Fractions
1.12.2 Scientific Notation and Precision
1.12.3 Decimal Representation of Irrational Numbers
 1.12.4 Conversion of Decimals into Fractions
1.12.5 Rounding Off Decimals
1.13 Divisibility of Natural Numbers
1.13.1 Prime Decomposition of a Natural Number
1.13.2 Finding the Prime Factors of a Natural Number
1.13.3 Testing for Divisibility by Small Prime Numbers
1.13.4 Adding Fractions Using Their Lowest Common Denominator
1.14 Laws for Exponents
1.15 Radicals
Exercises

2 The Cartesian Plane

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Working in a Coordinate System
2.3 Linear Equations and Straight Lines
2.3.1 The Graph of a Linear Equation
2.3.2 The Linear Equation of a Line
2.3.3 Linear Relationships in Statistical Analysis
2.3.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
2.3.5 The Distance between Points on a Line
2.3.6 The Equation of a Perpendicular Bisector
2.4 Circles in the Cartesian Plane
2.5 Conic Sections in the Cartesian Plane
2.6 Vector Algebra
2.6.1 Addition and Scalar Multiplication of Vectors
2.6.2 Subtraction of Vectors
2.6.3 The Standard Basis Vectors
2.6.4 The Dot Product of Vectors
2.6.5 The Triangle Inequality and the Parallelogram Law
Exercises
3 Solving Equations and Factorizing Polynomials
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Solving Linear Equations
3.3 Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square
3.4 Polynomials
3.4.1 Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials
3.4.2 Multiplication of Polynomials
3.4.3 Polynomials in More Than One Variable
3.4.4 Long Division of Polynomials
3.4.5 The Remainder Theorem and the Factor Theorem
3.5 The Properties of Quadratic Polynomials
3.5.1 The Graphs of Quadratic Polynomials
3.5.2 The Nature of the Roots
3.5.3 Factorizing Quadratic Polynomials
3.5.4 Solving Quadratic Equations by Factorizing
3.6 Complex Numbers as Matrices
3.6.1 The Algebra of 2×2 Matrices
3.6.2 Complex Numbers as 2×2 Matrices
3.7 Roots of Polynomials
3.7.1 Factorization Theorems
3.7.2 A Method For Finding the Integer and Rational Roots of a
Polynomial
3.8 Graphs of Polynomials
3.9 Solving Cubic, Quartic, and Quintic Equations
3.9.1 Solving Cubic Equations
3.9.2 Solving Quartic Equations
3.9.3 Solving Quintic Equations
Exercises

4 Trigonometry
4.1 Introduction
 4.2 Angles in the Cartesian Plane
4.3 Trigonometric Ratios
4.4 Special Angles
4.5 Negative Angles and Periodicity
4.6 Reciprocal Trigonometric Ratios
4.7 Cofunction Identities
4.8 Trigonometric Graphs
4.8.1 Generation of a Sine Curve
4.8.2 Sine and Cosine Graphs
4.8.3 Scaling and Shifting of the Sine and Cosine Graphs
4.8.4 Tangent and Cotangent Graphs
4.8.5 Cosecant and Secant Graphs
4.9 Pythagorean Identities
4.10 Solving Basic Trigonometric Equations
4.11 Addition Identities
4.12 Double-Angle and Half-Angle Identities
4.13 Solving Triangles
4.13.1 Right Triangles
4.13.2 The Area Formula and the Sine Rule
4.13.3 The Cosine Rule
4.14 Vectors and Trigonometry
4.14.1 Components of a Vector
4.14.2 Geometric Interpretation of the Dot Product
4.15 More Identities
Exercises

5 Functions
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Relations and Functions
5.3 Visualizing Functions
5.3.1 Graphs of Equations
 5.3.2 The Vertical Line Test
5.4 The Absolute Value Function
5.5 Exponential Functions
5.5.1 Fractional Exponents
5.5.2 Irrational Exponents
5.5.3 The Graphs of Exponential Functions
5.6 Rational Functions
5.7 Root Functions
5.8 Piecewise Defined Functions
5.9 Symmetry of Functions
5.10 Operations on Functions
5.10.1 The Algebra of Functions
5.10.2 Compositions of Functions
5.11 Transformations of Functions
5.11.1 Vertical and Horizontal Shifts
5.11.2 Vertical and Horizontal Scaling
5.11.3 Reflections Across the Axes
5.12 Vector-Valued Functions
5.12.1 The Vector-Valued Function for a Circle
5.12.2 The Vector-Valued Function for a Line
5.12.3 Exploring Vector-Valued Functions
5.13 Inverse Functions
5.13.1 The Inverse of a Point
5.13.2 Logarithmic Functions
5.13.3 The Inversion of One-to-One Functions
5.13.4 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
5.13.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Exercises

6 Techniques of Algebra
6.1 Introduction
 6.2 The Algebra of Rational Expressions
6.2.1 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions
6.2.2 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions
6.3 Algebra with Rational Exponents
6.4 Solving Equations
6.5 Partial Fractions
6.6 Inequalities
6.6.1 Simplifying Inequalities
6.6.2 Solving Inequalities
6.6.3 Two-Variable Inequalities
Exercises

7 Limits
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Method of Exhaustion
7.3 Sequences
7.4 Limits of a Function
7.5 Continuity
7.5.1 Definition of Continuity at a Point
7.5.2 Discontinuity at a Point
7.5.3 Continuity on an Interval
7.5.4 Continuous Functions
7.5.5 More Continuous Functions
7.6 Computing Limits
7.6.1 Limits in the Domain of a Continuous Function
7.6.2 Limits Involving Piecewise-Defined Functions
7.6.3 Computing Limits by Simplification
7.7 Applications of Continuity
7.7.1 The Intermediate Value Theorem
7.8 Horizontal Asymptotes
7.9 Vertical Asymptotes of Rational Functions
 7.10 The Squeeze Theorem and Rules for Limits
7.10.1 The Squeeze Theorem
7.10.2 The Rules for Limits
Exercises

8 Differential Calculus
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Definition of the Derivative
8.2.1 Graphs Tangential to the x-axis at the Origin
8.2.2 The Tangent Line to a Graph at the Origin
8.2.3 A Formula for the Derivative
8.2.4 Definition of the Derivative (General Case)
8.3 Derivative Functions
8.3.1 The Power Rule for Natural Numbers
8.3.2 Leibniz Notation
8.3.3 The Sum, Product, and Quotient Rules
8.4 Tangent Line Problems
8.5 The Power Rule for Rational Exponents
8.6 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
8.7 Some Basic Applications of Calculus
8.8 The Chain Rule
8.9 The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions
8.10 The Calculus of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
8.10.1 A Formula for e
8.10.2 Derivatives of Exponential Functions
8.10.3 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
8.10.4 The Proof of the Power Rule
8.11 Derivatives of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Exercises
9 Euclidean Geometry
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Euclid’s Elements
9.3 Terminology
9.3.1 Lines, Angles, and Polygons
9.3.2 Circles
9.3.3 Other Important Terms
9.4 Basic Problem Solving in Geometry
9.5 Elementary Theorems Relating to Lines and Polygons
9.5.1 Theorems about Angles
9.5.2 Theorems about Triangles
9.5.3 Parallelograms and Parallel Lines
9.5.4 Concurrency, Proportionality, and Similarity
9.6 Elementary Theorems Relating to Circles
9.6.1 Chords and Subtended Angles
9.6.2 Cyclic Quadrilaterals
9.6.3 Tangent Lines and Secant Lines
9.7 Examples and Applications
Exercises
Chapter Appendix: Geometry Theorems

10 Spherical Trigonometry
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Planes and Spheres
10.2.1 Planes in Space
10.2.2 Spheres
10.2.3 Spherical Triangles
10.3 Vectors in Space
10.3.1 The Cross Product of Two Vectors
10.3.2 Parallelepipeds and Cross Product Identities
10.3.2 The Angle Between Two Planes
 10.4 Solving Spherical Triangles
10.5 Solving Right Spherical Triangles (I)
10.6 Solving Right Spherical Triangles (II)
10.6.1 Rules for Quadrants
10.6.2 Napier’s Rules
Exercises

Appendix A: Answers to Selected Exercises
Index
PREFACE

This book is intended primarily for university students. In particular, this book
can be used as a textbook or an additional reference book by university students
attending a course in algebra, trigonometry, geometry, or calculus. As a calculus
textbook, this book is unique in that it contains all the mathematics (and more)
that students will need to know in order to be successful in a calculus course. For
this reason, the book will be invaluable for students who may need to fill in
some “gaps” in their mathematical background, or review certain topics, while
attending a university level calculus course. (Calculus professors will normally
not have the time to do this!)
Mathematics can be appreciated and enjoyed more when it is presented as a
development of ideas. Hence, there is a strong emphasis in this book on the
unfolding and development of the concepts, and there are comments throughout
the book to help the reader trace the historical development of mathematics. Of
course, students also need to develop their skills. For this reason, there are many
exercises included at the ends of the chapters, and students are encouraged to do
all of them as an essential part of working through the book. The range of topics
in this book, and examples that demonstrate their interplay and
interconnectedness is another unique aspect of the book. This is a rewarding
aspect of learning mathematics, which university students are typically not
exposed to because of the way current-day university courses are organized.
The four chapters that make up the introduction to algebra are Chapters 1
(The Laws of Algebra), 2 (The Cartesian Plane), 3 (Solving Equations and
Factorizing Polynomials), and 6 (Techniques of Algebra). The chapters dealing
with trigonometry are Chapters 4 (Trigonometry) and 10 (Spherical
Trigonometry). They can be read independently (after the first two chapters have
been read, if needed). Chapter 5 (Functions), which is an introduction to
functions, can be regarded as the beginning of calculus because the operations of
calculus are applied to functions. The concepts and methods relating to the
calculation of limits, which underlie the operations of calculus, are introduced in
Chapter 7 (Limits). In Chapter 8 (Differential Calculus), the definition of the
derivative, the rules for computing derivatives, and the formulas for derivatives
of all the standard types of function (i.e., polynomial, rational, trigonometric,
root, absolute value, exponential, and logarithmic functions) are introduced.
Chapter 10 (Euclidean Geometry) presents many of the theorems that are
important in Euclidean Geometry, along with some guides to solving problems
in geometry.
Because many students have difficulties with algebra when they enroll in a
university calculus course, a first semester course in calculus may well consist of
Chapters 5–8. It should also be mentioned that Chapter 6 includes an
introduction to partial fractions, a topic that is usually not taught to students until
they reach their second semester of calculus.
In the following two paragraphs, some comments are made regarding the
presentation of the material in Chapters 7 and 8.
It is usual, in most calculus textbooks, for the rules for limits to be taken as
the starting point for the evaluation of limits. In Chapter 7, the slightly different
approach to evaluating limits is to take as a fact the continuity of all of the
standard functions and any algebraic combinations and compositions of the
standard functions. (This fact can be proved using methods of real analysis,
which is too advanced for this book.) This means that a limit to any point in the
domain of any of these functions can be evaluated simply by making a
substitution into the function (i.e., by an application of the equation of
continuity). The rules for limits are introduced, instead, at the end of the chapter,
where they are used to evaluate certain limits involving trigonometric functions.
In Chapter 8, the derivative of a function is first defined in the special case
that the graph of the function passes through the origin, and the tangent line
(through the origin) is defined in a precise way as the best approximating line to
the graph near the origin. Then, in the general case, the formula for the
derivative at any point in the domain of a function is obtained by means of an
appropriate horizontal and vertical shift of the function. With this approach, it is
possible for students to focus on the special case where the formula for the
derivative is the simplest possible. Furthermore, the concept of a tangent line as
a “best approximating line” is a much more flexible concept than the concept of
the tangent line as a limit of secant lines, as it is sometimes defined.
Consequently, students should be able to identify a tangent line more easily in
certain situations. For example, they shouldn’t have too much difficulty
identifying the x-axis as the tangent line to the basic cubic graph at the origin.
The chain rule is also presented first in the special case (at the origin), where it
can be demonstrated clearly that a tangent line to the graph of a composition of
functions is the composition of the tangent lines to the graphs of the functions.
One of the innovative aspects of this book is the introduction of vectors early
on, in Chapter 2. The concept of a vector is very natural, and vectors have
practical applications; however, the notation and terminology relating to vectors
may be confusing at first. The hope is that a gradual introduction to vectors will
give students more time to become comfortable with vectors. Vectors are
typically introduced for the first time in a course in vector calculus, causing great
alarm to the students!
Another surprise in this book is the inclusion of Spherical Trigonometry
(Chapter 10). Much of the material in this chapter was obtained from the book
“Plane and Spherical Trigonometry,” by K. Nielsen and J. Vanlonkhuyzen, first
published in 1944, which is one of a few texts available on this topic. The
purpose of including a chapter on spherical trigonometry is to give students the
opportunity to acquire a deeper understanding of trigonometry and also to give
students some exposure to non-Euclidean geometry. Chapter 10 also introduces
vectors in three dimensions, including the definition of the cross product of
vectors, which students normally do not see until they take a course in vector
calculus. Spherical trigonometry is interesting from a historical point of view
because many of the formulas relating to spherical trigonometry were discovered
by Arabic and Iranian mathematicians from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries.
A few comments regarding format, notation, and mathematical language are
in order: new terminology is presented for the first time in italics, the most
important definitions are presented as numbered definitions, statements that
make important clarifications are presented as numbered remarks, and examples,
theorems, corollaries, and lemmas are also numbered. A theorem is a general
mathematical statement which is proved on the basis of known mathematical
truths. A corollary is a consequence or a special case of a theorem that is
important enough to be stated separately from the theorem. Lemmas are
statements that can be used as stepping stones toward the proofs of more general
statements (theorems). Throughout this book, the biconditional phrase “if and
only if” is used when two statements are implied by each other.
This book can serve as a textbook, a reference book, or a book that can be
read for fun! Please tell your friends about it, if you like it.
The author should be contacted regarding any errors in the book so that
corrections can be made for future editions. Suggestions for future editions will
also be welcome.

Philip Brown
Galveston, Texas
February 2016
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book could not have been published without a considerable amount of
assistance from certain individuals and institutions. First, I would like to thank
my employers, Texas A&M University, for granting me leave in 2009 to begin
writing this book and I would like to thank Professor Johann Engelbrecht for
arranging that my leave time be spent at the Department of Mathematics at the
University of Pretoria in South Africa. Second, I would like to express a great
deal of appreciation to my editors, Ria Brown, Ronelda Jordaan, Laura
Robichaux and most of all, Ian White, for correcting errors, improving the
writing, and making many helpful suggestions. Third, the enthusiasm and
encouragement of many of my students, in particular, Sean Hennigan, while I
was working on this book made it a much lighter and enjoyable task. Last, I am
grateful to Mercury Learning and Information for the copyediting, formatting,
cover design, production, and marketing of the book.
 CHAPTER 1

THE LAWS OF ALGEBRA

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is an overview of mathematics that schoolchildren typically learn
up to about grade nine. The presentation, however, is more axiomatic and set
theoretic than is taught in schools because this book is intended for students
preparing for a university course in mathematics.
This chapter begins (section 1.2) with a brief discussion of different
historical concepts of number and the relationship of these concepts to
mathematics and philosophy in general. It is convenient to identify the set of real
numbers with the infinite number line (sections 1.3–1.5) because this leads
easily to the notion of negative numbers, the ordering of real numbers, and the
identification of fractions (rational numbers) with fractional distances on the
number line. The disadvantage of this approach is that it does not explain how
the irrational numbers fill in the “gaps” in the number line. A satisfactory
explanation of the existence of irrational numbers requires a formal approach
that involves definitions of sequences of rational numbers, which is more suited
to an advanced study of real numbers that is not within the scope of this chapter.
The decimal number system is introduced in section 1.2 but not much is said
about it, because the ability to understand, read, and write large decimal numbers
is a skill that a reader of this book is expected to have (read aloud the number 3,
678,501).
Absolute value notation is introduced in section 1.6; the basic operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are introduced in section 1.7;
and the properties of real numbers with respect to these operations are explained
in section 1.8. The multiplication principle known to high-school students as
“FOIL” is introduced early in the chapter (section 1.8.1) because of its
importance as a skill that students would best learn at the beginning of this book.
This is followed by the definition of an exponent (section 1.9) and a discussion
of the order of operations (section 1.10).
The relationship of fractional notation to the division operation is explained
in section 1.11. It will be worthwhile to read this section very carefully so that
the proofs are well understood. Anybody who has struggled with math at school
knows that adding fractions can be very confusing! Decimal and scientific
notations and rounding of decimals are reviewed in section 1.12.
Mathematicians have, for thousands of years, been fascinated by the
properties of prime numbers. It is a difficult problem, in general, to determine
whether a large number is a prime number or to find the prime factors of a large
number. This has made it possible for cryptographers to design cryptosystems
for the coding of Internet transactions that banks and other institutions depend
upon every day. We only give the definition of a prime number and the
explanation of the prime decomposition of a natural number in section 1.13,
followed by a paragraph on tests for divisibility of natural numbers by small
prime numbers.
This chapter on algebra ends with the laws for integer exponents (section
1.14) and an explanation of radicals (section 1.15).

1.2 NUMBERS

Numbers are expressed in terms of numerals or symbols. Many kinds of numeral
have existed through the ages. We will be using the Arabic numerals (or digits)
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. These are known as Arabic because they were used
by Arabic mathematicians and merchants for many centuries, before being
introduced to western Europe during the time of the Italian Renaissance.
Originally, these numerals were used (perhaps invented) in India, in particular,
the first known instance of the use of the symbol 0 is an inscription that was
made about fifteen centuries ago on a rock in a cave in northern India.
Here are some useful and interesting ways we can think about numbers,
depending on our objectives.

1. Numbers as points on a number line. Imagine an infinitely long straight line,

as indicated in figure 1.1, with an arbitrary point on the line labeled as “0”
(zero). At some distance to the right of zero, we can label a point “1.” To the
 left of zero, the same distance away, we label a point as “−1.” This is called a
negative number. Continuing in this way we label at equal distances apart, to
the right of zero, the points “2” up to “9,” and, to the left of zero, the
successive values “−2,” “−3” down to “−9.” We normally work in a base 10,
that is, the decimal number system. This means that the successor of “9” on
the number line is labeled as “10.” After that we label points “11,” “12,” and
so on and do the same for negative values.

FIGURE 1.1. The number line.

2. Numbers as quantifiers. At the dawn of our civilization people managed to

keep track of quantities by making scratches on a bone, by tying knots in a
rope, or by keeping sacks of pebbles. For instance, a shepherd who let sheep
out of an encampment in the morning could have placed a pebble in a sack for
each sheep that had left and, in the evening, removed a pebble from the sack
for each sheep that had returned. If any pebbles were left in the sack at the
end of the day, then the shepherd would know that some sheep had not
returned.
3. Numbers as counters. In figure 1.2, we have three urns with a different
number of marbles in each. One can see at a glance that there are three
marbles in the first urn and five marbles in the second urn, but how many
marbles are in the third urn? (Why can we not see at a glance how many
marbles are in this urn?) We have to count the number of marbles in the third
urn!

FIGURE 1.2. Marbles in urns.

4. Numbers as symbols. The Pythagoreans (about 550 BC) believed that the
meaning of all things was related to numbers, and they attached great
significance to certain numbers. For example, the number 7, or heptad, was
regarded as the number of religion, because it was believed that seven spirits,
or archangels, were controlling the planets, to whom mankind had to make
offerings.
5. Numbers as entities. Philosophers after Pythagoras thought about numbers
more abstractly. For instance, Socrates and his followers, including Plato,
believed in a realm of perfect forms or entities. In this realm, every number
may be considered as its own entity. For example, try to imagine the number
“7” as an entity that exists by itself (see figure 1.3).

FIGURE 1.3. Number seven.

6. Numbers as elements of sets. This is a modern view of numbers. In this book,

we will define different kinds of sets of numbers, for example, the set of
natural, whole, rational, real, irrational numbers and integers.
7. Numbers as elements of an algebraic system. For the purposes of doing
algebra, we will regard numbers as the targets of operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.

1.3 FRACTIONS AND INEQUALITIES

There were gaps between the points labeled on the number line in figure 1.1
above. How do we label the points in these gaps? It is not possible to label all the
points, but we can label some fractional distances as shown in figure 1.4, which
demonstrates fractional distances of one-half, one-third, one-quarter, one-fifth,
and multiples of these fractions inside the interval from zero to one. Note that
is to the left of (or that is to the right of ). This can be indicated using the
inequality symbol “<,” by writing < , meaning one-third is less than two-
fifths. Alternatively, we can write meaning two-fifths is greater than one-
third.

FIGURE 1.4. Fractions on the number line.

1.4 NOTATION FOR SETS

Table 1.1 gives a complete description of the sets of numbers mentioned above.
All of these sets are infinite sets, so we represent missing elements using an
ellipsis (three dots). The natural numbers (ℕ) are also known as counting
numbers. The set of whole numbers (ℕ0) is the set of natural numbers including
zero. The set of integers (ℤ) is the extension of the set of natural numbers that
includes the corresponding negative values and zero. The set of rational numbers
(ℚ), which includes the set of integers, is the set of all possible fractions. All
points on the number line that cannot be expressed as fractions (there is an
infinite number of these) are called irrational numbers. We include all of these
numbers with the set of rational numbers to form the set of real numbers (ℝ).
This is an uncountable set, so we do not give a partial listing of the elements in
the table.
The symbol “∪” is used to form the union of two given sets, that is, the
smallest set that contains both of the given sets.
An example of an irrational number is the ratio of the circumference of any
circle to the length of its diameter. This number is represented by the Greek
symbol π.
TABLE 1.1. Sets of numbers
1.5 INTERVALS OF THE REAL LINE AND SET
INTERSECTIONS

An interval is a segment of the real line. Possible notations for an interval are:

[a, b], the set of all real numbers between a and b including a and b.
(a, b), the set of all real numbers between a and b but not including a and b.
[a, b), the set of all real numbers between a and b including a, but not
including b.
(a, b], the set of all real numbers between a and b including b, but not
including a.
(−∞, b], the set of all real numbers to the left of b and including b.
[−∞, b), the set of all real numbers to the left of b but not including b.
[a, ∞) the set of all real numbers to the right of a and including a.
(a, ∞), the set of all real numbers to the right of a but not including a.

The symbol “∞” that has been used above is the symbol that mathematicians use
for infinity. The meaning of infinity varies with the context. Here, −∞ means
there is no lower bound to the left of the point b on the number line, and ∞
means there is no upper bound to the right of the point a on the number line.
The symbol “∩” is used to form the intersection of two given sets, that is, the
largest set that both of the given sets contain. For example, if a < c < b < d, then
[a, b) ∩ [c, d] is the interval [c, b) because the interval [a, b) includes all
numbers between c and b (including c but not including b) and [c, d) also
includes all numbers between c and b (including c). If a < c < d < b, then [a, b)
∩ [c, d] = [c, d]. Another possibility is a < b < c < d, then [a, b) ∩ [c, d] is an
empty set. The symbol for this is ∅, so we would write [a, b) ∩ [c, d] = ∅.
1.6 ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A REAL NUMBER

If a is a real number (i.e., a point on the number line), then the distance on the
number line between zero and the number is denoted by |a|. For example, |3| = 3
and |−3| = 3. In general, if x is any real number, then:

|x| = max{x, − x}.

meaning that we take the maximum of x and its negative because one of these
numbers will be nonnegative. For example, because the value of π is a little more
than 3,

|3 − π| = max{3 − π, π − 3} = π − 3.

If a and b are two different points on the number line, then the distance
between them is |a − b| because it is same as the distance between a − b and
zero.

1.7 ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS

A binary operation is a calculation involving two elements of a set that produces
another element of the set. The familiar binary operations in algebra are addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. In the following paragraphs, we explain
briefly how these operations are applied to natural numbers, integers, and
rational numbers expressed as fractions or decimals. There is a comment at the
end of this section regarding the addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division of irrational numbers. We will be jumping the gun a little because we
will be using terminology and properties introduced later in this chapter but
which should already be familiar from mathematics taught in schools.

1.7.1 Addition and Subtraction

Interpreted on the number line, addition can be described as moving to the
right from a given number by the length equivalent to the number being added
(“2 + 3 = 5” means moving three units to the right from 2, for example) and
subtraction as moving to the left from a given number by the length equivalent to
the number being subtracted (“2 – 3 = −1” means moving three units to the left
from 2, for example). What’s more, we can think of subtraction as the “undoing”
of addition (2 + 3 – 3 = 2, for example). It follows from this and properties (III)
and (IV) from table 1.3 in section 1.8 (try to verify this!) that subtracting a
number is the same as adding a number with the opposite sign, for example, 2 –
3 = 2 – 3 + 3 + (–3) = 2 + (–3).
The addition (or subtraction) of two rational numbers as fractions is property
(6) in section 1.11. If two positive rational numbers can be expressed as
decimals without recurring digits, that is, if they have finite decimal expansions
(see section 1.12), then in practice they can be added by the familiar method of
stacking the numbers above one another by matching the decimal positions of
their digits and then adding the digits in each column (starting from the right and
moving to the left). If the sum of digits in a column is larger than nine, then the
unit in the 10’s position is carried to the next column. Similarly, if two positive
rational numbers can be expressed as decimals without recurring digits, then the
smaller of the two numbers can be subtracted from the larger by stacking it
below the larger and then subtracting the lower digit from the upper digit in each
column (starting from the right and moving to the left). If the lower digit is
larger than the upper digit in any column, then a unit in the 10’s position can be
taken from the next column and added to the upper digit so that the lower digit
can be subtracted. (We omit examples, because these techniques are drilled in
schools.)

1.7.2 Multiplication
Multiplication of natural numbers is repeated addition. Many symbols are
used for multiplication, for example, we can write 2 · 3 = 6, 2 × 3 = 6, or (2) (3)
= 6. We get the answer 6 by calculating either 2 + 2 + 2 = 6 or 3 + 3 = 6. When
two numbers, or several numbers, are multiplied together, each number is called
a factor. It is helpful to memorize the factors of some numbers (multiplication
tables!). Table 1.2, for example, contains the products of some pairs of small
prime numbers. Prime numbers are natural numbers that have no factors smaller
than themselves, other than 1. (There is more information about prime numbers
in section 1.13.)
TABLE 1.2. Pairwise products of small prime numbers
 It is also true that (−1) · a = −a for any real number a (exercise 1.7 at the end
of this chapter). This fact along with properties (IV) and (XI) from table 1.3 in
section 1.8 can be used to prove that the sum of two negative numbers is the
negative of the sum of the corresponding positive numbers, for example,

−2 − 3 = (−1)2 + (−1)3 = (−1)(2 + 3) = −(2 + 3).

The multiplication of rational numbers as fractions is property (7) in section
1.11. If two rational numbers can be expressed as decimals without recurring
digits, then they can be multiplied by ignoring their decimals points, that is, by
multiplying them as integers and then moving the decimal point to the left
(starting to the right of the last digit) by the number of decimal positions equal to
the sum of the decimal positions in each of the factors. This might be easier to
understand by means of an example: the product of the rational numbers 2.5 and
1.32 is 3.8 because the product of 25 and 132 is 3,800 and the decimal point is
moved (starting to the right of the last digit) three decimal positions to the left
resulting in 3.800. (We do not need to write the final two zeros to the right of the
decimal point.)

1.7.3 Division
Division can be described as “un-multiplication” because it reverses what
multiplication does. Again, there are different ways to write division; usually,
the symbols “÷” or “” are used. For example, we write “28 ÷ 7 = 4” or “287 =
4,” because 4 × 7/7 = 4. We can express a division operation a/b as a fraction
(where a is called the numerator or dividend and b is called the denominator or
divisor). If a and b are two integers, then, in general, the division of a by b can
be carried out by the method of long division, resulting in a rational number
expressed as a decimal (which might have recurring digits). This can be a
lengthy process with many divisions. (School children typically spend a year
learning to do it.) If an integer a is divisible by an integer b (this is explained in
section 1.13), then the division of a by b (by the method of long division) results
in an integer.
The division of two rational numbers expressed as fractions is property (8) in
section 1.11. If two rational numbers can be expressed as decimals without
recurring digits, then, as with multiplication, they can be divided by ignoring
their decimals points, that is, by dividing them as integers (using the method of
long division) and then moving the decimal point to the left by the number of
decimal positions equal to the number of decimal positions in the dividend
minus the number of decimal positions in the divisor. For example, 2.17 divided
by 1.5 is 1.44 because 217 divided by 15 is 14.4 , and the decimal point is
moved one decimal position to the left. (The dot above the 6 means it is
recurring. This is explained in section 1.12.1.)

1.7.4 Recurring Decimals and Irrational Numbers

Rational numbers with recurring decimal digits and irrational numbers,
which have infinitely many nonrecurring decimal digits (see section 1.12.3), can
be added (or subtracted) and multiplied (or divided) as decimal numbers after
truncating or rounding their decimal expansions (see section 1.12.5) according to
the degree of accuracy required. (We omit the details of this. Calculators do it
automatically!)

1.8 AN ALGEBRAIC SYSTEM ON THE SET OF REAL

NUMBERS

We list in table 1.3, the fundamental properties of the binary operations
mentioned in section 1.7 applied to elements of the set of real numbers R, thus
defining an algebraic system on the set of real numbers. These are fundamental
properties because all other properties of the algebraic system can be deduced
from them. We also introduce the concept of a variable. Because we are listing
properties of operations applied to any real numbers, we represent these numbers
in the table using letters (variables) a, b and c. Wherever operations occur in
parentheses, they are to be performed first. We use the terms commutative and
associative to mean “interchangeable” in a precise mathematical sense, as
indicated in the third column of the table.
 TABLE 1.3. The algebra of real numbers

The reason we make a list of these seemingly obvious statements is that

mathematicians know about algebraic systems where all of these properties do
not hold. We will also refer to these properties in order to logically prove new
properties. For instance, most of us have probably been taught that “a negative
times a negative is a positive,” but why should this be true? In particular, why
should it be true that (−1)(−1) = 1? Below is a short proof in the form of a
sequence of equations. Each equation is true according to the property from table
1.3 stated next to the equation.

So we have proved logically that (−1)(−1) + (−1) = 0. This statement says

that “(−1)(−1)” is an additive inverse for “−1.” It now follows from property
(IV) that (−1)(−1) = 1. As an application, we have the following example.

EXAMPLE 1.8.1. One number can be subtracted from another by reversing the
subtraction and taking the negative of the result, for example,

2 − 3 = (−1)(−1)2 + (−1)3 = (−1)(−2) + (−1)3 = (−1)(−2 + 3) = −(3 − 2).

1.8.1 Foil
The distributive properties (X) and (XI) in section 1.8 can be generalized to a
more general multiplicative property known as FOIL, which can be expressed as

(p + q)(r + s) = p · r + p · s + q · r + q · s.

This is a formula for multiplication of a pair of binomial factors. (Any

expression that is a sum of two terms is called a binomial.) FOIL is an acronym
for “First, Outer, Inner, Last,” where “First” means that the first terms of each
binomial factor should be multiplied together, “Outer” means that the product of
the two outer terms should be added to this, and so on. The sequence of
equations below is a proof of FOIL. (When it is understood that an operation on
variables is multiplication, the multiplication operator may be omitted.)
PROOF OF FOIL.

EXAMPLE 1.8.2. If p, q, r, and s are replaced with x, −4, y, and 3, respectively, in

the formula for FOIL, then we get (x − 4)(y + 3) = xy + 3x − 4y − 12.

1.9 NATURAL NUMBERS AS EXPONENTS

Repeated multiplication by a number is usually expressed by means of a natural
number as a superscript, called an exponent or a power, above and to the right of
the number. For example, 25 = 32 (2 to the power 5 equals 32) is an abbreviation
for 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 = 32. There are more examples in table 1.4. It is worthwhile to
memorize them.
TABLE 1.4. Powers of two and three
 A power of two is very often called a square because the area of a geometric
square is the product of the side length (of the square) with itself. For the same
reason, a power of three is called a cube because the volume of a geometric cube
is the side length times itself, times itself again.

EXAMPLE 1.9.1. A special case of FOIL results in a difference of two squares:

(a − b)(a + b) = a2 + ab − ab − b2 = a2 − b2.

A natural number is called a perfect square if it can be expressed as the

square of a smaller natural number (or the square of the same number in the case
of the number 1). Some natural numbers that are perfect squares are 1, 4, 9, 16,
25, 36, 49, 64, and 81 because they are the squares of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9,
respectively.

EXAMPLE 1.9.2. The memorization of some perfect squares can be an aid to

performing mental calculations; for example, the calculation 24 × 34 can be
done mentally as follows:

24 × 34 = (29 − 5) × (29 + 5) = 292 − 52 = 841−25 = 816.

1.10 ORDER OF OPERATIONS

In order to evaluate a sequence of operations like

there is a convention for deciding which operations to perform first. We use a

mnemonic device called PEMDAS, an acronym in which each letter has a
specific meaning:
 P = parentheses,
E = exponents,
M = multiplication,
D = division,
A = addition,
S = subtraction.
This means that, in a sequence of operations such as in formula (1.1), all
calculations inside parentheses take precedence. Thereafter, any exponent is
computed. Thus formula (1.1) reduces to

We continue by doing all multiplication and division operations. These are

interchangeable, however, a number should never be separated from the division
symbol preceding it. For example, 18 2 3 is equivalent to 18 3 2 = 3 but not
equivalent to 18/(2 / 3) = 27 (see section 1.11 below). So formula (1.2) now
evaluates to

3 · 2 · 5 − 13 + 17 = 30 − 13 + 17 = 34.
The addition and subtraction operations are performed last (in any order).
We can use PEMDAS to verify the next example.

EXAMPLE 1.10.1. 22−22 ·(638/19 ·(69/23 − 4)) = 166.

The interchangeability of multiplication and division is a useful tool when

doing mental arithmetic.

EXAMPLE 1.10.2. The calculation 17 · 12 · 25 is more easily done by rewriting it

as (17 · 3) · (4 · 25) = 51·100 = 5, 100.

1.11 LAWS OF DIVISION

The properties (1) to (9) listed below include formulas for adding fractions. A
careful proof is given for each statement. In these proofs, we employ the basic
algebraic principle that equality in an equation is preserved if the same algebraic
operation is applied to each side of the equation. By convention, expressions
such as are expressed without the parentheses as and
respectively.

(1)

PROOF. can also be expressed as a / b = c. If both sides are multiplied

by b, then a / b · b = c · b and so a = b · c.

(2)

PROOF.

(3)

PROOF. Let then

(4)

PROOF.
(5)

PROOF.

(6)

PROOF.

(7)

PROOF.

(8)

PROOF. Let

(9)

PROOF.
EXAMPLE 1.11.1.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

Note that the second and third steps of (vi) above could have been omitted
because the fourth step could have been obtained immediately using property
(6). above. However, we encourage the writing of these steps because it’s more
important to produce the correct answer than to save a little bit of time by not
writing them!

1.12 DECIMAL NOTATION

1.12.1 Decimal Representation of Fractions
The decimal expressions for are 0.1, 0.01, and 0.001,
respectively. The “.” in each of these expressions is called a decimal point. In
more generality, fractions such as and can be expressed in decimal
form as 0.3, 0.11, and 0.799, respectively. Note that can be expanded in the
form
 In other words, a decimal expression or expansion is an abbreviation for a
sum of fractions of increasing powers of 10. We frequently refer to a number
expressed in decimal form as a “decimal,” for convenience.
We can write a decimal equivalent for by writing it as
Converting into decimal form is more difficult. We begin by finding decimal
numbers that approximate . For instance,

which is very close to We can get decimal values even closer to by

increasing the number of repetitions of the digit 3, for example 0.3333 or
0.33333, and so on. In fact, any approximation of this type can be improved by
writing even more 3’s. We indicate this phenomenon by writing the decimal
equivalent for as where the dot above the 3 means that the digit 3 is
recurring.
The decimal expansions for and are finite because 4 × 25 = 100 and 5 ×
20 = 100, that is, The decimal expansion for This
means that only the 6 is recurring, that is, (the three dots at the end
are another way to indicate infinite repetition).
Some fractions have a recurring finite sequence of digits. In this case, we
draw a horizontal line over the recurring digits, as we see in table 1.5 for decimal
expansions of one-seventh, two-sevenths, up to six-sevenths.
TABLE 1.5. Sevenths as decimals
 Any fraction (such as the fractions of 7 in table 1.5) can be converted into
decimal form by the method of long division.
We can also express a number as an integer plus a fractional part. For
example, we can say “two and two-thirds” or write to mean This can
also be expressed as the decimal
An improper fraction (as opposed to a proper fraction) is a fraction with a
larger numerator than denominator. Any such fraction can easily be converted to
an integer part plus a proper fractional part, which can be expressed as a
decimal.

EXAMPLE 1.12.1.

(Check this on a computer!)

1.12.2 Scientific Notation and Precision

 We might prefer to express very big and very small numbers using a
variation of decimal notation called scientific notation. Here are some examples:

513 = 5.13 × 102, 93,000,000 = 9.3 × 107, and 0.00043 = 4.3 × 10−4.
Note that one digit is placed before the decimal point, the remaining digits
after the point, and then the actual position of the decimal point is indicated by
multiplication by a power of 10 equal to the number of digits the point should
move to the right if the power is positive or the number of digits the point should
move to the left (with zeros filling in after the decimal point) if the power is
negative.
It is the case in experimental science that measurements are made with
limited precision. The number of decimal digits recorded for a measurement
should be an indication of the precision obtained in the measurement.

EXAMPLE 1.12.2. If the measurement of the speed of light in a vacuum (usually

represented using the letter c) is recorded in a certain laboratory as c = 2.998 ×
108 m/s and, in another laboratory, c = 2.997925 × 108 m/s, then we know that
the scientists in the second laboratory are much more confident of the precision
of their measurement than the scientists in the first laboratory. For most of us, it
would suffice to know that the speed of light in a vacuum is approximately
3×108 m/s. An approximation of any number can be indicated using the symbol
“≈” (a wavy equal sign). Hence, we can write c ≈ 3 × 108 (300 million) m/s.

EXAMPLE 1.12.3. Scientists frequently need to measure very large and very small
quantities, and these quantities would most conveniently be expressed in
scientific notation. A very large number used by chemists is Avogadro’s
number, which equals 6.02×1023. This is the number of atoms contained in a
mole of a substance. For example, if some kind of measurement informs us that
one mole of hydrogen gas has a mass of 1.01 g, then we can determine the mass
of one hydrogen atom by dividing 1.01 by Avogadro’s number, that is,

1.12.3 Decimal Representation of Irrational Numbers

 We explained in section 1.12.1 how to convert a fraction to a decimal. Real
numbers that are not fractions or integers (that is, irrational numbers) cannot be
expressed with a finite number of decimal digits, nor with a recurring pattern of
decimal digits. The reason for this is that the decimal digits of any irrational
number are infinite and unpredictable! Any finite decimal expression for the
number π, for instance, is an approximation. Here are thirty digits:

π ≈ 3.14159265358979323846264338327.
It might seem like a fuss to work out so many digits, but mathematicians
have taken this very seriously for thousands of years, because the number of
digits that can be computed is an indication of the state of the art of mathematics.
The Egyptians of the Old Kingdom knew the approximation and the Greek
Mathematician Archimedes (287–212 BC) proved that π was between and
Currently, more than a trillion (1012) decimal digits for π are known.
Another irrational number of particular interest is Euler’s number e (after the
Swiss Mathematician Leonhard Euler who lived during the eighteenth century).
The first 30 digits of e are shown below. An ordinary pocket calculator would
typically show nine decimal digits leading one to suspect that there is a recurring
pattern (which is not the case!).

e ≈ 2.71828182845904523536028771828.

1.12.4 Conversion of Decimals into Fractions

There is a precise technique for converting a decimal with recurring digits
(or a finite number of digits) into a fraction. The idea is to represent the decimal
as an unknown value x, then to multiply x by a power of 10 until the repeating
digits start immediately after the decimal point, thereby creating a new number
that can be represented as another unknown value, y. Then, y can be multiplied
by another power of 10 so that exactly one repetition of the recurring string of
digits occurs before the decimal point. If y is subtracted from this new number,
an integer value remains. It is then possible to obtain x as a fraction. Here is an
example:

EXAMPLE 1.12.4.
EXAMPLE 1.12.5. It is useful to know a fraction that is a good approximation for
e. We can approximate e by the slightly smaller recurring decimal value
2.71828, which agrees with the decimal value for e up to the ninth decimal
position. Using the method above, we can determine that this recurring decimal
is an expression of the fraction This fraction cannot be simplified;
however, the fraction is a tiny bit smaller, and its numerator and
denominator have a common factor of 90, which means it can be simplified to
The decimal expression of is 2.71827 (check this on a computer),
which matches the decimal expression for e up to the fifth decimal digit. In
summary, we have

From this, it is clear that the difference 2.718282 − 2.718271 = 0.000011 is

bigger than the difference between e and We write this formally as

The number 0.000011 = 1.1 × 10−5 can be called the error of the
approximation

1.12.5 Rounding Off Decimals

 Whenever we give an approximate value of a number by selecting a finite
number of digits from a possibly infinite (decimal) representation, we use a
method called rounding off. Suppose, we decide for some purpose that six
decimal digits of a particular decimal number would be an accurate enough
approximation. We then look at the seventh decimal digit. If this digit is 5 or
bigger, we round up by increasing the sixth decimal digit by one unit. If the
seventh digit is a 4 or less, we round down by leaving the sixth digit unchanged.
The only exception is when the sixth digit is followed by 49. In this case, we
regard the seventh digit as a 5 and round up. If the digit we need to round up is a
9, then we round up the digit before the 9 and replace the 9 with a 0. This can be
done repeatedly and we keep the 0’s to indicate the accuracy of rounding. The
number of accurate digits is called the number of significant digits. The counting
of significant digits begins from the first nonzero digit from the left and can
include digits before the decimal point. If there is no decimal point, then the final
significant digit is underlined.

EXAMPLE 1.12.6.
(i)π rounded to seven significant digits: π ≈ 3.141593
(ii)π rounded to nine significant digits: π ≈ 3.14159265
(iii)1,095,487 rounded to four significant digits: 1,095,487 ≈ 1,095,000
(iv) 1,095,487 rounded to three significant digits: 1,095,487 ≈ 1,100,000
(v) rounded to three significant digits:

(vi) rounded to three significant digits:

(vii) 76.34999981 rounded to seven significant digits: 76.35000

(viii) 0.44 rounded to one significant digit: 0.5

1.13 DIVISIBILITY OF NATURAL NUMBERS

1.13.1 Prime Decomposition of a Natural Number
You might have wondered why the fraction in example 1.12.5 could
not be simplified. This is a question concerning the divisibility of natural
numbers. If a natural number can be expressed as a product of two other natural
numbers (called factors), then we say that the number is divisible by each of
these factors. Any or all of these factors could in turn be divisible by smaller
factors, and then the original number is also divisible by these smaller factors.
For example, the natural number 506 is equal to 2×253. This means that 506 is
divisible by the natural numbers 2 and 253. The diligent student who has
memorized the products in table 1.2 will know that 253 = 11×23. This means
that 506 is also divisible by 11 and 23. In fact, we can form the product 506 =
2×11×23. A number which is only divisible by itself and one is called a prime
number. Every natural number can be expressed as a product of prime numbers
(called prime factors) after fully testing divisibility of the number, and this
product is called the prime decomposition of the number. A prime number is its
own prime decomposition.

EXAMPLE 1.13.1. Here are the prime decompositions of some numbers:

(i) 506 = 2×11×23
(ii) 612 = 2×2×3×3×17 = 22×32×17
(iii) 1,111 = 11×101
(iv) 3,020 = 22×5×151
(v) 271,801 = 47×5,783
(vi) 99,990 = 90×1,111 = 2×32×5×11×101
(vii) 271,800 = 90×3,020 = 23×32×52×151
(viii) 31 = 31 (because 31 is a prime number)

The number of times a factor appears in the prime decomposition of a

number is called the multiplicity of the factor.

EXAMPLE 1.13.2. The prime factors of 612 (in (ii) above) are 2, 3, and 17, where
the factor 2 occurs with multiplicity 2, 3 occurs with multiplicity 3, and 17
occurs with multiplicity 1, and of 3,020 (in (iv) above) are 2, 5, and 151 and
their multiplicities are 2, 1, and 1, respectively. Furthermore, we observe that the
prime decompositions of 271,801 and 99,990 have no prime factors in common.
This is the reason the fraction cannot be simplified. (The fraction also
cannot be simplified.)
1.13.2 Finding the Prime Factors of a Natural Number
It is, in general, not an easy task to find the prime factors of large (nonprime)
numbers when all the prime factors are also large numbers. The straightforward
but laborious method to find a prime factor for a given large number n is to test
every prime number p with the property p2 < n for divisibility.

EXAMPLE 1.13.3. To find the prime factors of 271,801, we generate the following
list of prime numbers that satisfy the property stated above: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17,
19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 91, 97, 101, 103,
107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151, 157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191,
193, 197, 199, 211, 223, 227, 229, 233, 239, 241, 251, 257, 263, 269, 271, 277,
281, 283, 293, 307, 311, 313, 317, 331, 337, 347, 349, 353, 359, 367, 373, 379,
383, 389, 397, 401, 409, 419, 421, 431, 433, 439, 443, 449, 457, 461, 463, 467,
479, 487, 491, 499, 503, 509, and 521. (These are the first 99 prime numbers.)
Starting from 2, 15 prime numbers have to be checked (using a calculator)
before the prime factor 47 is found (a calculator will then yield 271,801/47 =
5,783). Next, we can verify that 5,783 is a prime number. Because 732 = 5,328
and 792 = 6,421, this involves checking that 5,783 is not divisible by any prime
number up to 73. Consequently, the prime decomposition of 271,801 is 27801 =
47×5,783.

1.13.3 Testing for Divisibility by Small Prime Numbers

There are some quick methods for testing a number for divisibility by small
prime numbers. Here are some examples:
• A number is divisible by 3, if its digits add up to a multiple of 3 (e.g., 8,175
is divisible by 3 because 8 + 1 + 7 + 5 = 21).
• A number is divisible by 5, if its last digit is 5 or 0.
• A test for divisibility by 7 is to subtract two times the last digit from the
remaining digits. If the result is divisible by 7, then the original number is
also divisible by 7. For example, 1,001 is divisible by 7 because 100 − 2 =
98 and 98 = 7×14.
 • To test a number for divisibility by 11, we can add every other digit starting
from the first digit to obtain one total, add the remaining digits to obtain a
second total, and then subtract the second total from the first. If the result is
divisible by 11, then the original number is also divisible by 11. (We
consider 0 to be divisible by all natural numbers.) For example, 6,773,294
is divisible by 11 because (6 + 7 + 2 + 4) − (7 + 3 + 9) = 19 − 19 = 0.
• Divisibility by 13 can be tested by adding four times the last digit to the
remaining digits and testing the resulting number again for divisibility by
13.
• Divisibility by 17 can be tested by subtracting five times the last digit from
the remaining digits and testing the resulting number again for divisibility
by 17.
• Divisibility by 19 can be tested by adding two times the last digit to the
remaining digits and testing the resulting number again for divisibility by
19.

1.13.4 Adding Fractions Using Their Lowest Common

Denominator
Property (6) of the laws of division in section 1.11 is a formula for adding
any pair of fractions. However, if the prime decompositions of the denominators
of two fractions are known, then the fractions can be added more easily by
finding the lowest common denominator (LCD) of the fractions. This is the
smallest number that is divisible by each of the denominators, and it can be
expressed as a product of all the prime numbers occurring in each of the
denominators, with the multiplicity of each prime number being the larger of the
multiplicities that occurs in each denominator.
EXAMPLE 1.13.4. If the denominators of two fractions are 45 = 32×5 and 150 =
2×3×52, respectively, then the LCD is 450 = 2×32×52. Now, if the fractions we
want to add are then we will perform the addition this way:
 That is, we multiply and divide each fraction by the appropriate number so
that its new denominator is equal to the LCD, and then we add the fractions.
Note that 151 is not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 (why?), so the answer cannot be
simplified.

1.14 LAWS FOR EXPONENTS

Exponents were introduced briefly in section 1.9. Table 1.6 is a list of laws
for exponents that can be derived from the multiplicative property of exponents.
(We assume that a and b are nonzero real numbers and that m and n are
integers.)
TABLE 1.6. Laws for exponents

If we set m = 0, then (I) becomes a0 · an = a0+n = an. For this reason, we set
a0 = 1 for any nonzero real number a. The first statement of (V) (with m = 0) can
thus be expressed as This means that a negative exponent is interpreted as
the reciprocal of the corresponding positive exponent.

EXAMPLE 1.14.1.

(i)
 (i)

(ii)

(iii)

1.15 RADICALS

It is unusual in nature for a process to be reversible. As a familiar saying goes,
it’s no use crying over spilled milk (because the milk cannot be un-spilled). In
mathematics, however, it is frequently the case that processes are reversible. In
fact, when mathematicians learn a new process they also strive to learn how to
reverse the process. In doing so, they might invent notation for this purpose. This
has already become a theme of this book: subtraction and division can be
thought of as the reversals of the processes of addition and multiplication,
respectively. The notation we introduce now is called radical notation.
A specific instance of this notation is a root. The most common root is the
square root, with symbol which is the notation for the operation that reverses
the squaring of a number. For example, we write because 42 = 16. In
the same way, we can compute the cube root of a number using the notation
(because 93 = 729). In general, for any natural number n, we use the
notation for the reversal of an nth power. It is always possible to take the nth
root of any real number so long as n is an odd number, for example,
(because (−3)3 = −27); however, if n is any even number, then the nth root of a
negative real number cannot be expressed as another real number. For example,
is not a real number. Furthermore, any even root—in particular the square
root—of a positive number is, by convention, also a positive number. This last
statement has to be considered very carefully because it means, for example, that

The most general statement of this kind is whenever x is a real

number (which means x could be a negative number). An expression such as
where x is a real number and y is any positive real number or zero
(i.e., any nonnegative real number), can be simplified to
 Table 1.7 is a list of laws for radicals. These are variations of the laws for
exponents. We are supposing that m and n are natural numbers.
TABLE 1.7. Laws for radicals

EXAMPLE 1.15.1.

(i)

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

EXERCISES

1.1. On the same number line, label all fractions that are integer multiples of
between 0 and 1. Do this as accurately as you can.

1.2. Order the elements in each of the following sets from smallest to largest.

(a)

(b)
1.3. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.
(a) Every natural number is an integer.
(b) A recurring decimal is an irrational number.
(c) The ratio of the radius to the circumference of the circle is an integer.
(d) There are infinitely many rational numbers.
(e) Every integer is a rational number.
(f) is a rational number.

1.4. Decide whether each of the following numbers is irrational or rational.

(a)

(b)

(c) 0.12345
(d)
(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

1.5. Evaluate each of the following interval intersections. Write your answer as
an interval, a set with one element or an empty set. You can suppose that
a, b, c, d are real numbers and that a < b < c < d.
(a) (a, c] ∩ (b, d]
(b) (a, d) ∩ (b, c)
(c) [a, d) ∩ [b, d)
(d) [a, d) ∩ (a, b)
(e) (a, b] ∩ [b, d)
 (f) (a, c] ∩ (c, d)
1.6. Rewrite each of the following expressions without an absolute value sign.
If possible, evaluate the expression.
(a) |5−3π|
(b) 3− |7 − 11|
(c) |(113−221)−| 113 − 221 ||
(d) π− |3−| π−3 ||
(e) |2− |4+ |2− |4− |2−4|||||
1.7. Use properties (VII), (X), (IV), and (VIII) in section 1.8 to prove that
(−1)·a = −a for any real number a+(−1)a = 1 · a+(−1)a.)
1.8. Compute the following products using FOIL.
(a) (11 − 4)(6 + 13)
(b) (x − 13)(x + 7)
(c) (2x − 1)(6 + x)
(d) (4 − y)(y + 12)
(e) (y − 10)(y + 10)
(f) (x + 3y)(x + 3y)
(g) (7x − 3y)(19x + 5y)
1.9. Evaluate the following exponents.
(a) 212
(b) 64
(c) 53
(d) 252
(e) 65
(f) 113
1.10. Use the PEMDAS rule to simplify each of the following expressions.
Write your answers as a single integer or fraction.
(a) 22−4−3 · (144/2 · 6/3/2)
(b) 1 · 23/4·5 − (6 + 7)
(c) 6/2(1 + 2)
(d) 6(5(4(3(2(1−2)− 3)− 4)− 5)− 6)
(e)
(f) 120 2 · 3 4 · 5 6 7 · 8 / 9
(g)

1.11. Simplify the following fractions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

1.12. Multiply the following fractions, as indicated. Write each answer as a

single, simplified fraction.

(a)
 (b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

1.13. If Curtis cuts his birthday cake into seven slices of equal size and gives
one slice to his sister, Celeste, and Celeste gives two-fifths of her slice to
her puppy, how much of Curtis’ birthday cake does his sister’s puppy
have? Write your answer as a decimal, rounded to five significant digits.
(Hint: multiply the fractions!)
1.14. Add the following fractions, as indicated. Write each answer as a single,
simplified fraction.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)
 (h)

(i)

1.15. If a blue Creepy Crawly can clean a swimming pool in 3 h and a red
Creepy Crawly can clean the same swimming pool in 4 h, how long will it
take both Creepy Crawlies working together, and starting simultaneously,
to clean the swimming pool? (Assume the Creepy Crawlies start at
opposite ends of the pool and do not get entangled with each other!) Leave
your answer as a fractional number of hours. (Hint: How much of the job
can each Creepy Crawly get done in 1 h? What fraction of the job can both
get done in 1 h if they work simultaneously?)
1.16. Write all of the following fractions in decimal form. (A calculator will be
required for some of these.)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)
 (k)

(l)

(m)

(n)

(o)

(p)

(q)

1.17. Try to find a (simplified) fractional approximation for π that has four
digits in the denominator.
1.18. Without using a calculator, rewrite the following numbers using scientific
notation.
(a) 1011.001
(b) −0.000345
(c) 0.100305
(d) 602×1021
(e) 211 + 1
(f) 4.5×10−3·9×10−7
1.19. Write 10 significant digits for each of the following irrational numbers. (A
calculator will be required for all of these.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
 (e) 2π
(f) eπ
1.20. Convert the following decimals into fractions.
(a) 0.
(b) 0.111
(c) 1.111
(d) 6.3044
(e) 2.7183
(f) 3.1416
(g) 0.
1.21. Round off the following decimal expressions to four decimal digits.
(a) 7.667788
(b) 0.001019
(c) 0.79999
(d) 0.78884
(e) 0.7888495
1.22. Determine whether each natural number below is prime or composite (i.e.,
not prime). If the number is composite, work out its prime decomposition.
(a) 523
(b) 527
(c) 529
(d) 531
(e) 533
(f) 537
(g) 123456789
1.23. Which integers have the following property: If the final digit is deleted,
the integer is divisible by the new number?
1.24. Find the prime decompositions of the following natural numbers.
(a) 507
(b) 613
(c) 112
(d) 3,021
(e) 271,802
(f) 99,991
(g) 99,997
1.25. Add the fractions, as indicated, by finding their lowest common
denominator.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

1.26. Simplify the following expressions so that each variable appears only
once, all exponents are positive, no powers of exponents appear and
fractions appear in front of the expression.
(a) (3x3y4)(4xy5)2
 (b) (2a3b3c)4

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

1.27. Evaluate the following expressions using the laws for radicals. Leave your
answer in the simplest radical form.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

1.28. Simplify each expression below by reducing the magnitude of the

exponent inside the radical.
(a)
(b)
(c)
 (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

1.29. How many three-digit perfect squares are there? Which is the smallest and
largest?
1.30. A jug contains three cups of mango juice and another jug contains three
cups of guava juice. In order to make a mixed fruit juice, one cup of
mango juice is taken from the first jug and poured into the second jug.
What is the proportion of mango juice in the second jug? Suppose now
that the juice in the second jug is thoroughly mixed and one cup of this
mixture is removed and poured into the first jug. What is the proportion of
guava juice in the first jug? If this process is repeated so that one cup of
the mixture in the first jug is removed to the second jug, what is the new
proportion of mango juice in the second jug? If one cup of the mixture in
the second jug is now poured into the first jug, what is the new proportion
of guava juice in the first jug?
1.31. Prove that (This was proved by the Arabic Mathematician
Alkarki in about 1000 AD)

1.32. Explain carefully why Mention PEMDAS,

the appropriate law(s) of division and the relevant properties of the algebra
of real numbers.
 CHAPTER 2

THE CARTESIAN PLANE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the seventeenth century, the Philosopher and Mathematician René Descartes
had the brain wave of joining two (infinite) number lines at right angles so that
they intersected at their respective zero points, as shown in figure 2.1. This
creates a rectangular coordinate system that, nowadays, is called the Cartesian
plane. The horizontal number line is usually labeled the x-axis, and the vertical
number line is usually labeled the y-axis. Each axis has an increasing direction
indicated by means of an arrow. The point where the axes intersect is called the
origin and labeled O. Descartes and mathematicians following him, including
Isaac Newton, discovered a rich interplay of algebra and geometry in the
Cartesian plane, one outgrowth of which was the discovery of calculus.

FIGURE 2.1. The Cartesian plane.

 After a brief explanation of how a rectangular coordinate system works
(section 2.2), we will make a complete study of the relationship between graphs
of lines in the Cartesian plane and linear equations in section 2.3. This is
followed by an introduction to circles (section 2.4) and conic sections (section
2.5) in the Cartesian plane. Vectors are a useful tool for doing geometric analysis
in the Cartesian plane, and this topic takes up the remainder of the chapter
(section 2.6).
The mathematical methods in a two-dimensional coordinate system that we
introduce in this chapter can be generalized to a three-dimensional coordinate
system (although we will not do it in this book). A three-dimensional coordinate
system can be used as a mathematical representation of the three-dimensional
physical space in which we humans move around; and it is in this coordinate
representation of three-dimensional space that mathematicians and scientists can
carry out advanced mathematical simulations of dynamic processes like ocean
currents, planetary weather patterns, motions of projectiles, and exploding stars.

2.2 WORKING IN A COORDINATE SYSTEM

Any given point in the Cartesian plane can be labeled by means of two numbers
called coordinates. The first coordinate is called the x-coordinate, and the second
is called the y-coordinate. The x-and y-coordinates together form a coordinate
pair. The x-coordinate can be found by following a vertical line from the given
point to a point on the x-axis and reading its position on the number line.
Similarly, the y-coordinate can be found by following a horizontal line from the
given point to a point on the y-axis and reading its position on the number line.
Points in the Cartesian plane are usually labeled using uppercase letters with the
coordinate values following in parentheses, as shown in figure 2.2. The axes
separate the Cartesian plane into four quadrants (first, second, third, and fourth
quadrants) that can be labeled as I, II, III, and IV, respectively, in a
counterclockwise order, starting with the upper right quadrant.
 FIGURE 2.2. Points in the Cartesian plane.

2.3 LINEAR EQUATIONS AND STRAIGHT LINES

Much of mathematics involves the study of related quantities in the form of
equations. For this reason, we begin with a study of linear equations and the
graphs (infinite straight lines) of linear equations in the Cartesian plane because
these quantify the simplest kind of relationship (linear) that related quantities can
have. We will refer to an “infinite straight line” (in the Cartesian plane) as a
“line.”
When a line is drawn in the Cartesian plane, it can be described as a line
leaning to the right if the y-coordinates of points on the line increase as the
corresponding x-coordinates increase, as a line leaning to the left if the y-
coordinates of points on the line decrease as the corresponding x-coordinates
increase, or as a horizontal or vertical line (refer to figure 2.3.). The point where
a line crosses the x-axis (if any) is called an x-intercept, and a point where the
line crosses the y-axis (if any) is called a y-intercept.
There is a relationship between lines in the Cartesian plane and linear
equations.

DEFINITION 2.3.1. A linear equation is an equation of the form:

y = mx + c,

(or one of the equivalent forms stated below), where m and c are real numbers
and x and y are variables. The variable x is called the independent variable and
the variable y is called the dependent variable.
In the case that m = 0, the linear equation reduces to y = c.

FIGURE 2.3. Lines in the Cartesian plane.

DEFINITION 2.3.2. A solution of the equation y = mx + c is a pair of coordinates

(a, b) for which the equation is a true statement if the value a is substituted for x
and the value b is substituted for y, that is, the equation b = ma + c is a true
statement.

EXAMPLE 2.3.1. One solution of the equation y = 5x − 1 is the pair of values (1,
4). A pair of values that is not a solution of the equation is (1, 3).

2.3.1 The Graph of a Linear Equation

If two solutions of a linear equation y = mx + c are obtained, that is, two
pairs of coordinates (a1, b1) and (a2, b2) so that b1 = ma1 + c and b2 = ma2 + c
are true statements, then the graph of the linear equation can be obtained by
plotting the coordinate pairs (a1, b1) and (a2, b2) in the Cartesian plane and
drawing a line through them.

EXAMPLE 2.3.2. The graph of the equation y = 3x − 5 is drawn in figure 2.4 by

plotting the points corresponding to the two solutions P(3, 4) and Q(−2,−11) of
the equation. It is important to realize that every point on the line determines a
solution of the linear equation y = 3x − 5 and, conversely, that every solution of
this equation determines a point on the line. For example, observe that the point
(0, −5) is on the line; therefore, the coordinate pair (0, −5) is a solution for the
equation.

FIGURE 2.4. A line through two points.

Very often, the most convenient way to draw the graph of a line is to
determine the x-and y-intercepts of the line and to draw the line through these
two points. In the following example, we show how to determine the x-and y-
intercepts. The basic observation is that the x-coordinate is zero for all points on
the y-axis and the y-coordinate is zero for all points on the x-axis.

EXAMPLE 2.3.3. Draw the graph of the equation by finding the x-and y-
intercepts of the straight line in the Cartesian plane.
Answer: First, if we set x = 0 in the equation then We
conclude that the y-intercept is the coordinate pair (0, −4). Second, if we set y =
0 in the equation then By inspection, this is a true statement if
and we conclude that the x-intercept is the coordinate pair The graph
is shown in figure 2.5.
 FIGURE 2.5. The x-and y-intercepts of a line.

2.3.2 The Linear Equation of a Line

We showed in section 2.3.1 how to draw a line corresponding to a given
linear equation. On the other hand, we could be shown a line, or given some
information about a line, and be required to find the corresponding linear
equation. Typically, we are given the coordinates of two points P(x1, y1) and
P(x2, y2) on the line, where one of the points, say P(x1, y1), is to the left of the
other in the Cartesian plane. We associate a number with the line called the slope
of the line. We calculate the slope by noting the change (using the notation Δ) in
the y value from P(x1, y1) to P(x2, y2), that is, Δy = y2 − y1, and dividing this
number by the corresponding change in the x value, that is, Δx = x2 − x1. This
ratio is normally denoted by the letter m, thus:

We make the following observations regarding the direction in which the

line leans and the value of the slope of the line:
• If a line leans to the left, its slope is negative.
• If a line leans to the right, its slope is positive.
• If a line is horizontal, its slope is zero.
• If a line is vertical, its slope is infinite.
EXAMPLE 2.3.4. The slope of the line through the points P(−3, −2) and Q(3, 4) is

If the slope m of a line is known, then an expression relating the coordinates

of any other point (x, y) on the line to the coordinates of any given point (x1, y1)
on the line is Another way to write this is:

EXAMPLE 2.3.5. To find the equation of the line through the points P(−3,−2) and
Q(3, 4), we substitute m = 1 from example 2.3.4 and the coordinates of Q, that is,
x1 = 3 and y1 = 4 (we could also use the coordinates of P) in formula (2.1),
resulting in y − 4 = (x − 3). This can be simplified to y = x + 1. The graph of this
line is shown in figure 2.6.

FIGURE 2.6. A line through two given points.

If we only know the slope of a line and the value of the y-intercept of the
line, then we can substitute these values into another form of the equation of a
line known as:
where c is the y-intercept of the line because this corresponds to the value of y
when x = 0.

EXAMPLE 2.3.6. If the slope of a line is m = −2 and it cuts the y-axis at c = 3, then
its equation is y = −2x + 3.

In the special case that the y-intercept is zero, the line passes through the
origin. Figure 2.7 shows a number of lines passing through the origin, with the
slope of each line labeled next to it.

FIGURE 2.7. Lines through the origin.

Another form of the equation of a line that we will take note of here is:

which can be obtained by algebraic manipulation of the point-slope form or

slope-intercept form and renaming the constants.

EXAMPLE 2.3.7. The equation of the line in example 2.3.5 can be expressed in the
standard form −x + y = 1, and the equation of the line in example 2.3.6 can be
expressed in the standard form 2x + y = 3.

2.3.3 Linear Relationships in Statistical Analysis

 Linear relationships are important in statistical analysis. For example, if data
are obtained from some kind of experiment, it might be the case that a dependent
variable (usually y) is observed to be linearly related to the independent variable
(usually x). Coordinate pairs corresponding to measured data can be plotted in
the Cartesian plane, but the points might not all lie exactly on the same line
because of experimental errors or fluctuations. In this case, a straight line, called
a regression line, can be fitted through the data points in order to determine an
approximation of the linear relationship. The best method for fitting the line is to
minimize the sum of squares of the vertical distances (i.e., the differences in the
y values) of the data points from the fitted line. This is called the principle of
least squares, and it was proposed by Carl Friedrich Gauss, a famous
mathematician of the eighteenth century. The fitted line is called a regression
line because the British scientist Francis Galton (1822–1911) used this method
in his investigation of the (linear) relationship between the heights of men and
their sons (as an example of an hereditary trait), and he noticed that tall men
generally had tall sons, but these sons were on average not as tall as their fathers.
Galton inferred that there was a regression of the height of tall men toward the
average height of all men. He thus named his fitted line a “regression line” and
this term is still in use.

EXAMPLE 2.3.8. Here are some data that could have been obtained from an actual
population survey:
TABLE 2.1. Heights of fathers and sons

Based on the information given in table 2.1, we might want to predict the
average height of sons whose fathers are 70 inches tall. The average of x values
(denoted x) and the average of y values (denoted y) are:

According to the method of least squares (the details of which are not give
here), the slope m of the regression line is:
 and the equation of the regression line is:

Substituting the value for m from formula (2.5) and the values for x and y
from formula (2.4) into formula (2.6) yields Now, if we set x = 70
in this equation, we get y = 69.875, which we take as the predicted value for the
average height of sons whose fathers are 70 inches tall.

2.3.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

DEFINITION 2.3.3. Lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope.
In the first diagram in figure 2.8 are parallel lines with slope but with
different y-intercepts, y = −1 and y = 1.

FIGURE 2.8. Parallel and perpendicular lines.

DEFINITION 2.3.4. Two lines are perpendicular if and only if the slope of one line
is the negative reciprocal of the other.
 The reason for this is explained with the help of the second diagram in figure
2.8, in which the two lines labeled l1 and l2 are perpendicular and meet at the
point C. The x-intercept of l1 is the point A and the x-intercept of l2 is the point
B. The dotted line drawn from C is perpendicular to the x-axis at the point D. We
note that right triangles ACB and CDB have an angle at B in common and right
triangles ACB and ADC have an angle at A in common, which means that they
are all similar triangles, that is, ACB ||| CDB ||| ADC. If we denote the length of
the line segment from C to D as |CD| and the length of the line segment from A
to D as |AD| and so on, then from properties of similar triangles (see theorem
9.5.14(a) and the explanation following it), we can write In terms of the
slopes m1 and m2 of lines l1 and l2, respectively, we can write this equation as
or, alternatively, as m1 m2 = −1 (note that m2 is negative).

EXAMPLE 2.3.9. Find the equation of the line that is perpendicular to the line y =
2x + 1 and that meets this line at its y-intercept.
Answer: The slope of the line we need is and it should pass through the
point (0, 1). By substitution into the point-slope form of a line, formula (2.1), we
find which we can also write as

EXAMPLE 2.3.10. Find the standard form of the line that passes through the point
(5, −7) and is perpendicular to the line 6x + 3y = 4.
Answer: We first rewrite the equation for the given line in slope-intercept
form. This is and so the slope of this line is −2. Thus, the slope of the
line we want is . By substituting and (x1, y1) = (5,−7) into the point-slope
form of a line, formula (2.1), we find which we can write in
standard form as x − 2y = 19.

As an exercise, carefully draw the graphs of the two lines in the previous
example. Try to determine the coordinates of the point where the lines intersect.

2.3.5 The Distance between Points on a Line

If a line is horizontal, it has the equation y = c, where c is the y-intercept. The
distance between points P1(x1, c) and P2(x2, c) (denoted |P1P2|) is the difference
in the x-coordinates, that is, |P1P2|=|x2 − x1|. (We write this as an absolute value
because, in general, x2 need not be larger than x1.) If a line is vertical, it has the
equation x = c, where c is the x-intercept of the line. The distance between points
Q1(c, y1) and Q2(c, y2) is the difference in the y-coordinate, that is, |Q1Q2| = |y2 −
Y1| (see figure 2.9).

FIGURE 2.9. Horizontal and vertical lines.

If a line is neither vertical nor horizontal, it has the equation y = mx + c,

where m ≠ 0. In this case, the distance between points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) is
determined by means of the Pythagorean theorem (theorem 9.5.8(a)) applied to
the right triangle shown in figure 2.10. The length of the horizontal side of the
right triangle is |P1P| = |x2 − x1|, and the length of the vertical side of the right
triangle is |P2P | = | y2 − y1|. Thus, we have:
 FIGURE 2.10. The distance between two points on a line.

Formula (2.7) is used to find the distance between any two points in the
Cartesian plane.

EXAMPLE 2.3.11. The distance between the points A(−3, 6) and B(5, 1) is

2.3.6 The Equation of a Perpendicular Bisector

We find the midpoint of the line segment joining two points P1(x1, y1) and
P2(x2, y2) by computing the average of the x-and y-coordinates to produce the
point

DEFINITION 2.3.5. The perpendicular bisector of a line segment is the line that
passes through the midpoint of the segment and is perpendicular to it.

EXAMPLE 2.3.12. Given points A(−3, 1) and B(5, 4), find the equation of the
perpendicular bisector l of the line segment AB.
Answer: The coordinates of the midpoint M are The slope
of the line through A and B is Therefore, the slope of l is We
now substitute this value for m and x1 = 1 and into the point slope form of a
line to obtain or 16x + 6y = 31 as the equation for l.
2.4 CIRCLES IN THE CARTESIAN PLANE

DEFINITION 2.4.1. If C(a, b) is a point in the Cartesian plane, then the set of all
points in the plane that are a distance r from C determines the graph of a circle
with center C(a, b) and radius r (as shown in figure 2.11).

FIGURE 2.11. A circle in the Cartesian plane.

To find the equation of the circle, we use the fact that the distance between
any point P(x, y) on the circle and the center C(a, b) of the circle is
Because this distance is the same as the radius of the
circle, we obtain:

This is the form in which the equation of a circle is usually expressed. Every
point on the circle is a pair (x, y) for which the equation is a true statement and,
conversely, any pair (x, y) for which the equation is a true statement is a point on
the circle.

EXAMPLE 2.4.1. The circle with its center at the origin and unit radius (i.e., r = 1)
is commonly referred to as the unit circle. Its corresponding equation is x2 + y2 =
1. Figure 2.12 shows the unit circle with x-and y-intercepts labeled.
 FIGURE 2.12. The unit circle.

EXAMPLE 2.4.2. The equation of the circle centered at C(−1, 1) with radius r = 1
is (x − (−1))2 + (y − 1)2 = 12, which is the same as (x + 1)2 + (y − 1)2 = 1. We can
expand the squares using FOIL to obtain the equation x2 + 2x + y2 − 2y + 1 = 0.

EXAMPLE 2.4.3. The equation of the circle centered at C(2, −2) and that passes
through the origin is which is (x − 2)2 + (y + 2)2 = 8,
because the distance from the center C(2, −2) of the circle to the origin O (the
radius of the circle) is |

It can be verified, by means of a method called completing the square, that

the graph of an equation of the form cx2 + dy2 + ex + fy = g, where c, d, e, f, and
g are constants and c and d are not zero, is also a circle. This method will be
explained fully in section 3.3, but in the meantime we will consider one
example.

EXAMPLE 2.4.4. Consider the equation x2 + y2 − 4x + 6y = 3. This can be

expressed in the form (x2 − 4x + 4) + (y2 + 6y + 9) = 16 by adding 13 to both
sides. Each trinomial (an expression consisting of three terms added together) in
parentheses on the left side of the equation is a perfect square trinomial, that is,
(x2 − 4x + 4) = (x − 2)2 and (y2 + 6y + 9) = (y + 3)2. The equation is now (x − 2)2
+ (y + 3)2 = 42, that is, the graph is a circle with center C(2, −3) and radius r = 4.
2.5 CONIC SECTIONS IN THE CARTESIAN PLANE

DEFINITION 2.5.1. A conic section is the intersection of a plane with a solid
(infinite) double cone. As long as the plane does not pass through the vertex of
the cone, the boundary of the conic section is an ellipse, a parabola, or a
hyperbola.
Any ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola can be expressed as a Cartesian equation.
In their most basic form, these equations are:

The graphs of an ellipse, a parabola, and a hyperbola are shown in figures

2.13 and 2.14. The geometrical properties of each of these curves can be
explained in terms of a certain point (or points) called the focus (or foci).

FIGURE 2.13. The ellipse and the parabola.

 FIGURE 2.14. The hyperbola.

An ellipse, as defined above, has one focus at point F1(c,0) and another focus
at point F2(−c,0), where The graph of an ellipse is the set (or graph)
of all points P(x, y) in the plane with the property that the sum of the distances
from P to each focus is the constant value 2a, that is, all coordinate pairs P(x, y),
such that |PF1| + |PF2| = 2a. The constants a and b, respectively, determine the
width and height of the ellipse. Note that if a = b = 1, then the ellipse is a circle.
The graph of a parabola is the set (or graph) of all points in the plane that are
equidistant from the focus F(0, p) and the horizontal line y = −p, that is, all
coordinate pairs P(x, y), such that |PF| = y + p. The constant p determines the
width of the parabola.
A hyperbola has two branches. The focus of one branch is at the point
F1(c,0) and the focus of the other branch is at the point F2(−c, 0), where
The graph of a hyperbola is the set of all points in the plane with the
property that the difference of the distances from the point to each focus is the
constant value ±2a, that is, all coordinate pairs P(x,y), such that |PF1| − |PF2| =
±2a. A point P(x, y) is on the left branch or right branch of the hyperbola
depending on whether the plus or the minus sign is taken on the right-hand side
of this equation. The two straight lines shown in figure 2.14 are
asymptotes for the hyperbola, that is, lines that the graph of the hyperbola
gradually approaches as x gets larger and larger (in the positive or negative
direction).
The conic sections have certain reflection properties. For example, if a light
beam is emitted from one focus of an ellipse, it will reflect off the ellipse toward
the other focus and telescopes have parabolic light-collecting dishes because any
light beam from a distant object entering the dish is reflected toward the focus of
the parabola.

EXAMPLE 2.5.1. An interesting historical problem relating to conic sections is the

problem of doubling a cube. The Pythagorean mathematicians were perplexed
by this problem because it was supposedly given by the Greek god Apollo. The
story goes that, in 430 BC, a plague of typhoid fever caused suffering in the city
of Athens. The Athenians consulted an oracle about a way to stop the plague.
The oracle replied that they had to double the size of Apollo’s altar, which was
in the shape of a cube. The Athenian mathematicians did not know how to solve
the problem so apparently the typhoid pestilence worsened. The Mathematician
Hippocrates of Chios observed that the problem was equivalent to the problem
of finding two means a and b between two given values p and 2p (where p
would be the width of the cube), so that p : a = a : b = b : 2p (the Greek
mathematicians stated many of their theorems in terms of proportions, because
they did not have the algebraic symbolism that we use today, for example, these
equations state that the proportion of p to a is the same as the proportion of a to
b, which is the same as the proportion of b to 2p.) In our algebraic notation, this
statement can be represented as The first equation is equivalent a2 = pb,
the second equation is equivalent to b2 = 2ap; and, after elimination of b, these
equations state that a3 = 2p3. Hippocrates and his contemporaries could not find
a way to construct a and b (given the value of p). A few decades later, a solution
to the problem was given by the Mathematician Archytas by means of a three-
dimensional construction, involving a cylinder and a cone, but a more elegant
two-dimensional solution was later given by Menaechmus (375 BC–325 BC) in
terms of two intersecting parabolas in a plane. What he proved precisely, in
terms of our notation, is that, if the parabolas 2px = y2 and py = x2 are
constructed, they will intersect in a coordinate pair P(a, b), where a3 = 2p3, as
shown in figure 2.15. (In other words, a cube constructed with width a would
solve the problem.) Menaechmus was also the first person to classify the conic
sections, although the names we use for the conic sections were given by
Apollonius (260 BC–200 BC).
 FIGURE 2.15. Doubling a cube.

2.6 VECTOR ALGEBRA

A vector is generally known as a quantity that determines a magnitude and a
direction. We prefer the following definition:

DEFINITION 2.6.1. A vector is one element of a set (a vector space) for which the
properties of vector algebra are satisfied.
The properties of vector algebra relate to the operations of vector addition
and scalar multiplication, and the vector space is closed with respect to these
operations, that is, the sum of any two vectors is another vector belonging to the
vector space, and a scalar multiple of any vector is another vector belonging to
the vector space. The properties of vector algebra are listed formally in table 2.2
in section 2.6.1.
A vector can be represented geometrically by means of an arrow. As an
illustration, imagine a car on a racing circuit, with the speed and direction of the
car at a position on the circuit represented by means of an arrow whose length is
proportional to the speed of the car. Figure 2.16 shows how these arrows could
be drawn. The arrows are shorter in the bends of the circuit, where the car slows
down, and longer in the straight stretches, where the car can go faster.
 FIGURE 2.16. Vectors in a racetrack.

For the purposes of representing vectors in the Cartesian plane, we will

describe a vector by means of a pair of values called components (an x
component and a y component). We will also write an arrow above a letter for
the variable representation of a vector in order to avoid confusion with a real
variable. For example, we write to denote as a vector with x
component equal to 3 and y component equal to 2. We also define the zero
vector

DEFINITION 2.6.2. A representation of a vector is a directed line

segment in the Cartesian plane from any point A(x, y) to a point B(x + a1, y
+ a2). The point A is called the initial point (or tail) and the point B is called the
terminal point (or tip).
We talk interchangeably about a “vector” and a “representation of a vector.”
It is important to understand, however, that there are infinitely many
representations possible for the same vector, depending on the point in the plane
that is chosen as the initial point.

EXAMPLE 2.6.1. Three representations of the vector are shown in figure

2.17. The initial points chosen are A(−3, −2), C(−1, 1) and O(0, 0), with
corresponding directed line segments terminating at points
B(0,−1), D(2, 2), and P(3, 1), respectively.

DEFINITION 2.6.3. The particular representation of a vector obtained by

choosing the initial point to be the origin O and the terminal point to be any
point P is called the position vector for the point P.

REMARK 2.6.1. It is clear that there is a position vector associated with every
point in the plane.

REMARK 2.6.2. Given any two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) in the plane, the
directed line segment is a representation of the vector x2 − x1, y2 − y1 (note
that the coordinates of A are subtracted from the coordinates of B).

FIGURE 2.17. Representations of a vector.

EXAMPLE 2.6.2. Shown in figure 2.18 are points A(2,−2) and B(−2, 1). The
directed line segment is a representation for the vector
Note that a possible rectangular path from A to B
follows a horizontal line four units to the left and then three units up. These
directions correspond to the negative and positive signs of the x and y
components of respectively.
 FIGURE 2.18. Representations of a vector.

DEFINITION 2.6.4. The magnitude of a vector (denoted for a vector ) is the

length of the directed line segment of any of its representations.
The magnitude of a vector is computed using the distance formula, that is, if
then we have the following formula:

EXAMPLE 2.6.3. The magnitude of the vector in example 2.6.2 is

2.6.1 Addition and Scalar Multiplication of Vectors

In vector algebra, the sum of two vectors produces another vector. We first
look at the geometric definition of vector addition with the help of figure 2.19, in
which certain vectors are drawn so that the tail of is placed at the tip of
. The sum is the vector that joins the tail of to the tip of . From this, it is
clear that vector addition can be understood as completing a triangle. We would
expect that the commutative property holds. This can also be
verified from the diagram. Because, if is added to in the fashion that has been
explained, then coincides with the vector as the diagonal of the
parallelogram in the diagram. Thus, the commutative property of vector addition
can be interpreted geometrically as the completion of a parallelogram.
 FIGURE 2.19. Addition of vectors.

EXAMPLE 2.6.4. In physics, two vectors and could represent forces acting
simultaneously on some object. The vector is then called the resultant force.

In algebraic form, vector addition is the addition of corresponding

components, that is, if then we have:

EXAMPLE 2.6.5. −1, 11 + 7, 2 = 6, 13 .

DEFINITION 2.6.5. The term scalar is used in the context of vector algebra to
mean a real number (as opposed to a vector).
A vector can be multiplied by a scalar. Geometrically, this is interpreted as
the lengthening or shortening of the vector or the switching of the direction of
the vector, if the scalar is a negative number. For example, if is a vector, then 2
is the vector that is twice as long (that is., is half the length of
, and − points in the opposite direction to . These vectors are all shown in
figure 2.20. Note that all scalar multiples of have representations contained in
the same line.
 FIGURE 2.20. Scaling of vectors.

In algebraic form, scalar multiplication is multiplication of corresponding

components, that is, if and c is a scalar, then we have:

EXAMPLE 2.6.6. 3 −4, 6 = −12, 18 .

The properties of vector algebra are listed in table 2.2. They resemble the
properties of the algebra of real numbers in table 1.3. Note that scalars are
represented by the Greek letters α and β. It is left as an exercise to verify that the
operations of addition and scalar multiplication do indeed satisfy all of these
properties.
TABLE 2.2. The algebra of vectors
2.6.2 Subtraction of Vectors
Because we can add vectors, it should also be possible to subtract vectors.
Vector subtraction is done in a way consistent with vector addition. Hence,
is the vector that should be added to , so that the result is , that is,
Geometrically, this means that a representation of completes
the triangle formed when representations of and are joined at their initial
points, as shown in figure 2.21.

FIGURE 2.21. Subtracting vectors.

In algebraic form, vector subtraction is subtraction of corresponding

components, that is, if then:

EXAMPLE 2.6.7. −1, 11 − 7, 2 = −8, 9 .

A geometric figure can be analyzed by introducing vectors into the figure

and discovering relationships among the vectors according to the geometric
properties of vector addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication. This is
called vector geometry. The next example is an illustration of the methods of
vector geometry.

EXAMPLE 2.6.8. Let R be a point on a line segment PQ that is three times as far
from Q as it is from P. If and prove that

Answer: From figure 2.22, it can be deduced that This equation

is equivalent to and simplification of the right-hand side of this
equation gives the required formula.
 FIGURE 2.22. Vector geometry.

2.6.3 The Standard Basis Vectors

DEFINITION 2.6.6. The standard basis vectors are the vectors

Thus, the vector is the position vector for the point (1, 0) and the vector is
the position vector for the point (0, 1) in the Cartesian plane. If is any
given vector then, by the properties of scalar multiplication and vector addition,
we can write:

Therefore, all vectors in the plane can be expressed in terms of the standard
basis vectors and .

EXAMPLE 2.6.9. Let Then:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
2.6.4 The Dot Product of Vectors
Vectors cannot be multiplied in the sense that real numbers can be
multiplied. Instead, we define the dot product as a way to multiply vectors so
that the result is a scalar. The usefulness of the dot product can be partly
understood from its geometric interpretation, which is presented in section
4.14.2.

DEFINITION 2.6.7. The dot product · of vectors and is defined by the

formula:

It will suffice for now to give one example of an application in physics, in

which the dot product is used.

EXAMPLE 2.6.10. A force measured in Newtons is given by a vector

and acts on a particle as it moves from a point P(2, 1) to a point Q(3, 6)
measured in meters. Find the work done and express the answer in joules.
Answer: We first determine the displacement vector . This is the directed
line segment Thus, The work done is the dot product
of the force and displacement vectors, which is
joules.

Table 2.3 provides a list of the algebraic properties of the dot product. Each
of these can be proved by writing components for the vectors and comparing the
left-and right-hand sides of the equation. As a demonstration, proofs will be
given below for properties (I), (III), and (VI).
Property (VI) is one form of the statement of an important and basic
inequality known as the Schwarz inequality. Here, it states that the absolute
value of the dot product of any two vectors is always less than or equal to the
product of the magnitudes of the two vectors.
TABLE 2.3. Properties of the dot product
PROOF OF I. Let

PROOF OF III. Let then:

PROOF OF VI. Let then:

Note that the inequality in the fourth step above follows from the fact that
which is a consequence of the inequality 0 ≤ (y − x)2
because, after expanding the square on the right-hand side, we get 2xy ≤ x2 + y2,
for any two real numbers x and y.

The next example is a demonstration of the Schwarz inequality.

EXAMPLE 2.6.11. Verify the Schwarz inequality for vectors

Answer: We first calculate the value on the left side of the inequality:

Now, we calculate the value on the right side of the inequality:

Because 121 < 125, the inequality is verified.

2.6.5 The Triangle Inequality and the Parallelogram Law

We prove two geometric statements by application of the properties of the
dot product. The first of these is the triangle inequality, which is the statement
that the length of one side of a triangle in the plane is less than or equal to the
sum of the lengths of the other two sides. In vector form, this is:

for any vectors and .

PROOF OF THE TRIANGLE INEQUALITY.

where the first inequality is a consequence of the fact that (any

number is smaller than or equal to its absolute value), and the second inequality
is an application of the Schwarz inequality to the middle term of the expression.
 The parallelogram law states that the sum of the squares of the lengths of the
diagonals of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of
the sides. In vector form, this is:

for any vectors and .

The proof of the parallelogram law is exercise 2.40 below.

EXERCISES

2.1. Plot the points P1(4, 5), Q(−4, 5), R(−4, −5) and S(4,−5) in the Cartesian
plane.
2.2. Which of the following are linear equations? (In (e) and (f) assume that m
is an unknown constant.)
(a) 3 − x = 4y + 1
(b) xy = 7x + 1
(c) x − y = 7x + 1
(d) y2 = x2 + 49
(e) y = mx2 + 11

(f)

2.3. Which of the following pairs of coordinates is not a solution of y = 13x −

4?
(a) (4, 48)
(b) (7, 87)
(c) (13, 165)
(d) (23, 295)
(e) (29, 375)
2.4. Draw lines in the Cartesian plane passing through each of the pairs of
 points P and Q.
(a) P(4, 2) and Q(−11, −2)
(b) P(−11, 2) − and Q(4,−2)
(c) P(2, 4) and Q(−2,−11)
(d) P(−2, 2) and Q(11,−11)
2.5. Draw the graphs of the following linear equations by finding the x-and y-
intercepts.
(a) y = 2x + 1
(b) y = 3x − 2
(c) y = −4x + 3

(d)

2.6. Find the slope of each of the lines in Exercise 2.4 above.
2.7. Find the slope of the line passing through points (r, s) and (r + s, 2s).
Simplify your answer.

2.8. Find the equation for a line with slope and passing through the point (3,
0).

2.9. Find the equation for a line with slope − and passing through the point
(2, −1)
2.10. Write each of the linear equations in Exercise 2.2 in slope-intercept form.
What is the y-intercept of each of these lines?
2.11. Write each of the linear equations in Exercise 2.10 in standard form.
2.12. Find the standard equation of the line in each of the following cases.
(a) The line passes through the origin and the point (1, 1).
(b) The line is horizontal and the y-intercept is (0, 2).
(c) The line has slope m = −7 and passes through the y-axis at (0, 7).
 (d) The line has slope m = −7 and passes through the x-axis at (7, 0).
2.13. Suppose that a population survey of mothers and daughters obtains the
data:
TABLE 2.4. Heights of mothers and daughters

Under the assumption of a linear relationship in the heights of mothers and their
daughters, use formulas (2.4)–(2.6) to find the equation for the regression line
that fits the data in table 2.4. Predict the average height of daughters whose
mothers are 67 inches tall.
2.14. Decide whether the following pairs of linear equations correspond to lines
that are parallel, perpendicular, or neither.

(a)

(b) {2y − x = 3, y + 2x = −4}

(c) {y − 2x = 3, y + 2x = −4}
(d) {y − x = 6, y = x + 4}

2.15. If l is a line determined by the linear equation then

(a) Write the equation for a line parallel to l, with y-intercept (0,−1)
(b) Write the equation for a line perpendicular to l and passing through
the origin.
2.16. Find the distance between the following pairs of points A and B.
(a) A(4, 2) and B(4, 3)
(b) A(−7, 2) and B(−7,−2)
(c) A(2, 4) and B(3, 5)
(d) A(−2, 2) and B(7, 11)
2.17. Relating to points A(−3, 4), B(0,5.5), C(5,1.5), and D(4,−2), answer the
 following questions.
(a) Which point is closest to the origin?
(b) Which two points are closest to each other?
(c) Which two points are farthest from each other?
2.18. Determine the coordinates at which the following pairs of lines intersect.
(a) {y = 2, x = −4}
(b) {y − x = 3, y + x = 3}
(c) {y = x, y = 2x}
(d) {x = 6, y = 3x − 4}
(e) {x = y, y = 3x − 4}
2.19. Given the points A and B, find the equation of the perpendicular bisector l
of the line segment AB.
(a) A(−2, 3) and B(4, 4)
(b) A(6, 1) and B(3,−1)
2.20. Find (the coordinates of) two points on the unit circle with

(a)

(b)

2.21. Show that the equation of the circle with center C(−2, 3) and passing
through the point D(4, 5) is (x + 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 40.
2.22. Find the equation of the circle in each of the following cases:
(a) center C(2, 0) and radius
(b) center C(−1, 1) and passing through the origin
(c) passing through points (−1, 0), (1, 0), and (Hint: find the
circumcenter of the triangle with vertices at these three points; see
section 9.5.4)
2.23. Find the center and radius of a circle with equation x2 + 2x + y2 − 2y = 2.

2.24. Does the parabola 4py = x2 become wider or narrower as the value of p
increases?

2.25. Verify that all points P(x, y) on the graph of the ellipse satisfy
the property |PF1| + |PF2| = 2a, where F1 and F2 are the foci of the ellipse.

2.26. Verify that all points P(x, y) on the graph of the parabola 4py = x2 satisfy
the property |PF1| = |y + p|, where F is the focus of the parabola.

2.27. Verify that all points P(x, y) on the graph of the hyperbola
satisfy the property |PF1| − |PF2|= ±2a, where F1 and F2 are the foci of the
hyperbola.
2.28. Sketch the graphs of the following conic sections in the Cartesian plane. In
each case, label the focus or foci and the x-and y-intercepts and draw the
asymptotes, if appropriate.

(a)

(b) 16y = x2

(c)

(d) 25y2 = 25 − x2
(e) x2 − y2 = 1
(f) 49y2 = 196 + 4x2
2.29. Plot the following vectors all with initial point A(1,−1).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
 (e)
(f)

2.30. Find the components of the directed line segment in each of the
following cases.
(a) A(−2, 2), B(0, 4)
(b) A(2, 2), B(−2,−2)
(c) A(0, 1), B(4, 0)
2.31. Examine the first vector diagram in figure 2.23 and answer the following
questions.
(a) Write the components for the vectors

(b) Compute the following values:

(c) If vectors
and represent forces acting simultaneously, determine a vector so
that the resultant force is .

FIGURE 2.23. Vector diagrams.

2.32. Examine the second vector diagram in figure 2.23 and answer the
following questions.
(a) Write the components for the vectors
(b) Compute the values
 (c) If vectors represent forces acting simultaneously
on an object, draw a representation of vector in the diagram to
show that the resultant force is .
(d) Verify the parallelogram law using vectors and .
2.33. Draw (accurately!) the three vectors and
Show, by means of a sketch that there are scalars s and t so that
and find the exact values of s and t. (Hint: use scalars s and t to stretch or
shrink the vectors and by precisely the right amount so that vectors
complete a parallelogram with as a diagonal.)
2.34. In figure 2.24, add the vectors

by forming a chain starting at the
origin (the vectors and have already been added).

FIGURE 2.24. Plotting vectors.

2.35. Draw a vector diagram that verifies the associativity of vector addition
(property (II) in the list of properties of vector algebra).
2.36. A constant force measured in Newtons moves an object along a
straight line from a point P(2, 3) to a point Q(1, −2) measured in meters.
Find the work done in joules by .
2.37. Verify the Schwarz inequality for vectors

2.38. Draw a vector diagram from which the vector statement of the triangle
inequality can be deduced.
2.39. Draw a vector diagram from which the vector equation for the
parallelogram law can be deduced.
2.40. Prove the parallelogram law using the properties of the dot product.
2.41. Suppose that for vectors and shown in figure 2.25.
(a) Prove, using methods of vector geometry, that the vector that
bisects the angle between and can be expressed as

(b) Find a formula for the area of the large triangle in terms of the
magnitudes of the sum and difference of the vectors and .

FIGURE 2.25. A vector geometry problem.

 CHAPTER 3

SOLVING EQUATIONS AND

FACTORIZING POLYNOMIALS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapters 1 and 2 deal with the description of algebraic objects like numbers,
sets, equations, and vectors as well as algebraic operations like addition,
multiplication, the dot product for vectors, and so on. In this chapter, we are
going to discover some of the useful techniques of algebra. The word algebra
derives from the Arabic word al-jabr, which roughly translated means
“transposition” or “reduction” and which was part of the title of a mathematical
treatise written by the Arabic scholar Mohammed ibn Mûsâ al-Khowârizmî
during the eighth century AD. Europeans who read this treatise in later centuries
adopted this word as the name for the science of equations. What al-Khowarizmi
meant by al-jabr is the method of adding or subtracting the same quantity to both
sides of an equation. This is part of the process of solving an equation.
The notion of solving an equation by the application of formal techniques is
usually inculcated into school children soon after the age of 10. It is, therefore,
surprising that mathematicians did not fully employ these techniques until the
sixteenth century. One reason for this is that solving an equation such as

x + 3 = 0,

leads immediately to the problem of the existence of negative numbers. Indeed,

the solution of this equation is obtained by subtracting 3 on each side of the
equation

x + 3 − 3 = 0 − 3,
with the result

x = − 3.
Mathematicians were reluctant for a long time to acknowledge the existence
of negative numbers. For example, René Descartes referred to the negative
solutions of equations as “false roots,” and he never extended his coordinate
system (our Cartesian plane) to negative numbers.
An even more, difficult problem arises with the solutions of the equation

x2 + 1 = 0,

which we will discuss later.

Another reason for the slow development of algebra, compared with that of
geometry and trigonometry, was the cumbersome algebraic notation that
mathematicians used for a long time. To give an example, a statement in our
notation such as

3ba2 − 2ba + a3 = d,

would have been written by François Viète, the famous French mathematician of
the sixteenth century, in the form

b 3 in a quad − b 2 in a + a cubaequator d solido.

It is hard for us to imagine doing algebra with this laborious way of writing,
yet the great Italian algebraists of the sixteenth century, such as Scipione del
Ferro, Nicolo of Brescia (also known as Tartaglia), Girolamo Cardano, Lodovico
Ferrari, and Rafael Bombelli, managed to find methods for solving cubic and
quartic equations (see section 3.9 below) using this kind of notation.
The usual practice of using the initial letters of the alphabet a, b, c,… to
denote constants and the last letters of the alphabet …, x, y, z to denote variables
was a custom fixed by Descartes, and the use of the = sign became common
practice after it was used by the English Mathematician Robert Recorde in 1557.
(The symbol ≠ can also be used to state that two quantities are not equal to each
other.)
This chapter deals with the general problem of solving a polynomial
equation. We begin with the problem of solving a linear equation in section 3.2
and then move on to the problem of solving a quadratic equation in section 3.3.
Following this, the basic algebraic properties of polynomials (including the
Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem) are introduced in section 3.4. A full
treatment of the algebraic properties (including graphs) of quadratic polynomials
is given in section 3.5.
Because the most general solution of a polynomial equation is a complex
number (as explained in section 3.7), complex numbers are introduced in section
3.6. The approach taken in section 3.6 is to define complex numbers concretely
as elements of a special class of 2×2 matrices. This requires an introduction to
the algebra of matrices (which is very useful to know, in any case).
The important theorems of this chapter, namely the Fundamental Theorem of
Algebra, the Complete Factorization Theorem for Polynomials, and the theorem
that every polynomial with real coefficients and positive degree can be
expressed as a product of linear and irreducible quadratic factors with real
coefficients, are all stated in section 3.7. A few basic comments regarding the
graphs of polynomials are made in section 3.8.
Some students might find section 3.9 rather challenging. However, it is
natural to move on to the problem of solving cubic, quartic, and quintic
equations. In fact, the study of algebra is not complete without it!

3.2 SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS

Our plan of action is to begin in the most basic situation, which is to solve a
linear equation. Here is a simple problem that leads to a linear equation:

EXAMPLE 3.2.1. What number when multiplied by 3 is equal to that number plus
8?
Answer: If we denote the unknown value as x, then the problem can be
restated in the form: for what value of x is the equation

3x = x + 8

a true statement?
The answer can be obtained by solving the equation. The way to do this is to
isolate x on one side of the equation by applying the same algebraic operations to
each side of the equation. First, subtract x from each side of the equation:
 3x − x = (x + 8) − x.

Each side of the equation can be simplified, and the result is

2x = 8.

Next, we divide each side of the equation by 2:

to obtain the answer

x = 4.

Problems of this type have been solved since the times of the earliest known
human civilizations. Here is a problem from the Rhind papyrus, an Egyptian
mathematical text containing 85 problems copied by the scribe Ahmes in about
1650 BC.

EXAMPLE 3.2.2. A quantity, its 2/3, its 1/2, and its 1/7, added together, becomes
33. What is the quantity?
Answer: We solve this once again, by denoting the unknown quantity as x
and writing the statement of the problem as an equation:

The way to proceed from here is a matter of choice, but the easiest way to
isolate x is to multiply each side of the equation by the lowest common multiple
of 2, 3, and 7, which is 42. Thus,

By expansion of the left side of the equation, this becomes

42x + 28x + 21x + 6x = 1,386

which simplifies to
 97x = 1,386.
The final answer is

Some equations might not be linear to begin with but after some
simplifications or reductions have been carried out, the answer can be obtained
by solving a linear equation. Here are two examples of this:

EXAMPLE 3.2.3. Solve for x in the equation (3x − 2)(8x + 4) = (6x + 1)(4x − 3).
Answer: Expand each side using the foil method and then subtract 24x2 from
each side. This results in a linear equation that can be solved for x:

EXAMPLE 3.2.4. Solve for x in the equation

Answer: To begin with, the fractions on the left side can be added in the
same way that ordinary fractions can be added, that is, by finding their lowest
common denominator (see section 1.13.4), as shown in the following steps:
 Two fractions with the same denominator are equal if and only if their
numerators are equal, and therefore, we can write down the linear equation
containing only the numerators on each side. The value for x that solves this
equation will be the solution for the original equation (provided it does not result
in any zero denominators in the fractions).

3.3 SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS BY COMPLETING

THE SQUARE

The next level of difficulty with solving equations arises from the problem of
solving a general quadratic equation.

DEFINITION 3.3.1. A quadratic equation is an equation of the type

ax2 + bx + c = 0,

where a solution is required for x in terms of the constants a, b, and c.

The special technique that makes it possible to solve for x is called
completing the square. It is helpful to look at a geometric interpretation of this in
the special case in which we want to solve for x in the simplified quadratic
equation

x2 + bx = 0.
If b and x are positive real numbers, then we can regard the value x2 + bx as
the area of a rectangular sheet with the short side of length x and the long side of
length x + b, as shown in figure 3.1. The long side can then be divided into one
segment of length x and two segments of length This creates a square with
side length x and two small rectangles with dimensions inside the
rectangular sheet. The lower of these small rectangles can be cut off and pasted
alongside the sheet so that its side of length x matches the square (as shown in
second diagram). In this way, a new square of side length can be formed if
a missing square (shaded in third diagram) of dimensions is filled in. We
now conclude that the area of the original sheet can be expressed as the area of
the new (biggest) square minus the area of the small shaded square.
Mathematically stated, this is the identity

FIGURE 3.1. Completing the square.

While we have verified this identity geometrically under the assumption that
x and b are positive, the identity is true for all real values of x and b, as can be
verified by expanding the right-hand side of formula (3.1) (do this!). The method
of writing the left-hand side of the identity as the right-hand side is what we
mean by completing the square, and formula (3.1) is the simplest instance of the
method of completing the square.

EXAMPLE 3.3.1. Complete the square for each of the following expressions:

(i) x2 + 3x
(ii) x2 − 10x.

Answers:

(i)
 (i)

(ii) x2 − 10x = (x − 5)2 − 25.

The general method of completing the square requires the preliminary step of
factoring the coefficient of x2 in order to isolate an expression of the form that
appears on the left-hand side of the identity in formula (3.1), as in the following
examples.

EXAMPLE 3.3.2. Complete the square for each of the following expressions:

(i) 3x2 + 12x − 1

(ii) −4x2 − 13x + 7

Answers:

(i) 3x2 + 12x − 1 = 3[x2 + 4x] − 1 = 3[(x + 2)2 − 4] − 1 = 3(x + 2)2 − 13

(ii)

We now derive the general formula for completing the square of a quadratic
expression:
We record this result as the following identity:

We are now prepared to solve quadratic equations by completing the square.

EXAMPLE 3.3.3. Solve the following equations by completing the square:

(i) 3x2 + 12x − 1 = 0

(ii) −4x2 − 13x + 7 = 2

Answers: We rewrite each equation by completing the square of the

quadratic expression on the left-hand side of each equation, as in example 3.3.2.

(i) 3(x + 2)2 − 13 = 0

(ii)

Now, in order to solve (i), we add 13 to each side of the equation and then
divide both sides by 3, resulting in the new equation This states that
the square of the quantity x + 2 is equal to What does this mean? It means that
there are two possibilities: x + 2 is equal to is equal to
Therefore, the final solution is
Similarly, the solution for (ii) is

which can also be expressed as

In the next example, we will encounter a difficulty that did not arise in
example 3.3.3.

EXAMPLE 3.3.4. Solve for x in the equation x2 + 3x + 4 = 0.

Answer: After completing the square, the equation can be expressed as

and here is the difficulty: solving this equation would require us to take the
square root of a negative real number. Do not feel alone if you find this very
troubling. Mathematicians were alarmed by this for thousands of years. Their
solution was to ignore it and leave the equation unsolved. The resolution of this
difficulty leads into new realms of algebra that mathematicians began to explore
only about 300 years ago. Some of this will be explained in section 3.6. For now,
we will proceed formally and take the square root of in order to write the
solution:

If we allow the usual algebraic processes for taking the square roots of
fractions, that is, then the solution simplifies to
 These numbers involving are called complex numbers. A convenient
way to write complex numbers is to use the notation Then, we can write
and so the solution above can be expressed as

Complex numbers and the notation i will be explained further in section 3.6.
We now derive the general formula for the solution of a quadratic equation,
known as the quadratic formula. In order to solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0,
we replace the left-hand side of the equation with the expression from formula
(3.2). Thus, we need to solve the equation

As in the examples above, this means that

The more usual way to write this is to use the ± notation, which means + or
−, that is,

The quadratic formula provides a shortcut for solving a quadratic equation.

All one has to do is identify the values of a, b, and c with the coefficient of x2,
the coefficient of x and the constant term, respectively, and substitute them into
the quadratic formula.

REMARK 3.3.1. The quantity b2 − 4ac that appears inside the square root in
formula (3.3) is called the discriminant. More about this later.
EXAMPLE 3.3.5. We can solve the equation −4x2 − 13x + 7 = 0 by substituting a =
−4, b = −13, and c = 7 in the quadratic formula, that is,

3.4 POLYNOMIALS

Polynomials and the algebraic operations that can be applied to them are the
main concern of this chapter. We will begin with the formal definition of a
polynomial (in one variable) and then explain how polynomials can be added,
subtracted, multiplied, and divided.

DEFINITION 3.4.1. A polynomial in x is a sum of the form

anxn + an−1xn−1+…+a1x+a0,

where n is a nonnegative integer and each coefficient aj for j = 1, … n is a real

number. If an is not equal to zero, then the polynomial is said to be of degree n
and an is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial.

EXAMPLE 3.4.1. In table 3.1 are a few polynomials and their corresponding
degrees.
TABLE 3.1. Polynomials
DEFINITION 3.4.2. Polynomials of degree 2, 3, 4, and 5 are called quadratic,
cubic, quartic, and quintic polynomials, respectively.

DEFINITION 3.4.3. A polynomial with two terms is called a binomial, and a

polynomial with three terms is called a trinomial.

EXAMPLE 3.4.2. x − 3x3 is a binomial, and is a trinomial.

3.4.1 Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials

Polynomials are added or subtracted by adding like powers of x. Remember
your school teacher saying “add apples to apples, bananas to bananas”, and so
on!

EXAMPLE 3.4.3.
(i)
(ii)

3.4.2 Multiplication of Polynomials

We have already seen an example of polynomial multiplication using the foil
rule in section 1.8.1. In general, multiplication of polynomials uses the same
distributive property. Examine the following examples.

EXAMPLE 3.4.4.
(4x + 5)(3x − 1) = 4x(3x − 1) + 5(3x − 1) = 12x2 − 4x + 15x − 5 = 12x2 +
(i)
11x − 5
(2 2 + 4x + 5)(3x − 1) = 2x2(3x − 1) + 4x(3x − 1) + 5(3x − 1) = 6x3 + 10x2
(ii) x
+ 11x − 5
(iii) (x3 + 2x)2 = x6 + 2(x3)(2x) + 4x2 = x6 + 4x4 + 4x2
REMARK 3.4.1. The word expand is used synonymously with multiply; so, in the
previous example, if we expand (4x + 5)(3x − 1), then the result will be 12x2 +
11x − 5.

3.4.3 Polynomials in More Than One Variable

We have introduced polynomials in one variable (the variable x). Next, we
give an example of a polynomial in two variables (x and y). The order of terms
can be given in descending powers of x, descending powers of y, or in
descending sums of the powers of x and y. The choice of the order of terms is a
matter of preference.

EXAMPLE 3.4.5.

The expansion of the polynomials in table 3.2 should be memorized. The

reason for memorizing them is that they are used for factorizing polynomials
(the topic of section 3.5.3).
TABLE 3.2. Products of polynomials

The expansion of (x + y)n, for any natural number n, is called a binomial

expansion of degree n, and the coefficients of such an expansion can be
determined by writing n + 1 rows of Pascal’s triangle (named after the French
Mathematician Blaise Pascal, who lived from 1623 to 1662).

EXAMPLE 3.4.6. Expand (x + y)2.

Answer: We write six rows of Pascal’s triangle as follows:

Note that the number 1 is the only number in the first row of Pascal’s
triangle. The numbers in the second row are two 1’s placed diagonally either
side of the number 1 in the first row. After that, each row begins and ends with a
1 and, in between them, each number in the row is the sum of the two numbers
diagonally above it in the previous row. For example, in the sixth row the
numbers are 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, and 1, for which 5 = 4 + 1, 10 = 4 + 6, and so on.
Now, with reference to table 3.2, note that the numbers 1, 2, 1 in the third row
and the numbers 1, 3, 3, 1 in the fourth row are the coefficients of the terms of
the binomial expansions of degrees 2 and 3, respectively. Similarly, the numbers
1, 4, 6, 4, 1 are the coefficients of the binomial expansion of degree 4 (do the
expansion!), and the numbers 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1 are the coefficients of the
binomial expansion of degree 5. Furthermore, when we write the expansion of (x
+ y)5, the powers of x start from 5 and decrease to 0 while the corresponding
powers of y start from 0 and increase to 5. Thus, the expansion of (x + y)5 is

or

(x + y)5 = x5 + 5x4 y + 10x3 y2 + 10x2 y3 + 5xy4 + y5.

The binomial expansions such as those given in table 3.2 can be used as
templates for the expansions of binomials, in general, as we now demonstrate.

EXAMPLE 3.4.7. The expansion of (2a − 3)4 can be obtained from the expansion
of (x + y)4 by replacing x with 2a and replacing y with −3. Thus

3.4.4 Long Division of Polynomials

The division of a polynomial by another polynomial with the same or smaller
degree can be done by means of the same method of long division that is used
for dividing a natural number by a smaller natural number. This is demonstrated
in the next example, in which the dividend is the polynomial x4 + 4x2 − 16, the
divisor is the polynomial x2 + 3x + 1, and the quotient is the polynomial x2 − 3x
+ 12. The process of long division continues until a remainder, which is a
polynomial with a smaller degree than the divisor, is reached. In the example,
the remainder is −33x − 28. At each stage of the process, a term is added to the
quotient (the top row) which, when multiplied by the divisor, results in a
polynomial with the same leading term as the polynomial in the previous row.
When these polynomials are subtracted, the new polynomial has a smaller
degree. The next term in the dividend is carried down and added to this
polynomial, in preparation for the next stage. In the final answer, the dividend is
expressed as the product of the divisor and the quotient, plus the remainder.

EXAMPLE 3.4.8. Divide x4 + 4x2 − 16 by x2 + 3x + 1.

Answer:
 Therefore,

x4 + 4x2 − 16 = (x2 − 3x + 12)(x2 + 3x + 1) −33x − 28

or

In the special case of division of polynomials in which the divisor is a linear

polynomial of the form x − c, the method of synthetic division is a quicker
method to carry out the long division. The method of synthetic division uses a
table with three rows. The first element in the first row is the number c. The
remaining entries of the first row are the coefficients of the dividend, including
zero coefficients, if there are any. The first coefficient is carried into the third
row of the table. It is then multiplied by c, and the result is placed in the second
row in the next column. The values in the first two rows of the third column are
added, and the result is placed below them in the third row. The process is
repeated until the last column is reached. The final value of the third row is the
remainder, and the values in the third row (except the remainder) are the
coefficients for the descending powers of x of the quotient. The next example
will make this clear.

EXAMPLE 3.4.9. Divide x3 −5x2 + x − 3 by x − 2 using the method of long

division and the method of synthetic division.
Answer 1 (the method of long division):
 Therefore,

x3 − 5x2 + x − 3 = (x − 2)(x2 − 3x − 5)−13

or

Answer 2 (the method of synthetic division):

The divisor is x − 2 and the coefficients of the dividend, corresponding to

descending powers of x, are 1, −5, 1, and −3. Therefore, the table for synthetic
division is

The coefficients of the quotient, corresponding to descending powers of x,

starting with the coefficient of x2 are 1, −3, and −5. The remainder is −13.

EXAMPLE 3.4.10. Divide 2x5 − x3 + 50x2 + 8 by x + 3 using the method of

synthetic division.
Answer: We write x + 3 as x −(−3); then the table is
 Therefore,

2x5 − x3 + 50x2 + 8 = (x + 3)(2x2 − 6x3 + 17x2 − x + 3) − 1

or

3.4.5 The Remainder Theorem and the Factor Theorem

The method of division of polynomials, as described above, reveals, upon
closer examination, something interesting about polynomials. To see this, it is
helpful to write a general expression for division of polynomials as

where (as in the division of numbers) f(x) is the dividend, p(x) is the divisor, q(x)
is the quotient, and r(x) is the remainder (these are all polynomials). We will
assume that p(x) is not a constant, then deg (p)> deg(r), where deg(p) is the
degree of p, and so on.

REMARK 3.4.2. We are using function notation here. This has not been
introduced yet, but the meaning here is clear. All we need to understand here is
that f(2), for instance, is the evaluation of the polynomial f(x) when x is replaced
with the value 2.
In the case that the divisor p(x) is a linear polynomial of the form x − c, then
r(x) is a constant (a polynomial of degree zero) and then, instead, we write

f(x) = (x − c)q(x) + r.
If we replace the value x with c in this equation, then f c
 f(c) = (c − c)q(c) + r = 0q(c) + r = r,

that is, f(c) = r. This useful observation is as follows:

THEOREM 3.4.1. The Remainder Theorem: If a polynomial f(x) is divided by a

linear polynomial x − c, then the remainder is f(c).

EXAMPLE 3.4.11. Use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder, if f(x) = 2x5
− x3 + 50x2 + 8 is divided by x + 3.
Answer: The remainder was found in example 3.4.10; however, according to
the Remainder Theorem, we can also get the remainder this way:

f(−3) = 2(−3)5 − (−3)3 + 50(−3)2 + 8 = −486 + 27 + 450 + 8 = 1,

that is, the remainder is −1.

It can happen that the division of one polynomial by another leaves zero
remainder. In the case that division is by a linear polynomial x − c, we have (as
above)

f(x) = (x − c)q(x) + 0 = (x − c)q(x).

The polynomial x − c is now called a linear factor of the polynomial f(x).

EXAMPLE 3.4.12. Show that x + 3 is a linear factor of 2x5 − x3 + 50x2 + 9.

Answer: This is just a variation of the previous example. The synthetic
division table is

Instead of doing synthetic division, we can verify this using the Remainder
Theorem:

f(−3) = 2(−3)5 −(−3)3 + 50(−3)2 + 9 = −486 + 27 + 450 + 9 = 0.

 We have just seen that, if division of a polynomial f(x) by x − c leaves zero
remainder, then x − c is a linear factor of f(x). The converse statement is also
true, that is, if we know that x − c is a linear factor of a polynomial f(x), then the
division by x − c will leave zero remainder (convince yourself!).

THEOREM 3.4.2. Factor Theorem: A polynomial f(x) has the factor (x − c) if and
only if f(c) = 0.
The Factor Theorem is a basic tool for factorizing polynomials. This is the
topic of section 3.5.3, but here is a preview:

EXAMPLE 3.4.13. Find a linear factor of the polynomial f(x) = 3x4 + 8x3 − 2x2 −
10x + 4.
Answer: According to the Factor Theorem, we need to find a value c such
that f(c) = 0. Here are the values f(1), f(−1), f(2), and f(−2):

Therefore, a linear factor of f(x) is x + 2.

DEFINITION 3.4.4. For a polynomial f(x), a value c for which f(c) = 0 is called a
root of the polynomial.

REMARK 3.4.3. The quadratic formula (formula (3.3)) is an expression for the
roots of a quadratic polynomial.

3.5 THE PROPERTIES OF QUADRATIC POLYNOMIALS

We will now examine quadratic polynomials in detail, because they are a special
class of polynomials.

3.5.1 The Graphs of Quadratic Polynomials

 In section 2.5, a parabola is defined as the graph (in the Cartesian plane) of
the equation for any nonzero real number p. This is, in fact,
the general equation for a parabola that passes through the origin and is
symmetric with respect to the y-axis, that is, the axis of symmetry of the parabola
is the y-axis. The most general equation for a parabola is the quadratic equation

y = ax2 + bx + c,

where a ≠ 0 and b and c are real numbers. It is not hard to see why this is true
because the equation can be expressed in the completed square form

Evidently, the graph of this equation is a parabola that, together with its axis
of symmetry, is shifted units according to the following formula.

Furthermore, for this value of x, y attains the value which is the

minimum possible value for y if a is positive, or the maximum possible value for
y if a is negative. The coordinates at which y attains its maximum or minimum
value is called

EXAMPLE 3.5.1. The graphs of six parabolas and their corresponding quadratic
equations are shown in figure 3.2. In table 3.3, each polynomial is expressed in
completed square form (column 3). Also given in the table are the axis of
symmetry (column 4), the roots (column 5), the turning point (column 6), and
the value of the discriminant (column 7). Recall that the discriminant is the value
b2 − 4ac that occurs inside the square-root term in the quadratic formula. The
symbol Δ is usually used to denote the value of the discriminant.
 TABLE 3.3. The properties of quadratic polynomials

We will make some remarks about table 3.3.

REMARK 3.5.1. Note that the root “−2” in row (ii) in table 3.3 is listed twice. The
reason for this is that a quadratic polynomial must have two roots. (In this case,
we say that the polynomial −x2 − 4x − 4 has a double root.) We see that the
corresponding parabola turns on the x-axis.
 FIGURE 3.2. Six parabolas.

REMARK 3.5.2. If the leading coefficient (the coefficient of x2) is positive (as we
have in (i), (iii), (iv), and (vi) in table 3.3), then the parabola opens upward,
whereas if the leading coefficient is negative, then the parabola opens downward
(as in (ii) and (v) in the table).

REMARK 3.5.3. If the discriminant is negative (as in (v) and (vi) in the table),
then the quadratic polynomial has complex roots and the corresponding parabola
does not cut the x-axis—it lies entirely above or below the x-axis, depending on
whether the sign of the leading coefficient is positive or negative, respectively.

3.5.2 The Nature of the Roots

As we observe in table 3.3, there is an interesting correspondence between
the nature of the roots of a quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c and the value of
the discriminant Δ.

REMARK 3.5.3. If Δ < 0 (as in (v) and (vi)), then the roots are complex numbers
and, if Δ ≥ 0 (as in (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv)), then the roots are real numbers. Only
in the particular case that Δ = 0 (as in (ii)) are the roots equal.
The statement of remark 3.5.3 is summarized in table 3.4.
TABLE 3.4. The discriminant and the nature of the roots

Sign of Δ Nature of the roots

Δ < 0 The roots are complex numbers
Δ = 0 The roots are real (and equal)
Δ > 0 The roots are real (and unequal)

Furthermore, we have the following additional fact about the nature of the
roots of a quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c.

REMARK 3.5.4. If a, b, and c are rational numbers and Δ is the square of a

rational number (as in example (i) above, where Δ = 82, and example (iii) above,
where Δ = 192), then the roots are integers or rational numbers (otherwise, the
roots are irrational numbers or complex numbers).
We now demonstrate that certain problems relating to quadratic polynomials
can be solved using the information given in table 3.4.

EXAMPLE 3.5.2. Prove that the solutions of the equation x2 − cx − dx + cd = p2

are real (not complex numbers), if c, d, and p are real numbers.
Answer: We first write the equation in the standard form

x2 + (−c − d)x + (cd − p2) = 0

and then find the value of Δ for the quadratic polynomial on the left-hand side of
the equation above:

Because (c − d)2 + 4p2 is a sum of two nonnegative terms, we have shown

that the discriminant is nonnegative and, therefore, the solutions of the equation
are real.

3.5.3 Factorizing Quadratic Polynomials

According to the Factor Theorem (theorem 3.4.2), if x = c is a root of a
quadratic polynomial, then x − c is a linear factor of the polynomial. Because
any quadratic polynomial has two roots, it can be expressed as a product of two
linear factors multiplied by a constant. As a demonstration in table 3.5, we give
the factorized form of each of the quadratic polynomials from table 3.3.
TABLE 3.5. Quadratic polynomials in factorized form
EXAMPLE 3.5.3. The factorized form for 6x2 − x − 15 (row (iii)) can also be
expressed as

Finding the factors of a polynomial is called factorizing or factoring (we will

use the former). It is possible to factorize quadratic polynomials with integer
coefficients by inspection if they factorize into a pair of linear factors that also
have integer coefficients (e.g., the polynomials in rows (i) and (iii) of the table
above). This is a very useful skill, and it is also fun! The trick is to find the
correct pairs of factors for the leading coefficient and the constant term. For
example, for the polynomial 6x2 − x − 15 (row (iii) in the table), the correct pair
of factors of the leading coefficient is 3 and 2 and the correct pair of factors of
the constant term is 3 and 5. Finding the correct pairs of factors can be done by
trial and error, but it does help to be methodical. We demonstrate this with four
sets of examples.

EXAMPLE 3.5.4. Factorize, by inspection, each of the following quadratic

polynomials. Each one has a positive leading coefficient and a positive constant
term:

(i) 12x2 − 29x + 15

(ii) 16x2 − 56x + 49
(iii) 45x2 + 38x + 8

Answers:
(i) Write down any pair of factors of 15, for example 3 and 5 or 1 and 15, then
form all possible pairwise products of this pair with the pairs of factors of
12 and add the results, like this:

We look for the combination in which the sum of pairwise products is,
without consideration of the sign, the coefficient of the middle term of the
quadratic polynomial, that is, 29. This is the first combination in the table above.
Now, we factorize the quadratic polynomial, essentially by undoing a foil
operation:

Note that, in the first step, the value 29 breaks up according to the sum of the
products of the pairs of factors that we selected. In the second step, the four
terms are grouped in pairs, as shown, and in the third and fourth steps, the
distributive laws are used (in reverse).
(ii) We compile a table of sums of pairwise products of all possible pairs of
factors of 16 and 49:
 The sum 56, in the second row, is, without consideration of the sign, the
coefficient of x, so, again we factorize the quadratic polynomial by undoing a
foil operation:

A shorter way to factorize this quadratic polynomial is to identify it as a

perfect square trinomial by writing it as (4x)2 − 2(4x)(7) + (7)2 and then
comparing it with the expansion of perfect squares in table 3.2.
(iii) A table of sums of products of factors of 45 and 8 can also be compiled
(do it!). The correct combination is 5(4) + 9(2) = 20 + 18 = 38. Therefore,

EXAMPLE 3.5.5. Factorize, by inspection, each of the following quadratic

polynomials, which have a positive leading coefficient and a negative constant
term:

(i) 51x2 − 129x − 72

(ii) 6u2 + 7u − 20

Answers:
(i) As before, write down any pair of factors of 72, form all possible pairwise
 products with the pairs of factors of 51 and subtract the results, like this
(we only show a few cases):

1(8) − 51(9) = 8 − 459 = −451

51(8) − 1(9) = 408 − 9 = 399
3(8) − 17(9) = 24 − 153 = −129
17(8) − 3(9) = 136 − 27 = 109
Because 129 is, without consideration of the sign, the coefficient of x, we
factorize the quadratic polynomial by breaking up the middle term according to
the third equation of the table above:

(ii) Use 2(4) − 3(5) = 8 − 15 = −7. Then,

EXAMPLE 3.5.6. In the case that a quadratic polynomial has a negative leading
coefficient, the negative sign can be factorized and then the previous methods
can be used. It might also be possible to factorize a constant from all three terms.

(i) −4x2 + 17x + 42 = −(4x2 − 17x − 42) = −(x − 6)(4x + 7)

(ii) 396y2 + 69y + 3 = 3(132y2 + 23y + 1) = 3(11y + 1)(12y + 1)

EXAMPLE 3.5.7. A special case that should be recognized immediately is a

difference of two squares (see table 3.2).

(i)
 (i) 49 2 − 121 = (7 )2 − (11)2 = (7 − 11)(7 + 11)
x x x x
(ii) −64u2 + 100υ2 = −4(16u2 − 25υ2) = −4(4u − 5υ)(4u + 5υ)

EXAMPLE 3.5.8. The following quadratic polynomials cannot be factorized by

inspection because their roots are not rational numbers. What are their factors?
• x2 − x + 1
• 9x2 + 6x + 4
• 6x2 + 7x + 21

3.5.4 Solving Quadratic Equations by Factorizing

Quadratic equations were solved by the method of completing the square in
section 3.3. However, it is frequently quicker and easier to solve quadratic
equations by factorizing the quadratic polynomial by inspection. The principle
behind this is that if a product of two factors is zero, then one of the factors must
be equal to zero. A few examples will suffice to illustrate this.

EXAMPLE 3.5.9. Find the roots of the quadratic polynomial 2x2 − 4x − 6.

Answer: The equation 2x2 − 4x − 6 = 0 can be expressed in the factorized
form 2(x + 1)(x − 3) = 0. This means that x + 1 = 0 or x − 3 = 0. In other words,
the two solutions of the equation are x = −1 and x = 3, that is, the roots are −1
and 3.

EXAMPLE 3.5.10. Find the roots of the quadratic polynomial 11x2 − 79x + 14.
Answer: The equation 11x2 − 79x + 14 = 0 can be expressed in the factorized
form (11x − 2)(x − 7) = 0, so the roots are 2/11 and 7.

Here is a practical problem that involves solving a quadratic equation.

EXAMPLE 3.5.11. The prices of two types of building material differ by 50

cents/m. For a total outlay of $30, a builder purchases $15 worth of each
material. He then discovers that he has one meter more of the cheaper material
than the more expensive material. What is the price per meter of the more
expensive material?
Answer: We can denote by x the price (in cents) per meter of the more
expensive material. Then the number of meters of the expensive material that the
builder purchases is and the number of meters of the cheaper material that
the builder purchases is Now, according to the statement of the problem,
we can set up the following equation:

We multiply each side of the equation by (x)(x − 50) and then solve the
problem in the following steps:

The second solution for x is the answer we want. The more expensive
material costs $3 per meter.

3.6 COMPLEX NUMBERS AS MATRICES

The identification of complex numbers with 2×2 matrices provides a way to
view complex numbers as concrete objects rather than the mysterious objects
they might seem to be. We first need to define matrices and introduce the
algebra of 2×2 matrices.

3.6.1 The Algebra of 2×2 Matrices

In the middle of the nineteenth century, the English Mathematician James
Joseph Sylvester used the term matrix to describe a rectangular array of
numbers. The first mathematician to study matrices as elements of an algebraic
system was Arthur Cayley, in a paper published in 1858. The theory of matrices
developed rapidly and has found many applications in mathematics, physics,
engineering, statistics, game theory, and economics.
In this section, we will give the formal definition of a matrix and describe the
algebraic operations that can be applied to matrices, including the addition and
multiplication of matrices.

DEFINITION 3.6.1. A rectangular array

of m · n elements aij, for 1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n, arranged in m rows and n

columns, is called an m×n matrix.

REMARK 3.6.1. The elements aij of a matrix can be chosen from any set. For our
purposes, they can be any real numbers.

EXAMPLE 3.6.1. Matrices are usually denoted using uppercase letters, for
example,

According to our definition, A is a 3 × 3 matrix, B is a 2 × 3 matrix, C is a 3

× 1 matrix, and D is a 1 × 4 matrix. What’s more, C is an example of a column
matrix and D is an example of a row matrix.
Any element in a matrix can be referenced using the appropriate row index
and the appropriate column index.

EXAMPLE 3.6.2. In the matrix A in example 3.6.1, a23 = 1; in the matrix B, b12 =
2; in the matrix C, c31 = −2; and in the matrix D, d13 = 0.
Two matrices are said to be equal if and only if they have the same
dimensions and the same elements in their corresponding positions.
Any two matrices with the same dimensions can be added by adding the
elements in the corresponding positions.

EXAMPLE 3.6.3.

A matrix in which all the elements are equal to zero is called a zero matrix.
The notation Om×n can be used for a zero matrix. It is possible for the sum of two
matrices to be a zero matrix. In this case, each matrix is the additive inverse of
the other.
If α is a real number and A is any m×n matrix, then the scalar product αA is
the m×n matrix obtained by multiplying each element of A by α.

EXAMPLE 3.6.4.

REMARK 3.6.2. If B is any matrix, then, instead of (−1)B, we can write −B and
call it the negative of B. Matrices can now be subtracted in the obvious way, that
is, A − B = A +(−B).
The multiplication of matrices is more complicated, and there are different
ways to multiply matrices. The usual way to multiply matrices is called the
Cayley product. We will demonstrate it using 2×2 matrices. It is based on the
following formula for multiplying a row matrix and a column matrix:
in which the first element of the row matrix is multiplied by the first element of
the column matrix, the second element of the row matrix is multiplied by the
second element of the column matrix, and the results are added together. When a
2×2 matrix is multiplied by another 2×2 matrix, the first matrix is regarded as
two row matrices, the second matrix is regarded as two column matrices, and the
product of the 2×2 matrices is another 2×2 matrix consisting of the four possible
products of the two row and two column matrices, that is, if

then the product of A and B is

The elements of the first row of AB are obtained by multiplying the first row
of A, in turn, by the columns of B, and the elements of the second row of AB are
obtained by multiplying the second row of A, in turn, by the columns of B.
Multiplying matrices is like patting your head with one hand while rubbing
your tummy in a circle with your other hand. Try it—it comes more easily with
practice! Look carefully at the following examples. A few important facts about
matrix multiplication can be gleaned from them.

EXAMPLE 3.6.5.

(i)

(ii)
 (ii)

(iii)

(iv)

REMARK 3.6.3. We learn from (ii) and (iii) above that matrix multiplication is not
commutative, that is, if the matrices in these two examples are labeled A and B,
then AB ≠ BA. In example (iv), the product of two matrices is the zero matrix
02×2, but neither of the matrices being multiplied is a zero matrix. In these two
aspects, the algebra of matrices is radically different from the algebra of real
numbers.
Some properties of real numbers that do hold true for matrices are the
distributive properties and the associativity of multiplication and addition. These
properties for 2×2 matrices are stated below as theorems, and the proofs are left
as exercises.

THEOREM 3.6.1. If A, B, and C are 2×2 matrices, then

(i) A(B + C) = AB + AC
(ii) (B + C)A = BA + CA
(iii) A(BC) = (AB)C

THEOREM 3.6.2. If A and B are 2×2 matrices and α and β are real numbers, then
(i) (αA)(βB) = (αβ)(AB)
(ii) (−A)(−B) = AB
(iii) A(αB) = (αA)B = α(AB)
(iv) A(−B) = (−A)B = −(AB)

A special 2×2 matrix is the 2×2 identity matrix Any 2×2 matrix A
multiplied by I2 remains unchanged, that is, AI2 = I2A = A.
3.6.2 Complex Numbers as 2×2 Matrices
DEFINITION 3.6.2. A complex number z is a number of the form z = x + yi, where
x and y are real numbers and i has the property (i)2 = −1. The number x is
called the real part of z and the number y is called the imaginary part of z.
According to the following important remark, the algebra of complex
numbers can be related to the algebra of 2 × 2 matrices, as we will explain
below.

REMARK 3.6.3. We identify the complex number z = x + yi with the matrix

If we add (or subtract) two complex numbers, we add (or subtract) their real
and imaginary parts.

EXAMPLE 3.6.6. If z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = −5+6i, then z1 + z2 = −3 9i

On the other hand, if z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id are identified with the

matrices and respectively, then the sum of the matrices is

The matrix on the right-hand side is the matrix that is identified with the
complex number (a+c)+(b+d)i, which is z1 + z2.
We multiply two complex numbers in the same manner as FOIL, that is, if z1
= a + bi and z1 = c + di, then

EXAMPLE 3.6.7. If z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = −5+6i, then z1z2 = −28 − 3i.

 On the other hand, if we multiply the matrices that are identified above with
z1 and z2, the result is

The matrix on the right-hand side is the matrix identified with the complex
number ac − bd + (ad + bc)i, which is z1 z2.
We conclude that the addition and multiplication of the particular 2×2
matrices we have identified with complex numbers exactly replicate the addition
and multiplication of the complex numbers. Thus any algebraic calculation that
involves addition, subtraction, and multiplication of complex numbers can be
carried out with the appropriate 2×2 matrices.
Division of complex numbers (and the identified matrices) can also be
defined, but we will not do it here.

EXAMPLE 3.6.8. Because i = 0 + 1i and −1 = −1 + 0i, the property (i)2 = −1 has

the matrix expression

EXAMPLE 3.6.9. It can be verified by means of the quadratic formula that 1+2i is
a root of the quadratic polynomial x2 − 2x + 5. The matrix expression of this
statement is
3.7 ROOTS OF POLYNOMIALS

We return to the investigation of polynomials, in particular, the investigation of
the properties of the roots of polynomials. Below, we will present a few
important theorems that state some general facts about the roots of polynomials.

3.7.1 Factorization Theorems

The brilliant Mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), a
contemporary of Napoleon Bonaparte, Mozart, and Beethoven, first proved a
theorem that is basic to our understanding of polynomials, now known as the
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. We will state it, together with its important
corollary, the Complete Factorization Theorem for Polynomials. We cannot
provide a proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, unfortunately, because
this will take us too far into complex function theory and advanced calculus.

REMARK 3.7.1. We can think of a real number as a complex number with zero
imaginary part. So we will assume below that the set of complex numbers,
sometimes denoted C, includes the set of real numbers.

THEOREM 3.7.1. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: a polynomial of any

positive degree with complex coefficients has at least one complex root.

THEOREM 3.7.2. The Complete Factorization Theorem for Polynomials: if f(x) is

a polynomial of degree n > 0 with complex coefficients, then there exist n
complex numbers c1, c2,…, cn, which are the roots of f(x). This means that

f(x) = a(x − c1)(x − c2) ··· (x − cn),

where a is the leading coefficient of f(x).

The Complete Factorization Theorem is a corollary of the Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra. The proof of this is left as an exercise. (Hint: apply the
Factor Theorem repeatedly.)

REMARK 3.7.2 The roots, c1, c2,…, cn, in the Complete Factorization Theorem
need not all be different. For example, the polynomial f(x) = 3x3 − 9x2 + 18x −
12 = 3(x − 2)2 (x − 1) has the roots c1 = 2, c2 = 2, and c3 = 1. We say that c1 = c2
= 2 is a root of multiplicity two. In general, some (or all) of the roots c1, c2,…,
cn, can be real, and some (or all) of the roots can be complex (not real).
It is a fact that the complex roots of a polynomial with real coefficients
always come in pairs. In order to explain this, we need the following definition.

DEFINITION 3.6.3. The conjugate z of any complex number z = x + yi is the

number obtained by changing the sign in front of the imaginary part, that is z =
x − yi.
The statement of the following remark will be verified in exercise 3.38.

REMARK 3.7.4. If a polynomial f(x) with real coefficients has a complex root c,
that is, f(c) = 0, then the conjugate c is also a root of the polynomial, that is, f(c)
= 0.

EXAMPLE 3.7.1 The complex roots of the quadratic polynomial x3 − 3x2 + 9x +

13 are z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = 2 − 3i (exercise 3.38). Note that the sign in front of
the imaginary part of z2 is the opposite of the sign in front of the imaginary part
of z1, that is, z2 is the conjugate of z1.

As a special case, any quadratic polynomial with real coefficients either has
two complex (not real) roots, which are conjugates of each other (that is, the
quadratic polynomial factorizes as a(x − c1)(x − c1), where a is a real number
and c1 is a complex number) or it has two real roots. In the first case, the
quadratic polynomial is called irreducible over the real numbers.
Conversely, any product of the form a(x − c1)(x − c1), where a is a real
number and c1 is a complex number (not real), can be expanded as an irreducible
quadratic polynomial with real coefficients (verify this).
In view of the Complete Factorization Theorem for Polynomials, this leads
us to the following conclusion:

THEOREM 3.7.3. Every polynomial with real coefficients and positive degree can
be expressed as a product of linear and irreducible quadratic factors with real
coefficients.

PROOF. According to the Complete Factorization Theorem for Polynomials, any

polynomial f(x) with positive degree n can be expressed in the form
 f(x) = a(x − c1)(x − c1)…(x − cj)(x − cj)(x − d1)(x − d2)…(x − dk),

where 2j + k = n, c1, c2, …cj are complex (not real) d1, d2,…dk are real numbers
(some of which can be equal). Here, each product of the form (x − cj)(x − cj) can
be expanded as an irreducible quadratic polynomial with real coefficients, and
each factor of the form (x − di) is a is a linear polynomial with real coefficients.

In the next example, verify that the quadratic factors in the factorization of
each polynomial are indeed irreducible quadratic polynomials.

EXAMPLE 3.7.1.

(i) x5 − 9x3 + 8x2 − 72 = (x2 − 2x + 4)(x − 3)(x + 3)(x + 2)

(ii) x4 − 2x3 + 15x2 − 134x + 290 = (x2 − 6x + 10)(x2 + 4x + 29)

3.7.2 A Method For Finding the Integer and Rational Roots of a

Polynomial
In general, it is difficult to factorize any given polynomial with degree
greater than two. Therefore, it helps to have a method for determining whether a
given polynomial has any integer or rational roots.

THEOREM 3.7.4. If the polynomial

f(x) = anxn + an−1xn−1+···+ a1x + a0

has integer coefficients and, if is a rational root of f(x) such that c and d have
no common factors, then (i) c is a factor of the constant term a0, and (ii) d is a
factor of the leading coefficient an.

PROOF. We suppose that c ≠ 0 and d ≠ ±c (otherwise, the proof is trivial). The

statement that c/d is a rational root of f(x) means that f(c / d) = 0. By substitution
of c/d for x in the expression given for f(x) this is
 If we multiply each side of the equation above by dn and then add −a0dn to
each side, the result is

ancn + an−1cn−1d+…+a1cdn−1 = −a0dn.

Now, c is a factor of the integer that is the left-hand side of the equation;
therefore, c must also be a factor of the integer that is the right side of the
equation. Because c and d have no common factor (by assumption), we conclude
that c must be a factor of a0. Similarly, a rearrangement of the previous equation
leads to

an−1cn−1d+…+a1cdn−1 + a0dn = −ancn.

and, by the same reasoning, d must be a factor of an.

COROLLARY 3.7.1.
(a) The only possible rational roots of a polynomial with integer
coefficients are the rational numbers of the form c/d for which c is
a factor of the constant term of the polynomial and d is a factor of
the leading coefficient of the polynomial.
(b) The only possible rational roots of a polynomial with integer
coefficients and a unit leading coefficient are the integers that are
the factors of the constant term of the polynomial.

EXAMPLE 3.7.2. According to corollary 3.7.1(a), the only possible rational roots
of the polynomial f(x) = 3x4 + 8x3 − 2x2 − 10x + 4 are
We check all of these possibilities:
 Therefore, the only rational root is −2.

EXAMPLE 3.7.3. Fully factorize the polynomial f(x) = 3x3 + 4x2 + 74x − 52.
Answer: According to corollary 3.7.1(a), the only possible rational roots are
±1, ±2, ±4, ±13, It is straightforward to
check that and so is a factor of f(x). After dividing f(x) by (using
long or synthetic division), we obtain

The roots of x2 + 2x + 26 are −1 ± 5i, so the full factorization of f(x) is

f(x) = (3x − 2)(x+1+5i)(x+1−5i).

EXAMPLE 3.7.4. Fully factorize the polynomial f(x) = x4 + 2x3 − 13x2 − 14x + 24.
 Answer: According to corollary 3.7.1(b), the possible rational roots are ±1,
±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±8, ±12, and ±24. Because f(1) = 0, x − 1 is a factor of f(x). After
dividing f(x) by x − 1, we obtain

f(x) = (x − 1)(x3 + 3 x2 − 10x − 24).

A root of the cubic polynomial is −2 (a factor of −24). After division by the
factor x + 2, we find that

f(x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x2 + x − 12).

The factorization of the quadratic polynomial can be done by inspection, to
produce the full factorization

f(x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)(x + 4).

3.8 GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIALS

We consider the polynomials which are powers of x, that is, f(x) = 1 (the identity
function), f(x) = x, f(x) = x2, f(x) = x3, f(x) = x4, and so on. Their graphs, starting
from y = x, show a progressive flattening out at the origin, as shown in figure
3.3.
 FIGURE 3.3. Basic polynomials.

It is a fact that every polynomial has the property that its graph looks like
one of the the graphs above at a small enough scale (small enough resolution).
On some graphing calculators, it is possible to plot the graph of a polynomial
and “zoom out” until the graph looks like one of the graphs above.

EXAMPLE 3.8.1. Compare the graph of f(x) = x5 − 9x3 + 8x2 − 72 at a large scale
(high resolution) with the graph at a small scale (low resolution), as shown in
figure 3.4.

FIGURE 3.4. Zooming out.

REMARK 3.8.1. The number of times the graph of a polynomial crosses the x-axis
is at most the degree of the polynomial minus the number of complex roots.

3.9 SOLVING CUBIC, QUARTIC, AND QUINTIC

EQUATIONS

This topic is omitted from many textbooks because the methods are difficult and,
in any case, nowadays the preferred methods for solving polynomial equations
with polynomials of a degree greater than two are computerized, numerical
methods. However, a good reason for including this topic here is that the
discovery of methods for solving cubic and quartic equations was an important
part of the historical development of algebra, and the techniques are a
demonstration of the ingenuity that can be employed in solving equations.

3.9.1 Solving Cubic Equations

There are at least two well-known methods for solving cubic equations. Both
methods begin with a reduction of the general equation of the form

to an equation of the form

where p and q are new constants expressed in terms of a, b, c, and d. This is

called a reduced cubic equation. The reduction is made by replacing x with
in the general cubic equation, that is, formula (3.8), to obtain the equation

If each of the powers is expanded, then:

and this simplifies to

which can be reformulated as

whereupon we make the substitutions

in order to obtain formula (3.9).

EXAMPLE 3.9.1. In this section, we will find one solution of the cubic equation
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 1 = 0. First, check for yourself that ±1 and are not rational
roots of the cubic polynomial. According to the method of reduction explained
above, x is replaced with and p and q are respectively. This
means that, if we can find a solution X0 of the equation

then a solution of the original equation will be

A method for solving the reduced equation (formula (3.9)) was published by
Girolamo Cardano in his famous work, Ars Magna, in 1545. This method, which
was probably first discovered by Tartaglia in about 1535, makes use of the
identity

(u − v)3 + 3uv(u − v) = u3 − v3.

If u and υ can be chosen in such a way that

then a solution for the reduced cubic equation is X0 = u − v. The first equation in
formula (3.10) can be expressed as If this value for υ is substituted in the
second equation in formula (3.10), then we obtain

This is a quadratic equation in u3, and one solution (taking the positive sign
in the quadratic formula) is
 From this, we also obtain

Thus, the solution for the reduced equation is X0 = u − υ, that is,

EXAMPLE 3.9.2. This is a continuation of example 3.9.1. We substitute

in formula (3.11); then

and so

Note that the remaining two solutions for the original equation can be found
by dividing 2x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 by x − x0 and then using the quadratic formula to
find the roots of the resulting quadratic polynomial.

3.9.2 Solving Quartic Equations

The general quartic equation can be reduced to a quartic equation without a
cubic term in the same way that the general cubic equation can be reduced to a
cubic equation without a quadratic term. We do not give the details here (check
them yourself!). The reduced quartic equation is

where a, b, and c are real-valued constants. We assume that c ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0. The

method that is usually used for solving this is the method of undetermined
coefficients, given by Descartes in 1637. This method requires the determination
of nonzero constants k, s, and t, for which

The two quadratic equations x2 + kx + s = 0 and x2 − kx + t = 0 can then be

solved separately to produce four solutions for the quartic equation.

Now expanding the right-hand side of formula (3.13) results in

x4 + ax2 + bx + c = x4 + (t − k2 + s)x2 + (kt − ks)x + st.

Comparison of the coefficients of powers on x of each side leads to the
following set of equations relating the coefficients t, k, and s with the
coefficients a, b, and c:

The equations above can be replaced by two equations by substituting for s

in the first two equations:
If we square both sides of the first equation, then we obtain the pair of
equations

The reason for doing this is that we can cleverly use the identity
to rewrite the left-hand side of the first equation of formula (3.16). We now have
the pair of equations

The second equation in formula (3.17) is equivalent to and

substituting this in the first equation in formula (3.17) results in

It is convenient to replace k2 with l and rewrite this equation as a cubic

equation in l:

By replacing l with this becomes the reduced cubic equation

This cubic equation can be solved using the methods of section 3.9.1. This
obtains the required value of l and, by taking the square root of l, the required
value for k. Using formula (3.14), we can then solve for t and s in terms of k (do
this!) to obtain

EXAMPLE 3.9.3. We can solve the quartic equation x4 − 6x2 − 16x − 15 = 0 by

setting a = −6, b = −16, and c = −15 in formula (3.18), which then becomes

I3 − 12I2 + 96I − 256 = 0.

A solution of this equation is l = 4. The corresponding value for k is 2 and
from formula 3.19 the corresponding values for s and t are 3 and −5,
respectively, that is, we have determined that

x4 − 6x2 − 16x − 15 = (x2 + 2x + 3)(x2 − 2x − 5).

The roots of x2 + 2x + 3 are −1±2i, and the roots of x2 − 2x − 5 are

These are the four roots of the quartic equation.

3.9.3 Solving Quintic Equations

The quadratic formula (formula (3.3) in section 3.3) is a means to write the
roots of a quadratic polynomial in terms of a radical (a square root) that involves
the coefficients of the quadratic polynomial. Similarly, formula (3.11) is an
expression in radicals (with square and cube roots) for a root of a reduced cubic
polynomial in terms of the coefficients of the cubic polynomial. A radical
expression for the roots of a (reduced) quartic equation in terms of the
coefficients could be given, in principle, but writing it down would be much too
cumbersome.
There is, in general, no formula by means of radicals for expressing the roots
of a polynomial of degree five (i.e., a quintic polynomial) or higher. This was
discovered (after many mathematicians had tried unsuccessfully to find a
formula) by the Italian Paolo Ruffini at the beginning of the nineteenth century
and also proved independently by the Norwegian Mathematician Niels Henrik
Abel in 1824. The determination whether a particular quintic equation is
solvable using radicals requires knowledge of group theory, a branch of algebra
begun by the French teenage Mathematician Évariste Galois, who was born in
1811 and died in 1832 after fighting a duel.

EXERCISES

3.1. Solve for x in each of the following equations (if possible).
(a) x + 3 = 2x − 7
(b) 2(7x + 3) = 5(2x − 1)
(c) 2(3x − 2) = 3(2x + 99)
 (d) (x + 3)2 = (x − 1)2 + 6
(e) 4(x + 3)2 − (2x − 1)2 = 0
(f) (x − 7)2 = 50 − 14x
3.2. A gambler goes into a casino. At the first table, he doubles his money and
then spends $10 on a martini. At the second table, he triples his money
(i.e., he triples the total sum he brings from the first table), and gives the
croupier a $20 tip when he leaves. At the third table, he loses half his
money (i.e., half of the total sum he brings from the second table) and then
pays $30 for a cab home. If he has $95 left over, how much money did he
take with him into the casino? (Hint: let x be the amount of money he has
when he goes into the casino; then set up an equation involving x
according to the given information.)
3.3. Solve for x in each of the following equations.

(a)

(b)

3.4. Complete the square for each of the following expressions.

(a) x2 + 2x
(b) x2 − 7x
(c) 2x2 + 5x − 1
(d) −6x2 − 4x + 2
3.5. Solve each of the following for x by completing the square.
(a) x2 + x = 0
(b) x2 − 7x + 7 = 0
(c) 2x2 + 5x − 1 = 0
(d) 3x2 − 7x + 7 = 0
3.6. Add or subtract the following polynomials, as indicated.
 (a) (x3 + 2x2 + 5) + (2x3 − 3x − 1)
(b) (2x4 + 11x2 − 4x) − (2x4 + x3 − 4x − 1)
3.7. Multiply the polynomials, as indicated.
(a) (3x2 + 5)(−2x + 1)
(b) (1 − x)(1 + x + x2 + x3)
(c) (1 − 2x)(1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8 x3)
(d) (1 − 2x)2
(e) (1 − 2x)(1 + 2x)
(f) (1 + 2x)3
(g) (1 − 2x)4
(h) (x + y)6
(i) (x − 2)6
(j) (2 − x)6
3.8. A Pythagorean triple is a set of three integers a, b, and c that specify the
lengths of the sides of a right triangle, that is, if c is the hypotenuse, then
c2 = a2 + b2. One example is a = 3, b = 4, and c = 5. There is a method that
can generate all possible Pythagorean triples. It works as follows: for any
choice of integers m and n, we set a = m2 − n2, b = 2mn, and c = m2 + n2.
(a) Verify that this assignment of values for a, b, and c determines a
Pythagorean triple.
(b) Use a calculator to find three Pythagorean triples that include the
number 56.

3.9. Divide x4 + 2x2 + x + 5 by x2 − 3x + 1 using the method of long division.

3.10. Divide 2x5 − x3 + 50x2 + 8 by x − 3 using first the method of long division
and then the method of synthetic division.

3.11. If f(x) = x3 − 5x2 + x − 3, use the Remainder Theorem to find f(3).

3.12. Using the Factor Theorem, show that x + 2 is a factor of −x3 − 4x2 − 3x +
2.
3.13. Using the Factor Theorem, find a factor of the form x − c, where c is an
integer, for each of the following polynomials.
(a) 4x3 + 4x2 − x − 1
(b) 3x4 + 8x3 − 2x2 − 10x + 4
3.14. Neatly sketch the graphs of each of the quadratic polynomials in exercise
3.5. Be sure to mark the x-and y-intercepts, the axis of symmetry and the
turning point of each parabola.
3.15. Find the equations of the two parabolas shown in figure 3.5.

FIGURE 3.5. Two parabolas.

3.16. Prove that the sum of the roots of a quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c is
and the product of the roots is

3.17. Prove that the roots of m(1 − x) = 3 − x2 are real but not equal for all real
values of m.
3.18. The axis of symmetry of a parabola can be found by taking the average
value of the roots. Explain why.
3.19. Factorize the following quadratic polynomials (these are set up to be
factorized by grouping).
 (a) 14x2 − 2x + 28x − 4
(b) 17x2 + 51x + 6x + 18
(c) −132x2 − 60x + 66x + 30
3.20. Factorize the following quadratic polynomials by inspection.
(a) 7x2 + 14x
(b) 2 − 5y + 2y2
(c) 14x2 + 25x + 9
(d) 3x2 + 20x − 63
(e) 24u2 − 38u + 15
(f) 34y2 + 114y + 36
(g) −t2 + t + 6
(h) 5s2 + 5s − 10
3.21. Factorize the following quadratic polynomials by inspection (these are all
perfect squares or a difference of two squares).
(a) −4x2 + 8x − 4
(b) 9a2 − 66a + 121
(c) 36u2 − 361υ2
(d) 36y2 + 228y + 361
(e) 243t2 − 12
(f) 9s2 + 24s + 16
3.22. Factorize the following polynomials by inspection (if possible).
(a) 169x2 − 4x
(b) 4a2 + 24ab + 36b2
(c) 36u2 − 361υ2
 (d) 2t2 + 2t + 4
(e) 54s2t2 − 2
(f) 35y2 + 13y − 4
3.23. Solve the following equations for x by factorizing.
(a) x2 − x − 2 = 0
(b) x2 − 7x = 0
(c) 243x2 − 12 = 0
(d) 15x2 − 17x − 4 = 0
3.24. Solve the following equations for x. Use any method.
(a) 2(x + 3)2 = (x − 1)2 + 4
(b) (x − 3)(x + 2) = (2x − 1)(x + 1)
(c) x(x + 1)2 = (x − 1)3

(d)

3.25. Determine the negative value of m for which the equation −x2 + 2x − 4 =
mx has equal roots.

3.26. If 2x2 + 2ax + 4x = 1 − a, determine the value of a for which

(a) The sum of the roots is equal to their product.
(b) The roots are numerically equal but have opposite signs.
(c) One of the roots is 0.

3.27. If α and β are the roots of 2x2 − 3x − 4, find the value of without
solving the equation.
(Hint: use the formulas for the sum and product of roots from exercise
3.16)

3.28. Suppose that α2 and β2 are the roots of the equation 36x2 − x + 16. If α and
 β are both positive, determine a quadratic polynomial with roots α and β,
without solving the equation 36x2 − x + 16 = 0. (Hint: a quadratic
polynomial with roots α and β and unit leading coefficient can be
expressed in the form x2 − (α + β)x + αβ.)
3.29. A rectangular closed box with square ends is constructed so that the sum
of its breadth (x m) and its length (y m) is equal to 5 m. Its height is equal
to its breadth.
(a) Calculate its total surface area in terms of x and y.
(b) If the total surface area of the closed box is 32 m2, calculate its
length and breadth.
3.30. The area of a right triangle is 196, and its hypotenuse is 50. What are the
other two sides of the right triangle?
3.31. The sum of two numbers is 28, and the sum of the squares of the two
numbers is 554. What are the numbers?
3.32. For a certain triangle, the difference of two sides is 1 unit, the altitude
from the third side is 24 units, and the difference of the segments into
which the altitude divides the third side is 3 units. What are the sides of
the triangle?
3.33. Perform the following matrix and scalar multiplications. (Note: the square
of a matrix is the product of a matrix with itself.)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
 (f)

(g)

(h)

3.34. Let for any real numbers a, b, c, and d,

where a and b are not both zero and c and d are not both zero. Prove that
AB ≠ 02×2 and BA ≠ 02×2.

3.35. The roots of the quadratic polynomial 9x2 + 1 are Verify this statement
using the appropriate matrices, as was done in example 3.6.8.

3.36. The complex roots of the quadratic polynomial x3 − 3x2 + 9x + 13 are

2±3i. Verify this statement using the appropriate matrices, as was done in
example 3.6.9. What is the other root?
3.37. Use the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and the Factor Theorem to
prove the Complete Factorization Theorem for Polynomials.
3.38. If z is any complex number, prove that and if z and w are any
complex numbers, prove that wz = zw. Note that any real number
(regarded as a complex number) is its own conjugate. With this
information, prove that, if f(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients, then
f(c) = f(c) for any complex number c. Now you should be able to convince
yourself that, if a complex number is a root of a polynomial with real
coefficients, then its conjugate is also a root.
3.39. Expand the following products of factors into polynomials with real
coefficients.
(a) (2x−1+3i)(2x−1−3i)
(b) (2x−i)(2x+i)(3x+2+ i)(3x+2−i)
(c) (x+1)(x+1+7i)(x+1−7i)
3.40. Fully factorize the following polynomials.
 (a) 24x3 − 18x2 − x + 1
(b) 4x4 − 53x2 − 3x − 10

3.41. Factorize x6 + 2x2 + 1 into a product of linear and irreducible quadratic

factors.

3.42. Fully factorize x4 + 5x2 + 4.

3.43. Find a solution of the equation x3 + 9x2 − x + 3 = 0.

3.44. Find a solution of the equation x3 + 3x2 − 5x + 2 = 0.

3.45. Why did we assume that b ≠ 0 and c ≠ 0 at the beginning of section 3.9.3,
and why did this allow us to state that k, s, and t were nonzero?

3.46. Find the roots of the quartic equation x4 − 17x2 − 12x − 2.

3.47. Factorize x5 + 4x3 + x2 + 4 into a product of linear and irreducible

quadratic factors.
 CHAPTER 4

TRIGONOMETRY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Trigonometry is the starting point for the mathematical description of wavelike
phenomena from ripples on a pond to the complicated wave functions that
physicists use to describe the states of elementary particles such as protons and
electrons. The reason for this, as we will see in section 4.8, is that a sine (or
cosine) curve has the shape of a wave.
Trigonometry began with the attempts by early mathematicians to calculate
the lengths of chords of circles, which are twice the sine of half of the angle of
the chord (see figure 4.1). We know that in the second century BC, the Greek
Mathematicians Hipparchus and Menelaus computed tables of lengths of chords.
Some early examples of trigonometric identities are found in Hindu works of the
fifth century AD. The tangent, secant, and cosecant ratios were introduced by
Arabic Mathematicians in the tenth century. The first textbook on trigonometry
was published early in the sixteenth century by the German Clergyman and
Mathematician Bartholomäus Pitiscus. The science of trigonometry includes
planar trigonometry (chapter 4) and spherical trigonometry (chapter 10).
 FIGURE 4.1. The length of a chord.

After explaining precisely what is meant by an angle and the radian measure
of an angle (section 4.2), we introduce the three basic trigonometric ratios, that
is, sine, cosine, and tangent, in section 4.3. The values of these ratios for some
special angles are given in section 4.4. Negative angles and periodicity are
discussed in section 4.5. The reciprocal trigonometric ratios, that is, cosecant,
secant, and cotangent, are introduced in section 4.6, and the cofunction identities
are introduced in section 4.7.
A mechanical production of the sine curve is described in detail at the
beginning of section 4.8. The basic sine and cosine graphs and some scaling and
shifting properties of these graphs are described later. The tangent, cotangent,
secant, and cosecant graphs are also given.
We derive the Pythagorean identities and explain the method for solving
identities in section 4.9. This is followed by a short section on solving simple
trigonometric equations (section 4.10). The addition identities and double-and
half-angle identities are derived in sections 4.11 and 4.12, respectively. The sine
and cosine rules for solving triangles are introduced in section 4.13.
Components of vectors and the dot product of vectors (a continuation of
vectors from chapter 2 are introduced as an application of trigonometry in
section 4.14.) This chapter ends with a final topic on identities (section 4.15).
This is an interesting and challenging aspect of learning trigonomety.
Some knowledge of the basic geometry of triangles including right triangles
and similar triangles will be helpful for this chapter. These topics are presented
in chapter 9.

4.2 ANGLES IN THE CARTESIAN PLANE


An angle in the Cartesian plane is determined by drawing a position vector for
any given reference point in the plane (except the origin) and a circular arc to
indicate the amount by which the position vector is rotated in a counterclockwise
direction from the x-axis. If the reference point is not on the x-or y-axis, then the
angle is in one of the four quadrants. Figure 4.2 shows an angle α in the first
quadrant (corresponding to a reference point P in the first quadrant) and an angle
θ finishing in the third quadrant (corresponding to a reference point Q in the
third quadrant).

FIGURE 4.2. Quadrants in the Cartesian plane.

An angle in the first quadrant is called acute, the second quadrant is obtuse,
and the third or fourth quadrant is a reflex angle.

DEFINITION 4.2.1. The radian measure of an angle is the length of the arc of the
unit circle corresponding to the angle.
In figure 4.3, the length of the arc of the unit circle corresponding to the
angle θ is denoted as l. When it is understood that angles are measured in
radians, we can state θ = l. Angles can also be measured in degrees, but radian
measure is the unit of measurement in which mathematical formulas (e.g., in
calculus) involving trigonometric functions can be expressed in their simplest
form.
 FIGURE 4.3. Radian measure.

It has been known since at least the time of the classical Greek
mathematicians that if the radius of a circle is r units, then the circumference
(length) of the circle is 2πr units. In particular, if r = 1 (i.e., the circle is a unit
circle), then the circumference of the circle is 2π. Therefore, the radian measure
of a full angle is 2π (corresponding to 360°) and of any angle is in the same
proportion to 2π as its angle is measured in 360°. Figure 4.4 shows four special
cases of radian measure.
 FIGURE 4.4. Some special cases of radian measure.

The formulas for conversion of degrees to radians and vice versa can be
derived as follows:

EXAMPLE 4.2.1.

4.3 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS


DEFINITION 4.3.1. Corresponding to any reference point P(a,b) in the Cartesian
plane (except P(0, 0)) determining an angle θ, we define the trigonometric ratios
sine (sin), cosine (cos), and tangent (tan) as follows:

where r is the direct distance of P from the origin. If a = 0 then tan(θ) is

undefined.

REMARK 4.3.1. It is important to realize that, for a fixed value of θ, the values of
the trigonometric ratios do not depend on the distance of the reference point P
from the origin; that is, the ratios do not depend on the value of r. This is a
consequence of the fact that reference points P1 and P2 on the same ray from the
origin (as shown in figure 4.5) determine similar triangles, and so, by theorem
9.5.14(a), the corresponding ratios of the sides of the triangles are equal.

FIGURE 4.5. Trigonometric ratios for similar triangles.

EXAMPLE 4.3.1. In figure 4.6, the sine, cosine, and tangent trigonometric ratios
are evaluated for four different angles (one angle in each quadrant).

Furthermore, it can be ascertained from figure 4.6 that the signs of the
trigonometric ratios are positive or negative depending on the quadrant to which
θ belongs. The sign of each ratio in each quadrant is shown in table 4.1.
TABLE 4.1. The signs of the trigonometric ratios
 Table 4.1 can be summarized by means of the ASTC diagram shown in figure
4.7: the A in the first quadrant means that all trigonometric ratios are positive;
the S in the second means that sine is positive, and cosine and tangent are
negative; the T in the third means that tangent is positive, and cosine and sine are
negative; and the C in the fourth means that cosine is positive, and sine and
tangent are negative. This diagram is sometimes memorized using the phrase
“all students take calculus.”

FIGURE 4.6. Examples of trigonometric ratios.

 FIGURE 4.7. ASTC.

REMARK 4.3.2. It follows from Remark 4.3.1 that any trigonometric ratio can be
defined with respect to a reference point that is a unit distance from the origin,
that is, a reference point P(a, b) for which If the corresponding

angle is θ, then

and so, for any point P(a, b) on the unit circle, we can write P(a, b) = P(cos(θ)),
sin (θ)), as shown in figure 4.8.

FIGURE 4.8. The definition of sine and cosine ratios.

4.4 SPECIAL ANGLES

There are special cases that can be considered for the position of the reference
point P. If P is on the x-or y-axis, then the y-or x-coordinate is zero,
respectively. Figure 4.9 and table 4.2 show five possibilities. Note that the
tangent ratio is undefined if The trigonometric ratios for θ = 0 and 2π
coincide because they have the same reference point P(1, 0) TABLE 4.2.
Special cases of trigonometric ratios

Certain trigonometric ratios occur so frequently in everyday measurements

that they warrant special attention. These are the trigonometric ratios of 30°, 45°,
and 60°, and the radian measurements of these angles are
respectively. It is helpful to construct the right triangles containing these angles,
as shown in figure 4.10. A right triangle has one right angle, and the side
opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse. In any right triangle, the
lengths of the sides satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem (theorem 9.5.8(a)). An
isosceles right triangle with short side length equal to 1 and hypotenuse with
length is shown in the first diagram. We can construct a 60°−30° triangle by
dropping a perpendicular from the apex of an equilateral triangle to the base of
the triangle in order to produce two congruent right triangles. If the equilateral
triangle has side length 2, then the height of the congruent triangles is as
shown in the second diagram.
 FIGURE 4.9. Special cases of trigonometric ratios.

FIGURE 4.10. Special triangles.

If the 45° triangle is scaled by a factor then the length of the

hypotenuse will be 1 and the short side lengths will be Similarly, if the 30°–
60° triangle is scaled by a factor then the length of the hypotenuse will be 1,
the length of the shortest side will be and the height will be If each of these
scaled triangles is positioned in the Cartesian plane so that the base of the
triangle aligns with the x-axis and the hypotenuse coincides with a unit radius
from the origin, then the vertex on the unit circle is a coordinate pair from which
the trigonometric ratios for can be determined.
What’s more, by reflection of the triangles across the coordinate axes, the
trigonometric ratios for certain multiples of
respectively, can
also be determined. This is shown in figure 4.11, which, in the context of
trigonometry, is sometimes referred to as the “unit circle.”

FIGURE 4.11. The unit circle.

EXAMPLE 4.4.1. From figure 4.11 we can read, for example, that
and
4.5 NEGATIVE ANGLES AND PERIODICITY

The definition of trigonometric ratios is unchanged if angles are measured in a
clockwise direction rather than a counterclockwise direction; however, an angle
measured in a clockwise direction is negative. Figure 4.12 shows the relationship
between trigonometric ratios of a positive angle θ in the first quadrant and the
corresponding negative angle in the fourth quadrant. (The relationship between a
positive angle in the second quadrant and the corresponding negative angle in
the third quadrant is similar.) It is clear that the sign of the y-coordinate changes
when the sign of any angle changes, and so, the sine and tangent ratios change
their sign but the cosine ratio does not change its sign.

EXAMPLE 4.5.1. By reading from the unit circle (figure 4.11), we find that

and

FIGURE 4.12. Negative angles.

It was demonstrated in section 4.4 that sin(2π) is the same trigonometric ratio
as sin(0) because both ratios are determined from the same reference point,
namely P(1, 0). In general, trigonometric ratios are the same for any two angles
that differ by an integer multiple of 2π because the ratios are determined from
the same reference point. This property is called 2π-periodicity of trigonometric
ratios. It means that sin(θ + n · 2π) = sin(θ) and cos(θ+n·2π) for any value of θ
and integer n. The tangent ratio is π-periodic because the tangent ratios are equal
for two reference points on the same line through the origin in opposite
quadrants, that is, tan(θ+n·π) = tan(θ) for any value of θ and integer n.

EXAMPLE 4.5.2. By reading from the unit circle (figure 4.11) again, we find that

and

4.6 RECIPROCAL TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

DEFINITION 4.6.1. The trigonometric ratios cosecant (csc), secant (sec), and
cotangent (cot) are defined as the reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent
ratios, respectively. Therefore, if a reference point P(a, b) is at a distance r from
the origin, with corresponding angle θ, then

These ratios satisfy the same properties with respect to negative angles as
their reciprocals, for example, csc(−θ) = −csc(θ) and sec(−θ) = sec(θ), and they
have the same periodicity, for example, csc(θ+n·2π) = csc(θ) and cot(θ+n·π) =
cot(θ) for any integer n.

EXAMPLE 4.6.1. From the unit circle (figure 4.11),

The following reciprocal identities are a consequence of the definitions of

the trigonometric ratios (as can be easily verified):
4.7 COFUNCTION IDENTITIES

The following relationships are known as the cofunction identities because each
trigonometric ratio is related to its “co” ratio:

These identities can be verified from the symmetry, as shown in figure 4.13
(if θ is in the first quadrant). The general validity of these identities (for any
value of θ) can be proved using the identities in section 4.11.

FIGURE 4.13. The cofunction identities.

4.8 TRIGONOMETRIC GRAPHS

In this section, we will demonstrate the generation of a sine graph and, from this,
deduce what the cosine, tangent, and other trigonometric graphs should look
like.

4.8.1 Generation of a Sine Curve

Suppose that two students, Curtis and Candice, do the following experiment:
Curtis pulls a strip of ticker tape through a slot at a constant rate, while Candice
turns a disk at a constant rate so that a pen that is attached at a point on the
boundary of the disk moves up and down along a groove in the slot. This
experiment can actually be performed if the apparatus is available, but it is
sufficient for our purposes to think of it as an imaginary experiment. A
simplified illustration of the experiment is shown in figure 4.14. The problem is
to describe the graph mathematically (wave) that the pen traces out on the ticker
tape.
The number L is called the wave amplitude, and it is also the radius of the
disk. The number d is called the wave length or period, and it is the horizontal
distance from any point on one wave to the equivalent point on the next wave. A
cycle of the trace is one complete wave, that is, the trace of the pen that results as
Candice rotates the disk through one complete revolution. The horizontal dotted
line, or reference line, is the position of the pen corresponding to the position of
the disk when θ = 0. The position of the pen along the reference line can be
taken as the value of the independent variable x and the height of the pen above
(or depth of the pen below) the reference line can be taken as the value of the
dependent variable y. We can assume that x = 0 and y = 0 at the starting position
of the trace. We will suppose that y > 0 if the pen is above the reference line and
y < 0 if the pen is below the reference line.
 FIGURE 4.14. The generation of a sine curve.

We can deduce from the right triangle shown in the disk that which
we can also write as

Furthermore, it is logically true that the proportion of x to one complete

period d is the same as the proportion of θ to one complete revolution 2π of the

disk, that is,

This equation can also be expressed as

and substituting this in formula (4.2) produces

This equation gives the value of y explicitly in terms of x and tells us that the
wave marked out by the trace of the pen is a sine curve.

4.8.2 Sine and Cosine Graphs

 If we set L = 1 and d = 2π in formula (4.3), then the equation is y = sin(x) and
the corresponding graph (the sine graph) is shown in figure 4.15.

FIGURE 4.15. The sine graph for positive angles.

Note that the sine graph cuts the x-axis at 0, π, and 2π and the sine graph
peaks at and This is consistent with the information in
table 4.2. Thus, the period of the sine graph is 2π and its amplitude is 1.
Furthermore, the sine graph is positive in the first and second quadrants and
negative in the third and fourth quadrants, as indicated in table 4.1. As shown in
figure 4.16, the sine graph can also be extended in the negative direction by
application of the identity sin(−x) = −sin(x).

FIGURE 4.16. The sine graph.

The sine graph continues indefinitely in both directions (to the left and right),
cuts the x-axis at all integer multiples of π, and peaks at integer multiples of

that is,

The cosine graph can be obtained by an application of the cofunction identity

which tells us that the cosine graph is a horizontally shifted sine graph, as shown
in figure 4.17. (Check that coordinates on the graph correspond with the data in
tables 4.1 and 4.2.)

FIGURE 4.17. The cosine graph.

The cosine graph continues indefinitely in both directions (to the left and
right), cuts the x-axis at all integer multiples of and peaks at integer multiples

of π; that is,

We say that the cosine graph is -out of phase with the sine graph, because
the cosine graph can be obtained by shifting the sine graph to the left by units.

This property can be expressed as the identity

4.8.3 Scaling and Shifting of the Sine and Cosine Graphs

If we set L = 1 and d = π in formula (4.3), then the equation is y = sin(2x) and
the corresponding graph with period π is shown in figure 4.18.

FIGURE 4.18. The sine graph with period π.

This is a horizontal scaling of the graph of y = sin(x).

In general, we make the following remark about the period of a sine graph.
REMARK 4.8.1. The period of the graph y = L sin(kx), for any real number

EXAMPLE 4.8.1. The period of the graph of y = −2sin(πx) is and the

amplitude is 2. Note that the first peak occurs at y = −2 (instead of y = 2), as
shown in figure 4.19.

FIGURE 4.19. A sine graph with period 2.

EXAMPLE 4.8.2. The period of the graph of and the amplitude

is 1, as shown in figure 4.20.

FIGURE 4.20. The cosine graph with period 4π.

In order to draw the graph of an equation y = sin(x − a) for any real number
a, we note that if x = a, then y = 0; if then y = 1; and so on. This means
we can take x = a as the starting point on the x-axis for one cycle and label
intervals of along the x-axis starting from x = a. The resulting graph is a
horizontal shift of the graph of y = sin(x).
EXAMPLE 4.8.3. One cycle of the graph of starts on the x-axis at
as shown in figure 4.21.

FIGURE 4.21. A shifted sine graph.

The graph of the equation y = sin(kx − a) or y = cos(kx − a) will be a

combination of a horizontal shift and a horizontal scaling. An equivalent
equation is The period of the graph is and the
horizontal shift is to the right or left units, depending on whether the sign of
is positive or negative, respectively.

EXAMPLE 4.8.4. The graph of

has period π and a shift to the left by units, as shown in figure 4.22.

FIGURE 4.22. A shifted cosine graph.

4.8.4 Tangent and Cotangent Graphs
The tangent ratio tan(x) is undefined at as shown in table 4.2.
If a coordinate pair (a, b) on the unit circle corresponds to an angle x
between 0 and then the tangent ratio grows larger and larger as x increases
from 0 to (because the denominator a grows smaller and smaller, approaching
0, while b increases, approaching 1). This property is indicated in the graph of y
= tan(x) in figure 4.23 by means of a vertical line—called a vertical asymptote—
perpendicular to the x-axis at The graph grows closer and closer to the
vertical asymptote as x approaches Because tan(x) is periodic with period π,
the vertical asymptote repeats at every multiple integer of Note that
and the sign of the tangent ratio alternates with the
quadrants.

FIGURE 4.23. The tangent graph.

The graph of the cotangent ratio, cot(x), is undefined if x is any integer

multiple of π, because these are the points at which tan(x) is zero and cot(x) is
the reciprocal of tan(x). When we draw the graph of y = cot(x), the vertical
asymptotes occur at these values of x. The cotangent ratio is zero at all values of
x for which the tangent ratio is undefined. In figure 4.24, one component of the
graph of y = tan(x) is shown by means of a dotted curve and the graph of cot(x)
by means of a solid curve.

FIGURE 4.24. The cotangent graph.

4.8.5 Cosecant and Secant Graphs

The graphs of csc(x) and sec(x) have vertical asymptotes at the values of x
where sin(x) and cos(x) are zero, respectively. In figures 4.25 and 4.26, the
dotted curves are the graphs of y = sin(x) and cos(x), and the solid curves are the
graphs of y = csc(x) and sec(x). The graphs touch at values of x for which y = 1
or −1.
 FIGURE 4.25. The cosecant graph.

FIGURE 4.26. The secant graph.

4.9 PYTHAGOREAN IDENTITIES

For any point P(a, b) on the unit circle, a2 + b2 = 1. If θ is the angle
corresponding to a reference point P(a, b), then cos(θ) = a and sin(θ) = b. By
convention, we write “sin2 θ” to mean (sin(θ))2 and the same for other
trigonometric ratios. Thus, another way to write the equation for the unit circle is

This is a restatement of the Pythagorean Theorem if θ is an angle in the first

quadrant, and a = cos(θ) and b = sin(θ) are regarded as the lengths of the short
sides of a right triangle with a hypotenuse of length 1. If we divide both sides of
formula (4.4) by cos2 θ, distribute the denominator on the left-hand side, and
rewrite the resulting terms by making use of the reciprocal trigonometric ratios,
then formula (4.4) becomes

In the same way, by dividing both sides of formula (4.4) by sin2(θ), we

derive

Strictly speaking, the second and third Pythagorean identities have been
derived only for values of θ for which the terms are defined. In the case of the
second Pythagorean identity, for instance, the terms tan2 θ and sec2 θ not defined
if θ is an integer multiple of
In trigonometry, we use known identities to prove or verify more identities.
The usual technique for doing this is to denote the left-hand side of the unproven
identity as LHS and the right-hand side as RHS. One of the sides, either LHS or
RHS, is then restated and manipulated by means of known identities and
algebraic methods until it is shown to be equivalent to the other side.
Alternatively, both sides can be restated and manipulated until it can be shown
that they are both equivalent to some (new) expression. In the following
example, each line is a restatement of the previous line by the means explained
to the right of each line.
EXAMPLE 4.9.1. Verify the identity: tan(θ) + cot(θ) = sec2(θ)cot(θ).

Answer:
 The next example is an application of FOIL (see section 1.8.1).

EXAMPLE 4.9.2. Verify the identity: (sin(θ) − cos(θ))(csc(θ) + sec(θ)) = tan(θ) −

cot(θ)

Answer:

4.10 SOLVING BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

Solving trigonometric equations is dealt with in chapter 6; however, here we
consider the following basic problem: EXAMPLE 4.10.1. Solve for x [0, 2π] in the
equation 2sin(x) = 1.

Answer: Solving for x means finding the value (or values) for x in the
interval for which the equation is a true statement, that is, the values of x ∈ [0,
2π] for which From an examination of the graphs of and sin(x) on the
interval [0, 2π] in figure 4.27, we observe that there are exactly two values of x
where the graphs intersect. These values are labeled x1 and x2 and occur in the

first and second quadrants, respectively, that is,

The values for x1 and x2 can be read directly from the unit circle (figure
4.11), that is, and because, for these values of the angle, the second
coordinate of the corresponding reference point on the unit circle is .

FIGURE 4.27. Solving a trigonometric equation.

EXAMPLE 4.10.2. Solve for θ in the equation tan2(θ) = 1, for θ ∈ [0, 2π].
Answer: The problem is equivalent to solving two separate equations: tan(θ)
= 1 and tan(θ) = −1, for θ ∈ [0, 2π]. The first equation is true for the two values
and the second equation is true for the two values
These values can be obtained by means of the graphical method
we used for the problem above. Thus, the original equation tan2(θ) = 1 has the
four given solutions θ1, θ2, θ3, and θ4, in the interval [0, 2π].

EXAMPLE 4.10.3. Find the general solution of the equation

Answer: If a number u0 is a solution of the equation, then we can conclude

that cos(u0) ≠ 0 (the sine ratio equals 1 for the angles for which the cosine ratio
is zero). Therefore, we can rewrite the equation as which is equivalent
to There is one solution in the first quadrant, which we determine
from the unit circle (figure 4.11) to be Because the tangent ratio is π-
periodic, the general solution can be expressed as for any integer n.

4.11 ADDITION IDENTITIES

A trigonometric ratio does not distribute through a sum or difference of angles.
This is to say, an expression such as sin(A + B) cannot be evaluated by adding
the terms sin(A) and sin(B). (Check this by setting A and B both equal to for
instance.) The correct formula can be derived by starting from an elementary
geometric observation, as shown in figure 4.28, where two angles A and B are
determined by reference points R and S on the unit circle, respectively. The
chord joining R and S is shown by means of a dotted line, and this chord
completes the triangle formed by the points R, S, and the origin. In the second
diagram in figure 4.28, this triangle is rotated clockwise around the origin, so
that the point S rotates to the point U(1, 0) and the point R rotates to a point T.
The angle determined by the reference point T is A − B, and the chord joining T
and U has the same length as the chord joining R and S. We can calculate the
lengths of the chords RS and TU by means of the distance formula (formula 2.7),
as follows:

in which the last line is obtained by applying the first Pythagorean identity
(formula 4.4) twice, and

in which the last line is obtained by applying the first Pythagorean identity.
Now, by equating (|RS|)2 and (|TU|)2, we obtain the following addition
identity:
 In figure 4.28, B is smaller than A, but the identity is true for any values of A
and B. What’s more, by replacing B with −B in this identity, we obtain another
addition identity:

FIGURE 4.28. Derivation of the addition identities.

The following two addition identities for the sine ratio can be derived by
means of the cofunction identities (formula 4.1). This is left as an exercise.

It is a good idea to memorize these addition identities. It is helpful to

remember it in this way: in the second pair of identities, “sin” has the same
“sign!”

EXAMPLE 4.11.1. Verify the identity:

Answer:
Another pair of identities can be proved in a similar way:

EXAMPLE 4.11.2. Trigonometric ratios of angles that are sums or differences of

angles can be computed using the addition identities; for example,

EXAMPLE 4.11.3. Suppose that α is in the first quadrant and and that β is
in the third quadrant and Find sin(α − β). Which quadrant does the
angle α − β belong to?
Answer: In order to use the addition identities, we will need to know the
values of cos(α) and sin(β). According to the first Pythagorean identity,

Thus, because α is in the first quadrant. Similarly, we can determine

that because β is in the third quadrant.
 Now, we have

Because we conclude that sin(α − β) is negative. By

similar means, we can prove that which is also negative (check
this!). Therefore, α − β is in the third quadrant (recall the ASTC diagram).

There are also addition identies for the tangent ratio. Their derivation is left
as an exercise.

4.12 DOUBLE-ANGLE AND HALF-ANGLE IDENTITIES

A special case of the addition identities is obtained by setting A = B = θ,
resulting in the double-angle identities:

By making use of the first Pythagorean identity expressed as cos2 θ = 1 −

sin2 θ or sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ, we can derive two variations of the double-angle
identity for the cosine ratio by substitution in formula (4.13). They are

Consequently, there are three identities for cos(2θ) to choose from in any
situation.

EXAMPLE 4.12.1. Prove the identity

Answer: We start with the right hand side of the identity and use formula
(4.15b).

Formulas (4.15) can be used to derive half-angle identities by replacing 2θ

with α. Using formula (4.15a), we obtain which implies
The square root can be taken on both sides; however, can be
negative, so a negative sign might be needed in front of the square root on the
RHS. Thus, the half-angle identity for the sine ratio is

Similarly, using formula (4.15b), we can obtain the half-angle identity for the
cosine ratio:

EXAMPLE 4.12.2. In Example 4.11.2, the value of was found by making use
of an addition identity. This value can also be computed using formula (4.16):

Now, this answer does not look the same as the answer in example 4.11.2,
which was However, by comparing the squares of the answers, it is clear

that they are the same:

An approximation of the identity in the next example was used by the Indian
Mathematician Aryabhata in about 500 AD to construct a table of sines.

EXAMPLE 4.12.3. Prove that

Answer:

The LHS equals the RHS, so the identity is proved.

4.13 SOLVING TRIANGLES


Any triangle has six parts: three sides and three angles. If any three parts of a
triangle are given (with at least one of these being the length of a side), then in
most cases we can calculate unambiguously what the other parts are by means of
the formulas that are derived in this section. In particular, if the triangle is a right
triangle, then one angle (the right angle) is automatically given, and if any two
other parts are given (with at least one of these being the length of a side), then
the trigonometric ratios automatically determine what the other parts are.

4.13.1 Right Triangles

The connection between right triangles and trigonometric ratios has already
been indicated a few times in this chapter. Any right triangle can be oriented in
the Cartesian plane, so that either of its acute angles coincides with an angle
measured in a counterclockwise direction from the x-axis; that is, one vertex is
situated at the origin, one side (not the hypotenuse) is aligned with the positive
x-axis, and the hypotenuse radiates from the origin to another vertex of the right
triangle in the first quadrant. The side along the x-axis is called the adjacent
side, and the side perpendicular to it is called the opposite side, as shown in
figure 4.29. If the coordinates of the vertex in the first quadrant are labeled (a,
b), then the length of the adjacent side is a, the length of the opposite side is b,
and the length of the hypotenuse is If the angle at the origin is
labeled θ, then, according to the definition of the trigonometric ratios, sin(θ) is
the length of the opposite side divided by the length of the hypotenuse (opposite
over hypotenuse, for short), cos(θ) is the length of the adjacent side divided by
the length of the hypotenuse (adjacent over hypotenuse, for short), and tan(θ) is
the length of the opposite side divided by the length of the adjacent side
(opposite over adjacent, for short). These ratios can be remembered using the
mnemonic SOH–CAH–TOA.
 FIGURE 4.29. SOH–CAH–TOA.

EXAMPLE 4.13.1. A well-known right triangle is the “3-4-5” triangle, shown in

figure 4.30, in which two angles are labeled α and β, and their trigonometric
ratios are shown to the right of the diagram.

FIGURE 4.30. A 3-4-5 triangle.

Trigonometric ratios are used to compute lengths and angles in all kinds of
problem in which right angles occur. Here are some typical examples: EXAMPLE
4.13.2. The rays of the sun over the top of a flag pole cast a 10 m long shadow
and form an angle of 30° with the ground. Find the height of the flag pole.
Answer: The height (h) of the flag pole divided by the length of the shadow
(l) is equal to that is, which implies that

EXAMPLE 4.13.3. In figure 4.31, a triangle has sides a, b, and c, and a line
segment drawn from the vertex opposite b is perpendicular to b. Prove that

Answer: In the diagram, b = x + y, and h is the length of the side adjacent to

the two smaller triangles. From the right triangles in the diagram, we can now
infer that and
Therefore, because x = b − y, we have
 FIGURE 4.31. An application of trigonometric ratios.

4.13.2 The Area Formula and the Sine Rule

Any triangle can be oriented in the Cartesian plane, so that any one of its angles
coincides with an angle measured in a counterclockwise direction from the x-
axis.
In figure 4.32, a triangle has vertices labeled P, Q, and R, with the vertex P
positioned at the origin. The triangle has an obtuse angle at P, but it will not
make a difference to the formulas we derive below whether this angle is obtuse.
For brevity, we refer to the angle at a vertex by means of the label at the vertex;
that is, “sin(P)” means “the sine ratio of the angle measured at P.” The length of
a side opposite a vertex is labeled using the same letter as the label at the vertex
but in lower case. For example, the length of the side opposite R (i.e., the length
of the side coinciding with the x-axis in the diagram) is labeled “r.” The
coordinates at vertex R are (q cos(P), qsin(P)).

FIGURE 4.32. Derivation of the area rule.

Note that the height of ΔPQR is the second coordinate of R, and the base of
the triangle has length r. Therefore, by means of the formula × base × height
for the area of a triangle, the area of ΔPQR in the diagram is qr sin (P).
Because any of the vertices of ΔPQR could have been situated at the origin, any
of the following three formulas can, in fact, be applied to find the area of ΔPQR:

These formulas are just one step away from deriving a useful rule for solving
triangles, called the sine rule. All we have to do is divide each term above by

There are two situations in which the sine rule is used for solving a triangle.
The first is when two angles and the length of any side are given (as given in the
next example), then the sine rule can be used to find the length of either of the
remaining sides.

EXAMPLE 4.13.4. If the angles at P and Q in ΔPQR are 30° and 45°, respectively,
and side p has length 2, then, to compute the length of side r, we first deduce that
the angle at R is 105°, and then use formula (4.19) to write the equation
which determines that (use a calculator).

The second situation is when the lengths of any two sides and a nonincluded
angle are given, then the sine rule can be used to find the length of the remaining
side and either of the remaining angles. In this situation, the solution might be
ambiguous (meaning that two different triangles can fit the given data), or there
might be no solution (no triangle fits the given data). Figure 4.33 shows how an
ambiguous solution (case I), unique solution (case II), or no solution (case III)
might arise.
In case I, a ΔPQR has an angle of 20° at Q, r = 5 and q = 3. The problem is
that this can occur in two different ways (as shown by dotted lines), resulting
either in a triangle with an obtuse angle or an acute angle at R. In case II, ΔPQR
has an angle of 20° at Q, r = 2 and q = 3, and this can only occur in one way (in
this case, there is no ambiguity). In case III, ΔPQR has an angle of 20° at Q, r =
4 and q = 1, and this is impossible because a circle centered at P with radius 1
does not intersect the side p.
 FIGURE 4.33. The cases for the sine rule.

EXAMPLE 4.13.5. Solve ΔPQR in which Q = 50°, r = 9, and q = 7.

Answer: By the sine rule, that is,

This equation has one solution R ≈ 80.04° in the first quadrant and another
solution R2 = 180° − R1 = 99.96° in the second quadrant. In the first case, the
remaining angle in the triangle is 49.96°, and by another application of the sine
rule, the remaining side has length p ≈ 6.996. In the second case, the remaining
angle in the triangle is 30.04, and by another application of the sine rule, the
remaining side has length p ≈ 4.575. Thus, there are two solutions.

The solutions of the following problems employ the sine rule and some other
identities derived in this chapter. (Try to solve them yourself before reading the
answers.) Example 4.13.6. In figure 4.34, sides AB and BC of ΔABC are equal in
length (equal to x), and the two angles at C are equal. Show that the length of
CD is 2x.
Answer: If the magnitude of the angles at C is θ, then, because ΔABC is
isosceles, the magnitude of the angle at A in ΔABC is also θ (according to
theorem 9.5.7a), and so, the angle at B is π − 2θ (because the sum of the angles
of a triangle is 180°). Now, we can apply the sine rule to ΔABC to determine that
 Because ΔACD is a right triangle, |CD| = |AC| = sec(θ), and so

|CD| = 2 x cos(θ)sec(θ) = 2x.

EXAMPLE 4.13.7. In the second diagram in figure 4.34, AB is a vertical tower

with its base at point A. Two other points S and T form a triangle with A in a
horizontal plane that is perpendicular to the tower. Certain angles at the vertices
B, T, and A are labeled θ, 2θ, and 90° + θ, respectively. (We can suppose that θ <
30°.) If the length of BS is 2, prove the following: (1) the length of ST is 1 and
(2) the length of AT is 2 cos(2θ) − 1.

FIGURE 4.34. Problems involving the sine rule.

Answer: (1) Using a trigonometric ratio in the right triangle ABS, we find
that |AS| = 2sin(θ). Then, by applying the sine rule in ΔAST, we determine that

Because sin(90° + θ) cos(θ) and sin(2θ) = 2 sin(θ)cos(θ), we determine that

|ST| = 1. (2) In order to find |AT|, note that the angle at S in ΔAST is 90° − 3θ,
because the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180°. We now apply the sine rule

as follows:

from which we proceed with the following calculation:

4.13.3 The Cosine Rule
In the situation in which the lengths of any two sides and the included angle
are given, the cosine rule can be used to find the length of the remaining side.
The cosine rule can be derived from figure 4.32 by using the distance formula to
find the square of the distance between R and Q, that is, the square of the length

of p:

In fact, any of the following formulas can be applied to ΔPQR:

EXAMPLE 4.13.8. An airplane flies at a constant altitude. It flies from a point P at

a speed of 700 kmph on a course S20°W for 4 h and then changes to a course
S80°W for 5 h at a speed of 800 kmph. After the 9-h period, how far is the plane
from P?
Answer: In figure 4.35, the plane is at point Q after 4 h and at point R after 9
h. The triangle formed by points P, Q, and R has an angle of 120° at Q (why?).
The distance from P to Q is 4 × 700 = 2,800 (km) and the distance from Q to R
is 5 × 800 = 4,000 (km). We can determine the distance from P to R by means of
the cosine rule. To make the calculation numerically easier, we divide distances
by 100:

Therefore, |PR| ≈ 59.19, and we conclude that the airplane is approximately

5,919 km from the point P.

FIGURE 4.35. An application of the cosine rule.

In the next example, the cosine rule is used to find the length of the median
of a triangle in terms of the lengths of the sides.

EXAMPLE 4.13.9. The diagram in figure 4.36 shows a median AD of ΔABC.

Prove that
Answer: By an application of the cosine rule to find the length of the median,
and by a second application of the cosine rule to find the length of side AB, we

obtain the pair of equations:

If the first equation is multiplied by 2 (that is, each side multiplied by 2) and
each side of the second equation is subtracted from the same side of the first

equation, then
which can be expressed as

4|AD|2 = 2b2 + 2c2 − a2.

This leads to the required formula after taking the square root on both sides.

FIGURE 4.36. An application of the cosine rule.

4.14 VECTORS AND TRIGONOMETRY

This section is a continuation of the topic on vectors begun in section 2.6. We
will show that the components of a vector can be expressed in terms of
trigonometric ratios and explain the geometric interpretation of the dot product.

4.14.1 Components of a Vector

The notion of a component can best be explained by means of a few
examples:

EXAMPLE 4.14.1. A kingfisher dives at an angle of 20° to the vertical, at a speed

of 3 m/sec, to catch a fish in a dam. The motion of the kingfisher is represented
by the velocity vector in figure 4.37. Find the horizontal and vertical
components of the velocity vector .
 FIGURE 4.37. Components of a vector.

Answer: Figure 4.37 shows a right triangle in which the hypotenuse

coincides with the velocity vector .

The second diagram shows a vector 1 pointing down along the vertical side
of the right triangle and another vector 2 pointing to the left along the horizontal
side. According to the geometric interpretation of vector addition,
The vectors 1 and 2 can be called the vertical and horizontal components of the
vector . Recall that the magnitudes (or lengths) of the vectors , 1, and 2 are
expressed as | |, | 1|, and | 2|, respectively. From the right triangle, we determine
that that is, the magnitudes of the vertical and
horizontal components can be expressed as | | cos(20°) and | | sin(20°),
respectively. Because | | = 3 m/sec, the magnitudes evaluate to 3cos(20°) 2.819
m/sec and 3sin(20°) ≈ 1.026 m/sec, respectively. Therefore, we can describe the
vector 1 as “2.819 m/sec pointing down,” and the vector 2 as “1.026 m/sec
pointing to the left.”

EXAMPLE 4.14.2. A load with mass 50 kg hangs from two taught strings as
shown in figure 4.38. Find the tensions (forces) in each string.
Answer: The central diagram in figure 4.38 shows the vectors
pointing along each string counteracting the force due to the load. To the left
and right of the central diagram are two smaller diagrams showing the vectors
expressed as sums of the unknown vertical and horizontal component
vectors, that is, In terms of trigonometric ratios,

Thus, we have

If we choose the downward direction as the negative vertical direction, then

the force due to gravity acting on the load is The combined
tensions in the strings exactly counterbalance the load. Therefore,

By substitution of the expressions for from formula (4.21), we

obtain

Now, by equating coefficients of and , we obtain the following pair of

simultaneous equations in the unknown variables

Therefore, the magnitudes of (in terms of the unit Newton [N] for
measuring the magnitude of a force) are

The tensions are now obtained by substitution of the values for

into formula (4.21):
 FIGURE 4.38. An application of vector components.

4.14.2 Geometric Interpretation of the Dot Product

The angle between any two vectors is always taken to be the smaller of two
positive angles that can be measured if the vectors are joined at their initial
points. In particular, if the vectors point in the same direction, then the angle
between them is zero, and if the vectors point in opposite directions, then the
angle between them is π (180°). The angle between two vectors can never be
more than π.
The dot product of two vectors can be interpreted geometrically in terms of
the magnitudes of the two vectors and the angle between the vectors as follows:
we prove that if θ is the angle between two vectors and , then

FIGURE 4.39. The angle between vectors.

In figure 4.39, can be computed by an application of the cosine rule:

 By means of properties of the dot product, the LHS of formula (4.22)
becomes

Therefore, formula (4.23) becomes

which simplifies to formula (4.22).

REMARK 4.14.1. It can be seen as an immediate consequence of formula (4.22)

that if two vectors are perpendicular (orthogonal), then the angle between them
is (90°), and so their dot product is zero. Conversely, if the dot product of two
nonzero vectors is zero, then the angle between them must be .

4.15 MORE IDENTITIES

There are many trigonometric identities. In this chapter, the most basic
identities have been provided. In this section, a few more identities will be
derived. The starting point will be the addition identities:

If the columns are first added, then subtracted, the resulting equations are

If A − B is replaced by C and A + B replaced by D, then

The equations in formula (4.23) can now be expressed as the following sum
and difference of cosine ratios:
 A similar pair of identities can be derived in an analogous way for a sum and
difference of sine ratios:

EXAMPLE 4.15.1. Prove the identity:

Answer:

EXERCISES

4.1. Convert the following angles in radians to degrees. The answer should be
rounded off to three decimal digits.

(a)
 (b)

(c)

(d)

(e) 1
(f) 3
4.2. Convert the following angles in degrees to radians.
(a) 150°
(b) 390°
(c) 1°
(d) 6°

(e)

(f)

4.3. Answer the following questions.

(a) If tan(θ) < 0 and csc(θ) > 0 for some angle θ, to which quadrant does
θ belong?
(b) If sec(α) > 0 and cot(α) < 0 for some angle α, to which quadrant does
α belong?

4.4. Find the value of csc() θ if θ belongs to the first quadrant and

4.5. Given that and s is in the third quadrant, find the values of
cos(s) and tan(s).
4.6. Find the exact value of each of the following trigonometric ratios.
 (a)

(b)

(c) sin(135°)
(d) cos(135°)
(e) cot(210°)
(f) sin(210°)

(g)

(h)

4.7. Find the exact value of each of the following trigonometric ratios.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g) sec(π)
 (h)

4.8. What are the values of u and υ in each of the diagrams in figure 4.40?

FIGURE 4.40. Find the values of u and υ.

4.9. What is the magnitude of θ in each of the diagrams in figure 4.41?

FIGURE 4.41. Find the magnitude of θ.

4.10. Suppose that ΔABC is a right triangle with a right angle at C, and the sides
a, b, and c (opposite the vertices A, B, and C, respectively) form a
geometric sequence (assume that a < b < c). Find the magnitude of the
angle at B. (Hint: a, b, and c form a geometric sequence if and only if
A calculator will be needed to get the answer.)
4.11. Solve for θ ∈ [0, 2π] in each of the following equations:

(a)

(b)
(c) sin(2θ) = cos(2θ)
(d) sin2 θ = cos2 θ
4.12. Prove the cofunction identities (formula (4.1)) using formulas (4.7) and
(4.8).
4.13. Prove the identity:

(Hint: 1 − x2 = (1 − x)(1+x).)
4.14. Prove the identity:

4.15. Carefully sketch the graphs of the following equations. Label the peaks of
the graphs and label the intercepts on the axes. Show at least one full
period for each graph.

(a)

(b) y = cos(π(x − 1))

(c) y = 1.5sin(−x)
(d) y = 0.5sin(0.5x)

(e)

(f) y = −sec(x)
4.16. Simplify the following expressions by making use of the first Pythagorean
 identity (formula (4.4)): (a) (sin(u) + cos(u))2 − 2sin(u)cos(u)
(b) (sin(−x) − cos(−x))2 − 1
4.17. Prove the addition identities for the sine ratio (formula (4.8)). (Hint: make
use of the cofunction identities.) 4.18. Prove the addition identities for the
tangent ratio (formula (4.11)).
4.19. Use the addition identities or half-angle identities to evaluate the following
ratios: (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

4.20. For each of the following sets of values, solve for triangle ABC. Be sure to
find all possible solutions (triangles).
(a) a = 15, b = 25, and A = 45°
(b) a = 4, b = 3, and B = 30°
(c) a = 15, b = 10, and A = 45°

4.21. If what is tan(2θ)?

4.22. A lighthouse is built on the edge of a vertical cliff that is 20 m high. From
a point 70 m from the base of the cliff, the angle of elevation to the top of
the lighthouse is 30°. How tall is the lighthouse?
4.23. Prove, for any triangle PQR with sides p, q, and r, that
4.24. Prove that the area of any triangle PQR is

4.25. Two observers, 1 mile apart on level ground, notice an unidentified flying
object (UFO) hovering above a radio station directly between them. The
angles of elevation from each observer to the UFO are 25° and 45°,
respectively. At what altitude is the UFO hovering?
4.26. Derive the half-angle identity

from the half-angle identities for the sine and cosine ratios.
4.27. Kyle watches a kite ahead of him at an angle of 45° to the horizontal (level
ground), while Nathan, standing in front of Kyle, watches the same kite at
an angle of 60° to the horizontal (see figure 4.42). The direct distance
from Kyle to the kite is m. How far is Kyle standing behind Nathan?

FIGURE 4.42. Kyle and Nathan watching a kite.

4.28. Figure 4.43 shows a vertical tower AB with its base at point A. Two other
points S and T form a triangle with A in a horizontal plane that is
perpendicular to the tower. The angle of elevation of B from S is equal to
θ; that is, BŜA = θ and SÂT = 2θ. The sides AT and ST are of equal length
x. Prove the following: (a) The length of AS is 2x cos(2θ),
 (b) The length of AB is
2x tan(θ)cos(2θ).

FIGURE 4.43. Diagram for exercise 4.30.

4.29. In figure 4.44, if the three angles at P that are marked equal are equal to θ,
show that |AC| = 2 |PC| sin(θ); hence, or otherwise, show that

FIGURE 4.44. Diagram for exercise 4.32.

4.30. Prove the identity:

4.31. Prove the identity:

sin(2x) + sin(4x) + sin(6x) = 4sin(3x)cos(2x)cos(x).

4.32. A golf caddy pulls a bag of golf clubs along a level green with a force of
500 N exerted at an angle of 42° to the horizontal. Find the horizontal and
 vertical components of the force.
4.33. In figure 4.45, PQ and ST are vertical towers. From a point R, in the same
horizontal plane as Q and T, the angles of elevation to P and S are ϕ and
2ϕ, respectively. S R = 90° + ϕ and S Q = 90° − 2ϕ. If |QR| = a, express
|PQ| and |ST| each in terms of a and a trigonometric ratio of ϕ. Thus prove
that Calculate if ϕ = 360°. Leave your answer in radical
notation.

FIGURE 4.45. Diagram for exercise 4.36.

4.34. Two forces with magnitudes 8 and 10 N, respectively, act on an

object at the origin (shown in figure 4.46). Find the resultant force
acting at the origin, that is, find the magnitude and determine the
direction of by finding the value of θ.

FIGURE 4.46. Diagram for exercise 4.37.

4.35. Determine whether the following pairs of vectors are orthogonal, parallel,
or neither.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
 CHAPTER 5

FUNCTIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Calculus can be regarded as the science of curves. A basic problem relating to
curves is measuring the area enclosed by a particular curve. The Greek
Mathematician Archimedes, who lived in Sicily in the third century BC, found a
way to measure the area enclosed by a parabola. This is explained in his famous
treatise Quadrature of the Parabola. In another treatise, called Spiral Lines, he
proved that a spiral line encloses one-third of the area enclosed by the circle
surrounding it. These treatises, together with other treatises and books that he
wrote, can be taken as the beginning of calculus.
A curve can most conveniently be defined as the graph of a function. In the
modern presentation of calculus, as we will see in chapters 7 and 8 of this book,
the operations of calculus are applied to functions.
In this chapter, we begin with the set theoretic definition of a function that
has been the preferred definition of a function since the early twentieth century.
In fact, we see in section 5.2 that a function is a special type of relation and that
a relation is a pairing of elements of two sets called the domain and codomain. If
the codomain of a function is ℝ (the set of real numbers), then the function is
called a real-valued function. Examples of real-valued functions that have
already been studied in earlier chapters of this book (although not explicitly
mentioned as such) are polynomials and trigonometric functions.
Most of us are familiar with the graphing capabilities of pocket calculators
and computers. In section 5.3, we explain how the graph of a function can be
generated from a table of values, and this can, in fact, be used to generate the
graph of an equation, an example of which is given in section 5.3.1. A simple
test, described in section 5.3.2, called the vertical line test, can be used to decide
whether any given graph can be considered the graph of a real-valued function.
The types of real-valued function that we introduce in this chapter are the
absolute value function (in section 5.4), exponential functions (in section 5.5),
root functions (in section 5.7), rational functions (in section 5.6), and logarithmic
functions (in section 5.13.2). Piecewise defined functions, introduced in section
5.8, are a means to draw more complicated graphs and also, as we will see in
chapter 7 a means to understand the left and right limits.
Functions can also be regarded as elements of an algebra of functions, that
is, as explained in section 5.10, functions can be added, subtracted, divided, and
multiplied together. In other words, it is possible to operate on functions with the
same operations that are performed with real numbers. Functions can also be
composed with each other as a way of linking functions together, so that the
output of one function is the input for another function.
Transformations of functions, including vertical and horizontal shifts,
vertical and horizontal scaling, and reflections across the axes, are introduced in
section 5.11.
There arise situations where we would like to describe figures (think of
spirals, loops, and flowers) in the plane that cannot be described as the graphs of
real-valued functions. Vector-valued functions, introduced in section 5.12, differ
from real-valued functions in that a value in the domain is mapped to a vector (a
pair of real numbers) rather than a single real number. Thus, the graph of a
vector-valued function (which is called a trajectory) may contain loops and self-
intersections.
This chapter ends with an introduction to inverse functions and the
logarithmic function and inverse trigonometric functions as examples of the
construction of inverse functions by reflections of the graphs of one-to-one
functions about the line y = x.

5.2 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

The definition of a relation always involves two sets called A and B.

DEFINITION 5.2.1. A relation, which we may call r, is a set of coordinate pairs,

where the first member of each coordinate pair is any element of a set A and the
second member is any element of a set B.
 Thus, each element of the relation is a pairing of any element of A with any
element of B. It is easy to make up examples from the world we live in.

EXAMPLE 5.2.1. The set A is {shark, whale, penguin, tuna, porpoise, turtle,
albatross}, set B is {Atlantic ocean, Pacific Ocean, Antarctic Ocean, Arctic
Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, Bering Straight, South China Sea, Amazon River}, and
the relation r is {(shark, Pacific Ocean), (shark, Gulf of Mexico), (shark,
Amazon River), (whale, Pacific Ocean), (penguin, Antarctic Ocean), (tuna,
Atlantic Ocean), (porpoise, Bering Straight), (turtle, Gulf of Mexico)}. A
diagrammatic representation of the relation is shown in figure 5.1.

FIGURE 5.1. A diagrammatic representation of a relation.

Some observations need to be made about the relation defined in this

example and the properties of a relation that are permissible, in general. First, an
element of A may be paired with more than one element of B (e.g., “shark” is
paired with three elements of B). Second, different elements of A may be paired
with the same element of B (e.g., “shark” and “turtle” are both paired with “Gulf
of Mexico”). Third, some elements of A (“albatross”) may not be paired with
any element of B, and finally, some elements of B (“South China Sea”) may not
be paired with any element of A.
The domain of the relation r is the subset of A consisting of those elements
of A that are paired with elements of B. The range of the relation r is the subset
of B consisting of those elements of B that are paired with elements of A. Thus,
the domain of r is the set {shark, whale, penguin, tuna, porpoise, turtle} and the
range of r is the set {Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Antarctic Ocean, Arctic
Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, Bering Straight, Amazon River}. The order in which the
elements of sets A and B, the domain, and range are listed does not matter.

REMARK 5.2.1. Any selection of points (coordinate pairs) in the Cartesian plane
determines a relation because we can identify the x axis with set A and the y axis
with set B. Evidently, any relation whose domain and range are both subsets of
ℝ can be identified with a collection of points in the Cartesian plane.

EXAMPLE 5.2.2. Plot the coordinate pairs given by the relation:

r = {(3, −1), (2, 0), (2, 1), (1, 1), (1, 0), (1, −1), (0, 0)}

in the Cartesian plane. What is the domain of r? What is the range of r?

A special type of relation is one in which every element of set A is paired

with only one element of set B. This type of relation is called a function. Note
that the domain of a function coincides with set A. Set B is called the codomain.
The definition of a function does not exclude the possibility of an element of B
being paired with more than one element of A. The definition of the range of a
function is the same as the definition of the range of a relation. A function is
usually labeled f (in the same way that a relation is usually labeled r). Here is the
formal definition of a function:

DEFINITION 5.2.2. A function is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set A,

called the domain, exactly one element f(x) in a set B, called the codomain.

REMARK 5.2.2. In the definition of a function f, the letter x is a variable. This

means that x is representative of any element of the domain of f. While the letters
f and x are typically used for the name and variable in the definition of a
function, other letters, or names, could be used. The letters g and h are typically
used for the name of a function, and the letters r, s, t, u, v, w, y, and z are also
typically used for the name of the variable.

EXAMPLE 5.2.3. Using the same sets A and B as in example 5.2.1 above, an
example of a function is {(shark, Pacific Ocean), (whale, Pacific Ocean),
(penguin, Antarctic Ocean), (tuna, Atlantic Ocean), (porpoise, Bering Straight),
(turtle, Gulf of Mexico), (albatross, Bering Straight)}. Figure 5.2 is a
diagrammatic representation of this function.
 FIGURE 5.2. A diagrammatic representation of a function.

REMARK 5.2.3. A useful analogy of a function is the machine analogy. The

machine takes an input x, performs some kind of operation on the input, and
gives an output that we call f(x). This is shown in figure 5.3.

FIGURE 5.3. The machine analogy of a function.

REMARK 5.2.4. In this textbook, the domain of a function will always be a subset
of ℝ and the codomain will either be ℝ, in which case the function is real-
valued, or the set of two-dimensional vectors (with real-valued components), in
which case the function is vector-valued.

REMARK 5.2.5. Two functions are the same if and only if they have the same
domain, codomain, range, and pairing of elements of the domain with elements
of the codomain. (The order in which the elements of the domain, codomain, and
range are listed does not matter.)

EXAMPLE 5.2.4. If we modify the function defined in the previous example, by

choosing a different codomain, for example, B = {Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean,
Antarctic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, Bering Straight, South China Sea} (i.e.,
Amazon River is excluded) and, all else being the same, we regard the functions
as different (unequal) functions.

REMARK 5.2.6. If a function f(x) is given, the domain may, or may not, be stated
explicitly as part of the definition of the function. In the latter case, it should be
assumed that the domain is the largest set of real numbers for which the function
is defined. In other words, the domain is the set of all real values x for which f(x)
is a real number.
In the next two examples, the domain of the function is stated explicitly as
the set A and the codomain is the set of real numbers.

EXAMPLE 5.2.5. If f(x) = 3x and A = ℕ, then the domain is the set of natural
numbers, and the range is the set of all natural numbers that are a multiple of 3,
which we can denote as 3ℕ.

EXAMPLE 5.2.6. If g(x) = x2 and A = [0, 4], then the range is the interval [0, 16].

In the following four examples, the domain is not stated explicitly.

EXAMPLE 5.2.7. This function is defined for any value of t for which
the denominator is not zero. Therefore, the only real numbers that should be
excluded from the domain are 0 and −1. In set notation, the domain of f is:

A = {t ∈ ℝ | t ≠ 0, t ≠ −1}.
Using interval notation, the domain of f is a union of three open intervals:

A = (−∞, −1)∪(−1, 0)∪(0, ∞).

EXAMPLE 5.2.8. This function is defined as long as y is non-negative.

A = {y ∈ ℝ | y ≥ 0} = [0, ∞)
EXAMPLE 5.2.9. is defined as long as x is positive.

A = {x ∈ ℝ | x > 0} = (0, ∞)

EXAMPLE 5.2.10. is defined as long as 4 − 3s − s2 is non-

negative, that is

It is helpful to draw a number line to solve the inequality (4 + s)(1 − s) ≥ 0

(i.e., to find all values of s for which the inequality is a true statement), as shown
in the diagram below. Because the factor 4 + s changes sign at s = −4 and the
factor 1 − s changes sign at s = 1, the sign of the product (4 + s)(1 − s) will
change sign at s = −4 and s = 1, while its sign will be constant on each of the
intervals (−∞, −4), (−4, 1), and (1, ∞). A test point in the interval (−4, 1), for
example, s = 0, determines that the product is positive in this interval (because (4
+ 0)(1 − 0) = 4 > 0), and, consequently, the product must be negative in the
intervals (−∞, −4) and (1, ∞). Therefore, we can express the domain of f(s) as:

A = {s ∈ ℝ | −4 ≤ s ≤ 1} = [−4, 1].

FIGURE 5.4. Solving an inequality on the number line.

In the next example we mention some types of function that were introduced
in chapters 3 and 4.
EXAMPLE 5.2.11. A linear function is of the form f(x) = mx + c, where m and c
are real numbers; a quadratic function is of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a,
b, and c are real numbers; a cubic function is of the form f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx +
d, where a, b, c, and d are real numbers; and so on. In general, a polynomial
function is a polynomial expression, as defined in section 3.4. The domain of
any polynomial function is the set of real numbers, unless specified otherwise.
The basic trigonometric functions are f(x) = sin(x), the sine function; f(x) =
cos(x), the cosine function; and f(x) = tan(x), the tangent function (or tan
function, for short). The sine and cosine functions have the same domain, that is,
the set of real numbers, and the domain of the tan function is the union of
intervals of the form where n is any integer. The reciprocal
trigonometric functions, that is, the cosecant, secant, and cotangent functions,
can be defined similarly. We can also define functions using a mixture of
polynomial and trigonometric terms, for example, f(x) = sin3(x) – 5cos(2x) + x2.

The evaluation of a real-valued function involves substitution of any real

number (belonging to the domain of the function) for x and simplification of the
resulting expression.

EXAMPLE 5.2.12. If, f(x) = sin3 (x) −5cos(2x) + x2, then:

5.3 VISUALIZING FUNCTIONS

Diagrams or graphs can help us visualize the properties of a function. Most
students are familiar with graphing/plotting software on pocket calculators or
computers, but how does the software generate graphs that look like smooth
curves? It is a visual trick. A computer-generated curve is, in fact, composed of
many straight-line segments that join together and seemingly blend into a
smooth curve. These line segments join coordinate pairs that are determined
from a table of values generated by the software according to the definition of
the function.

EXAMPLE 5.3.1. Table 5.1 gives the values of the function f(x) = x3 at half-integer
points from −3 to 3. The coordinate pairs given in the table are (−3, −27), (−2.5,
−15.625), (−2, −8), and so on. As a comparison, we first generate a graph by
plotting the coordinate pairs with integer values of x only, as shown in the first
diagram in figure 5.5, and then generate a graph using all of the coordinate pairs,
as shown in the second diagram. Clearly, the jagged edges in the second graph
are less pronounced.

TABLE 5.1. Table of values for y = x3

FIGURE 5.5. Generating the graph of a cubic function.

It is important to remember that the appearance of the graph of a function

depends on the domain of the function. A dramatic illustration of this is the
graph of the function f(x) = sin(x), with the set of natural numbers chosen for the
domain. This graph, shown in figure 5.6 (up to x = 280), looks very different
from the familiar graph of the sine function in which the set of real numbers is
the domain (as shown in figure 4.16).
 FIGURE 5.6. The sine function plotted at positive integers.

5.3.1 Graphs of Equations

The graph of an equation is generated from the solution set of the equation.
This is the set of all coordinate pairs for which the equation is a true statement.

EXAMPLE 5.3.2. The solution set of the equation is the set S of all
coordinate pairs (x, y) for which the equation is a true statement, that is

Some coordinate pairs that belong to the solution set S are (±8, 0), (0, ±8),
and We can generate an approximate graph of S by plotting
these twelve points, as shown in the first diagram of figure 5.7 below. In the
second diagram, a “smooth” curve is generated using 256 points. This graph is
called an astroid. (Note that )

FIGURE 5.7. Generating the graph of an astroid.

5.3.2 The Vertical Line Test
The graph of an equation is not necessarily the graph of a function. A visual
test called the vertical line test is used to tell when a graph is the graph of a
function (like the astroid above). According to this test, if any vertical line cuts
the graph at most once, then the graph is the graph of a function. Stated
otherwise, if it is possible to draw a vertical line that cuts the graph at two or
more points, then the graph is not the graph of a function. Figure 5.8 below
contains some diagrams that illustrate this. Three of the graphs are the graphs of
functions (the two semicircles and the parabola) and three are not (the circle, the
sideways parabola, and the astroid).

FIGURE 5.8. The vertical line test.

5.4 THE ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION

The absolute value of a real number was introduced in section 1.6 Here, we
introduce the absolute value function: f(x) = |x|, with the domain being the set of
real numbers. The graph of f(x) in the Cartesian plane is in the shape of a “V,”
with the point of the “V” at the origin. The graph can be modified, for example,
f(x) = 2|x| gives a steeper “V” and f(x) = |x|−1 shifts the “V” down by one unit as
shown in figure 5.9 below.
 FIGURE 5.9. Graphs of the absolute value function.

5.5 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

We are not yet in a position to define a function f(x) = ax with the set of real
numbers as the domain because we have not yet defined the meaning of an
exponent that is not a natural number. (In section 1.9, we stated that an exponent
is a symbol for repeated multiplication if the exponent is a natural number.) In
section 5.5.3, we will explain the meaning of ax if x is a rational number, and in
section 5.5.2, we will explain the meaning of ax if x is an irrational number. In
order to simplify matters, we assume that a > 0.

5.5.1 Fractional Exponents

We are guided by the laws for exponents in table 1.6 in section 1.14, where it
was supposed that m and n were integers. If we suppose instead that m and n
were rational numbers, that is, if and n = 2, for example, then according to
the second law for exponents,

We are led to define a1/2 as Similarly, if and n = 3, for example,

then

and so we are led to define a1/3 as In general, if k is any natural number and
n is any integer, then
 The following example demonstrates how expressions with fractional
exponents can be evaluated or simplified.

EXAMPLE 5.3.3.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

5.5.2 Irrational Exponents

It is difficult, at this stage of the book, to justify why numbers such as 2π,
π
, 4e, πe, or 2x , that is, numbers formed with irrational exponents, should be
regarded as real numbers. For now, a good enough justification is that any
irrational exponent can be replaced with a rational exponent (a fraction) that
approximates the irrational exponent as closely as needed, simply by truncating
the infinite decimal expansion of the irrational number. For example, because an
approximate value for e is (see section 1.12.3), the number 4e can be
approximated by If you compute 4e on a pocket calculator, it
will give a decimal number very close to this value.
Because exponents have now been defined for real numbers (integer,
rational, and irrational exponents), the laws for exponents given in table 1.6 can
be generalized to the case where the integers m and n are the real numbers x and
y, respectively, as shown in table 5.2.

5.5.3 The Graphs of Exponential Functions

 If a > 0, we can now take the domain of the function f(x) = ax to be the set of
real numbers. This is the exponential function. We can set a = 2 and draw the
graph of y = f(x) in the Cartesian plane. As always, we can make a table of
values for the function, using some integer values for x.
TABLE 5.3. Table of values for y = 2x

In the first diagram in figure 5.10, we show an approximate graph of f(x) =

2x, using the seven coordinate pairs in table 5.3, and in the second diagram, we
show the graph of f(x) = 2x as a smooth curve.

FIGURE 5.10. Generating the graph of an exponential function.

In general, if 0 < a < 1, the graph of the exponential function f(x) = ax

increases rapidly to the right and decreases rapidly to the left of the y axis.
However, if 0 < a < 1, then the graph increases rapidly to the left and decreases
rapidly to the right of the y axis (why?). If a = 1, then the graph is a constant
function (the identity function) because 1x = 1 for all values of x (why?). Note
that the graph of f(x) = ax intersects the y axis at y = 1.
TABLE 5.2. Laws for exponents
5.6 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

DEFINITION 5.6.1. A rational function is a function of the form where
p(x) and q(x) are polynomials. We also refer to an expression of the form
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, as a rational expression.

EXAMPLE 5.6.1. A basic example of a rational function is

The domain of f(x) is ℝ\{0}, that is, the set of
real numbers, excluding zero. The graph of is is a hyperbola, as shown in
figure 5.11, in which the y axis is a vertical asymptote. This means that the graph
of grows closer and closer to the y axis as the value of x gets closer and
closer to zero, while the corresponding y value increases toward infinity or
minus infinity depending whether x approaches zero through positive or negative
values, respectively.

In this chapter, we will suppose that the polynomials p(x) and q(x) in the
definition of a rational function are polynomials with real coefficients. With this
in mind, we recall theorem 3.7.3, which states that every polynomial with real
coefficients and positive degree can be factorized as a product of linear and
irreducible quadratic factors with real coefficients. If the factorizations of p(x)
and q(x) have no linear or irreducible quadratic factors in common, then is a
rational expression in simplest form. If p(x) and q(x) do have linear or irreducible
quadratic factors in common, then all of these common factors can be canceled
across the division sign, resulting in a new rational expression, which is then in
simplest form.

FIGURE 5.11. The graph of the rational function

EXAMPLE 5.6.2. Consider the rational expression By means of the

methods described in section 3.7, we find the factorizations x3 − x2 − x − 2 = (x −
2)(x2 + x + 1) and x2 − 4 = (x − 2)(x + 2). We therefore obtain the following
simplification of the rational expression by cancellation of the common factor (x
− 2):

The rational expression is in simplest form.

REMARK 5.6.1. The functions and are not the same,

even though the rational expression that defines the function g can be obtained
from the rational expression that defines the function f by cancellation of a
common factor. To find why f and g are not the same function, observe that the
domain of f is {x ∈ ℝ|x ≠ −2}, whereas the domain of g is {x ∈ ℝ|x ≠ −2}.
Indeed, according to the PEMDAS rule introduced in section 1.10, which
is not defined (not a real number), whereas Thus, it is clear that x = 2 is in
the domain of g but not in the domain of f.
The graphs of rational functions will be discussed in detail in chapter 7 For
the time being, it is enough to know that the graph of a rational function
has vertical asymptotes at those, and only those, values of x for which the
rational expression in simplest form, obtained by simplification of , is not
defined. These values of x are precisely the values xi of the linear factors (x − xi)
belonging to the factorization of q(x) that remains after all common factors of
p(x) and q(x) have been canceled.

EXAMPLE 5.6.3. The rational function has a vertical asymptote at

x = −2 (and this is the only vertical asymptote). The graphs of f(x) and
are shown in figure 5.12 below. The graph of f differs from the
graph of g only at x = 2. We draw an open circle above x = 2 on the graph of y =
f(x) to indicate that x = 2 is not in the domain of f. The vertical asymptote
through x = −2 is shown as a dotted line.

FIGURE 5.12. Graphs of two rational functions that differ at one point.
5.7 ROOT FUNCTIONS

DEFINITION 5.7.1. Root functions are functions of the form If n is even,
then the domain is the set of non-negative real numbers. If n is odd, then the
domain is the set of real numbers.
The graphs of for n = 2 and n = 3 are shown in the first and second
diagrams, respectively, in figure 5.13 below.

FIGURE 5.13. Even and odd root functions.

In general, if n is even, then the graph of will have the same shape
as the graph of , and if n is odd, then the graph of will have the
same shape as the graph of

5.8 PIECEWISE DEFINED FUNCTIONS

We now introduce the notion of a piecewise defined function.

DEFINITION 5.8.1. A piecewise defined function is a function with different

definitions on different intervals of the real line.
If the separate definitions of piecewise defined functions are familiar, as in
the examples below, then it is possible to draw a graph corresponding to each
definition.
If the graphs on two adjacent intervals do not join at the common end point
of the two intervals, then the value of the piecewise defined function is indicated
by placing a bullet on the end point of the graph that is across the correct y value
and an open circle on the end point of the graph that is not the function value.
This can be understood with the help of the following example.

EXAMPLE 5.8.1. We define the piecewise defined function

The graph of y = f(x) is shown in figure 5.14. The location of the bullet in the
graph determines that f(1) = 0.

FIGURE 5.14. A piecewise defined function.

A familiar function that can be expressed in terms of a piecewise definition

is the absolute value function.

EXAMPLE 5.8.2. The graph of

can be drawn by erasing the dotted portions of the lines y = x and y = x, as shown
in the first diagram in figure 5.15 below, which leaves behind the graph of the
absolute value function. Similarly, the graph of
can be drawn by erasing the dotted portions of the parabolas shown in the second
diagram of figure 5.15.

FIGURE 5.15. Piecewise defined functions.

5.9 SYMMETRY OF FUNCTIONS

The graphs of some functions have the property of being symmetric across the
axes. We identify two types of symmetry.

DEFINITION 5.9.1. If the graph of a function folds onto itself over the y axis, then
the function is called an even function; if the graph of a function matches itself
when it is reflected both across the y axis and across the x axis, then the function
is called an odd function.

REMARK 5.9.1. At should be understoond from definition 5.9.1 that in order to

talk about a function being even or odd, its domain, as a subset of the number
line, should be symmetric about the origin, that is, if x is an element of the
domain, then −x is also an element of the domain.

EXAMPLE 5.9.1. In figure 5.16, the graphs on the left are the graphs of even
functions, and the graphs on the right are the graphs of odd functions.
 FIGURE 5.16. Even and odd functions.

REMARK 5.9.2. A function is an even function if and only if it has the algebraic
property f(−x) = f(x) for any value x in the domain of f, and a function is an odd
function if and only if, it has the algebraic property f(−x) = −f(x) for any value x
in the domain of f.

EXAMPLE 5.9.2. = f(x) = x + x5 is an odd function because

f(−x) = (−x) + (−x)5) = −x − x5 = −(x + x5) = −f(x)

5.10 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS

Functions can be regarded as elements of an algebraic system, meaning that we
can add, subtract, multiply, and divide them. We can also operate on functions
by forming compositions of functions.

5.10.1 The Algebra of Functions

DEFINITION 5.10.1. Suppose that f and g are functions with domains A and B,
respectively, then we can create the new functions.

f + g, f − g, fg, f / g,

defined by

The next example demonstrates that it is possible to prove statements about

the properties of functions, in general (i.e., statements that do not require
specification of any particular functions).

EXAMPLE 5.10.1. Prove that a sum of odd functions is an odd function.

Answer: Suppose that f and g are odd functions, then for a value of x in the
domain of both functions,

As we have proved that (f + g)(−x) = −(f + g)(x), we conclude that f + g is an

odd function.

5.10.2 Compositions of Functions

DEFINITION 5.10.2. If the output from one function is taken to be the input for
another function, then this forms a composition of the functions. If the first
function is g and the second function is f, then the composition is denoted as f ∘
g.
We can use the machine analogy again (figure 5.17 below), with g taking an
input x and giving an output u and f taking u as its input and giving an output y.
The composition f ∘ g takes x as its input and gives y as its output.

FIGURE 5.17. Machine analogy of the composition of two functions.

It is a familiar experience for us to hook up two machines, where the first

machine provides data or some other kind of input to the second machine. For
example, a computer sends a bit stream to a printer when a “print” command is
executed from the keyboard of a computer. If the printer does not print as
expected, then the problem could be with the printer or with the computer (or the
keyboard). A simpler example is a hose pipe connected to a faucet. If we turn on
the faucet to water a flower bed, then water might not come out of the hose if
there is a kink in the hose. However, if there is no kink in the hose, then we
would check to see whether water is actually coming out of the faucet. The
principle is the same with mathematical functions. We cannot hope for a
composition f ∘ g of functions to give an output if the input x is not in the
domain of the first function g. Another way to put it is that the domain of the
composition f ∘ g should be a subset of the domain of g (i.e., any value excluded
from the domain of the first function should also be excluded from the domain of
the composition).

EXAMPLE 5.10.2. If and then we can obtain the expression

for f ∘ g:
 The domain of f ∘ g should exclude x = 1 (because the denominator of
should not be zero) and also exclude x = −1 (because this value is not in the
domain of g). Therefore, the domain of f ∘ g is:

{x ∈ ℝ|x ≠ 1, x ≠ −1}.

EXAMPLE 5.10.3. If and then we can form the composition in

two ways:

The domain of f ∘ h is {x ∈ ℝ | x ≠ 0} and the domain of h ∘ f {x ∈ ℝ | x >

0}.

5.11 TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

Functions can be transformed in various ways. The transformations below result
in a vertical or horizontal shift of the graph of the function, or a vertical or
horizontal stretch or compression of the graph of the function. Graphs can also
be reflected across the y axis or the x axis.

5.11.1 Vertical and Horizontal Shifts

DEFINITION 5.11.1. Suppose that c > 0 and f(x) is any real-valued function, then
the graphs of the following equations are related to the graph of y = f(x) by
means of a shift up, down, left, or right.
• y = f(x) + c (graph shifts up c units)
• y = f(x) − c (graph shifts down c units)
 • y = f(x + c) (graph shifts to the left c units)
• y = f(x − c) (graph shifts to the right c units)

EXAMPLE 5.11.1. If f(x) = |x| and g(x) = f(x − 1) = |x − 1|, then the effect of the
transformation can be understood from table 5.4, which shows the values of f(x)
and g(x) for some integer values of x. The graphs are shown in figure 5.18.

FIGURE 5.18. The shifting of an absolute value graph.

TABLE 5.4. Table of values for y = g(x) = |x − 1|

5.11.2 Vertical and Horizontal Scaling

DEFINITION 5.11.2. Suppose that c > 1 and f(x) is any real-valued function, then
the graphs of the following equations are related to the graph of y = f(x) by
means of a vertical or horizontal stretching or compression of the graph
• y = cf(x) (graph stretches vertically)

• (graph compresses vertically)

• y = f(cx) (graph compresses horizontally)

 • (graph stretches horizontally)

Examples of the scaling of cosine and sine graphs were given in section 4.8.3
There are more examples for other types of functions in the exercises at the end
of this chapter.

5.11.3 Reflections Across the Axes

DEFINITION 5.11.3. If f(x) is any real-valued function, then the graph of y = f(x)
can reflect across the y axis or the x axis.
• y = −f(x) (graph reflects across the x axis)
• y = f(−x) (graph reflects across the y axis)

EXAMPLE 5.11.2. Let f(x) = 2x. The graph in figure 5.19 below, shows the graph
of y = f(x) together with its reflection across the y axis (i.e., the graph of y = f(−x)
= 2−x).

FIGURE 5.19. Reflection of an exponential graph across the y axis.

5.12 VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS

A graph that fails the vertical line test is not the graph of a real-valued function,
but it could be the graph of a vector-valued function. We will explain below
what is meant by a vector-valued function. The graph of a vector-valued
function is a curve that, together with a specified direction, is called a directed
curve or a trajectory.

DEFINITION 5.12.1. A vector-valued function is defined in component form, or in

terms of the standard basis vectors, as

where x(t) and y(t) are real-valued functions of a variable t (called a

parameter), a is a real number or −∞, and b is a real number or ∞.

DEFINITION 5.12.2. The trajectory of a vector-valued function is the curve

{(x(t), y(t))|a ≤ t ≤ b}

directed with increasing values of t.

REMARK 5.12.1. The trajectory of a vector-valued function with two components,

as defined earlier, is a directed curve in the Euclidean plane (i.e., two-
dimensional space). If a vector-valued function is defined with three
components, then its trajectory is a directed curve in three-dimensional space.

EXAMPLE 5.12.1. Some values for the vector-valued function

that is, x(t) = t2 − 2t and y(t) = t + 1, are computed in table 5.5 below. The
terminal point of the position vector for any of the vectors in the table is a point
on the trajectory of as shown in figure 5.20 below. The
trajectory looks like a parabola turned on its side. That’s because it is a parabola!
(The reason for this is given at the end of section 5.12.3.)

TABLE 5.5. Table of values for

 FIGURE 5.20. The trajectory of the vector-valued function

Some familiar graphs, for example, a circle and a line, can also be described
as the trajectories of vector-valued functions.

5.12.1 The Vector-Valued Function for a Circle

If is the position vector for a point on a circle centered at the origin with
radius R, that is, the circle x2 + y2 = R2, then

where θ is the angle in a counterclockwise direction from the x axis to the vector
(Refer to figure 5.21.) By solving for x and y above, and regarding θ as a
parameter, the vector-valued function for a circle can be described as

where −∞ < θ < ∞. As θ increases from 0, the radius vector r(θ) winds around
the circle in a counterclockwise direction, completing one revolution for each
increment in the value of θ by 2π. Similarly, as θ decreases, the radius vector
r(θ) winds around the circle in a clockwise direction, completing one revolution
for each decrement in the value of θ by 2π.
 FIGURE 5.21. The vector equation for a circle.

5.12.2 The Vector-Valued Function for a Line

Recall that the Cartesian equation for a line can be determined when the
slope m and a point P(a, b) on the line are given. The equation for the line is then
y − b = m(x − a).

FIGURE 5.22. The vector equation for a line.

Alternatively, as we now demonstrate by figure 5.22, a line can be

determined when a vector parallel to the line and a position vector for any
point on the line are given. We see that P0 is the terminal point of and any
other point (e.g., points P1, P2, and Pt in the diagram) on the line can be reached
by adding an appropriate scalar multiple of v to Generally, if the scalar
multiple of is denoted as then the position vector for a point on the line can
be described as Thus, we regard t as the parameter for the vector-valued
function defined by

If are expressed in component form as then

can also be expressed in component form as

That is, where

These two equations are called the parametric equations for the line.

EXAMPLE 5.12.2. Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line
passing through the points P(3, −2) and Q(5, 7).
Answer: A vector parallel to the line is the directed line segment joining P to
Q. Thus, in terms of the notation above, A position
vector for a point on the line can be either the position vector for P or the
position vector for Q, so we may set (the position vector for P).
Therefore,

and the parametric equations are

REMARK 5.12.2. The expression of the vector and parametric equations for a line
depends on the choice of parameter. In example 3.12.2, if t is replaced by s + 1,
then the parametric equations for the line (in terms of parameter s) are
 These are the equations that result from the choice (the position
vector for Q).
It should be no surprise that it is possible to convert the vector equation, or
parametric equations, into the familiar Euclidean equation for a line.

EXAMPLE 5.12.3. This is a continuation of example 5.12.2. If the parametric

equations are expressed as

then by solving for t in each equation,

the parameter t can be eliminated by setting the expressions for t equal to each
other, that is

which simplifies to

This is the Cartesian equation for the line.

5.12.3 Exploring Vector-Valued Functions

The trajectories of vector-valued functions can form spirals and loops, or
they can be transformations of the graphs of familiar real-valued functions. Let’s
look at a few examples.

EXAMPLE 5.12.4. A vector-valued function with a spiral trajectory is obtained by

multiplying the vector-valued function for a unit circle by the parameter value.
For instance, the trajectory of is contained in the unit
circle, with one complete revolution of the circle for every increase of θ by one
unit. Now, if for θ ≥ 0, then the distance
from the origin to is always equal to θ (check this using the distance
formula). This means the trajectory starts at the origin (with θ = 0) and follows a
circular path that gets farther and farther from the origin, as shown in figure 5.23
below.

FIGURE 5.23. The vector function for a counterclockwise spiral.

EXAMPLE 5.12.5. If a vector-valued function has trigonometric functions with

different periods in its first and second components, then its trajectory forms
loops around the origin. For example, if for θ ≥ 0, then
the trajectory is a repeating pattern of intersecting loops passing through the
origin, as shown in figure 5.24.
 FIGURE 5.24. A trajectory with loops.

EXAMPLE 5.12.6. This is a continuation of example 5.12.1. It can be verified by

elimination of the parameter t that the trajectory of

is a parabola. If we write

x = t2 − 2t and y = t + 1

then in the expression for x, t can be replaced by y − 1, resulting in the

expression x = (y − 1)2 −2(y − 1). This simplifies to x = y2 − 4y + 3, which is the
equation for a parabola with the usual roles of x and y interchanged.

5.13 INVERSE FUNCTIONS

A function maps every element of its domain to an element of its codomain. As
mentioned earlier, the elements of the codomain that are targeted in this way
form a subset of the codomain called the range of the function. Some functions
have the property that every element in the range is targeted only once, meaning
that there is a unique element in the domain that maps to it. Such a function is
called invertible.

DEFINITION 5.13.1. If the mapping from the domain to the range of a function can
be reversed, that is, if we can take the range to be the domain of a new function,
then we call this an inverse function.
 In this section, we are going to investigate the property of invertibility and
introduce the notation for an inverse function.

5.13.1 The Inverse of a Point

The notion of invertability of a function can more easily be understood if we
know what is meant by the inverse of a point in the Cartesian plane. Lets say we
select a point P(D, C) with 0 < D < C. Then, P is in the first quadrant and lies
above the line y = x. What can we mean by the inverse of the point P? Because
points on the x-axis are mapped to points on the y-axis, D is mapped to C. Our
intention now is to reverse the mapping, so we want to map C to D. This can be
indicated by means of another point, say Q(C, D), which has D and C switched.
The point Q is also in the first quadrant and lies below the line y = x. Figure 5.25
shows how the points P and Q relate geometrically to the line y = x (the dotted
line). Because of the congruence of the triangle in the diagram, P and Q are
equidistant from the line y = x and the line joining P to Q is perpendicular to the
line y = x. For these two reasons, Q is called the reflection of P across the line y
= x.

FIGURE 5.25. The inverse of a point in the plane.

5.13.2 Logarithmic Functions

As will be explained fully in section 5.13.3 below, an example of a function,
that is, invertible is an exponential.

DEFINITION 5.13.2. The inverse of an exponential function is called a logarithmic

function.
In this section, we will demonstrate the construction of logarithmic functions
and explore their properties.
If we suppose that P in figure 5.25 is a point on the graph of an exponential
function, as shown in figure 5.26, then every point reflects to a point across the
line y = x in the same way that P reflects to Q. The reflected graph obtained in
this way is the graph of a logarithmic function. Because the equation for an
exponential graph is y = ax, where a > 0 and a ≠ 1, and P is a point on the graph,
the value of C in terms of D is C = aD. Now, if we want to express the value of
D in terms of C, we use the notation D = logaC. Then Q(C, D) is a point on the
graph of y = logax, called a logarithmic graph. The logarithmic function f(x) =
logax is defined for positive values of x (its graph lies entirely to the right of the
D
y axis). The number a is called the base of the logarithm. Note that logaa =
logaC = D and alog C = aD = C. These are called cancellation equations and are
a

true for any positive value of C and any value of D.

In summary, we have

In section 5.13.3, we will demonstrate that exponential and logarithic graphs

pass the horizontal line test. This property can be stated algebraically: if c1 and
c2 are positive real numbers and d1 and d2 are real numbers, then (supposing that
a > 0 and a ≠ 1)
 FIGURE 5.26. The logarithmic function.

(The abbreviation iff is being used for “if and only if.”)
We list the laws for logarithms in table 5.6 below. They are a consequence of
formulas (5.1) to (5.3) and the laws for exponents (see table 5.2).
TABLE 5.6. Laws for logarithms

PROOF OF (I). If c = logaxy, then (using the second cancellation equation)

This means that c = logax + logay, which was to be proved.

The properties (II) and (III) can be proved similarly.

EXAMPLE 5.13.1. According to the cancellation equations and the laws for
logarithms,
(i) log264 = log226 = 6.

(ii)

(iii)

EXAMPLE 5.13.2. Solve for x in the equation log4(log3(log2x)) = 1.

Answer: We start by raising each side as a power of 4 and then apply the
second cancellation equation.

We repeat the process by raising each side as a power of 3 and using the
inverse property to obtain the final answer.

A frequently occurring base of the logarithm is the number e, introduced in

section 1.12.3. The notation loge is abbreviated as “ln”. This is called the natural
logarithm. Here are the properties of the natural logarithm.

The graphs of some logarithmic functions are shown in figure 5.27. All of
the graphs pass through the x axis at x =1. The laws for natural logarithms, as a
special case of the laws for logarithms in table 5.6, are stated in table 5.7.
 FIGURE 5.27. Graphs of logarithmic functions.

TABLE 5.7. Laws for natural logarithms

More advanced methods of solving equations will be a topic in chapter 6.

The next example is a foretaste of this.

EXAMPLE 5.13.3. Solve for x in the equation ln(x + 1) + ln(x − 1) = 2.

Answer: Property (I) of the laws for logarithms can be used to rewrite the
left-hand side. After that the inverse property and ordinary algebra can be used
to solve for x:

The positive root was taken in the last step because the terms ln(x + 1) and
ln(x − 1) are not defined if
A change of base formula is useful in many situations and is easy to derive.
The equation x = logab is equivalent to ax = b, and if we can take the logarithm
of both sides with any choice of base, that is, logcax = logcb, then, by property
(III) of the laws for logarithms, xlogc a = logxb. Therefore, we derive the formula

where b is a positive real number, and a and c are positive real numbers not
equal to 1.

EXAMPLE 5.13.4. Use the change of base formula to evaluate log48.

Answer:

Logarithms provide a useful measuring scale, called a logarithmic scale, for

measurement over a very large range of possible values. A unit increase in a
logarithmic scale corresponds to an increase by a factor equal to the base chosen
for the logarithm. Human sensory perception and many natural processes
manifest according to a logarithmic scale. Regarding our sense of hearing is that,
for example, equal ratios of frequencies are perceived as equal differences of
pitch. Another example of a logarithmic scale is devised by Charles Richter in
1935 for measuring earthquakes. According to this scale, the magnitude of an
earthquake is determined by taking the logarithm of the amplitude of waves
measured by a seismograph. A two-point increase in this scale corresponds to a
thousand times more energy released by an earthquake. For example, the
tremendous earthquake that hit Japan in 2011 measured 9.0 on the Richter scale,
and so released a thousand times more energy than the devastating earthquake
that shook Haiti in 2010, which measured 7.0 on the Richter scale.

5.13.3 The Inversion of One-to-One Functions

A real-valued function f(x) is a one-to-one function if and only if the graph of
y = f(x) passes the horizontal line test. A graph passes the horizontal line test if
and only if any horizontal line in the Cartesian plane cuts the graph of y = f(x) at
most once. An exponential function, for example, passes the horizontal line test,
but a quadratic function, for example, does not, as shown in figure 5.28 below.
A horizontal line reflected across the line y = x becomes a vertical line, and,
therefore, the reflected graph of a one-to-one function passes the vertical line
test. Recall that this is a test that determines whether a graph is the graph of a
function. We conclude that the reflected graph of a one-to-one function is the
graph of a function. Therefore, a one-to-one function f(x) is invertible, and the
reflection of its graph about the line y = x is the graph of its inverse function.
The notation we use for its inverse function is f−1(x).

FIGURE 5.28. The horizontal line test.

EXAMPLE 5.13.5. If f(x) = ax, where a > 0 and a ≠ 1, then f−1(x) = logax.

EXAMPLE 5.13.6. The function f(x) = x3 + 2 is a one-to-one function (its graph is

the cubic graph shifted up two units); therefore, it has an inverse function f−1(x).
The graphs of y = f(x) = x3 + 2 and y = f−1(x) are shown in figure 5.29.
 FIGURE 5.29. The inverse of a cubic function.

Given a one-to-one function f(x), there is the following method by which the
explicit expression for its inverse function f−1(x) can be found:
(i) Write the equation x = f(y), that is, interchange x and y in the equation y =
f(x), using the explicit expression for f(x);
(ii) then solve for y (if possible). The resulting expression is for f−1(x) (if an
explicit expression can be found).

EXAMPLE 5.13.7. If f(x) = x3 + 2, then, according to the method above, an

expression for the inverse function f−1(x) can be found by solving the equation x
= y3 + 2 for y. The solution is (check this). Therefore,
and the graph of y = f−1(x) is the graph of the cube root function shifted two units
to the right (the reflected graph shown in figure 5.29).

EXAMPLE 5.13.8. Real-valued functions that are strictly increasing or decreasing

are one-to-one functions. We give a precise definition of these types of functions
in the next section.

5.13.4 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

In the following definition, we will restrict our attention to intervals in the
domain of a function. We also make a distinction between increasing and strictly
increasing, and decreasing and strictly decreasing.

DEFINITION 5.13.3.
• A function is increasing on an interval (I) if f(x1) ≤ f(x2) whenever x1 < x2 in
(I).
• A function is decreasing on an interval (I) if f(x1) ≥ f(x2) whenever x1 < x2
in (I).
• A function is strictly increasing on an interval (I) if f(x1) < f(x2) whenever x1
< x2 in (I).
• A function is strictly decreasing on an interval (I) if f(x1) > f(x2) whenever
x1 < x2 in (I).
Some functions that are strictly increasing on their domains are the root
functions etc.; odd powers of x, that is, f(x) = x, f(x) = x3,
etc.; and exponential functions ax, if a > 1. The trigonometric function f(x) =
tan(x) is strictly increasing on every interval where n is any
integer. The absolute value function and even powers of x, that is, f(x) = x2, f(x)
= x4, etc. are strictly decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0] and strictly increasing on
the interval [0, ∞). Any constant function, according to our definition, is both an
increasing and a decreasing function (but not strictly increasing or strictly
decreasing).
If a function f(x) is (strictly) increasing on an interval, then its negative, that
is, −f(x), is (strictly) decreasing on the same interval, and vice versa.

5.13.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The trigonometric functions are not one-to-one functions (their graphs fail the
horizontal line test); however, if their domains are suitably restricted, then the
corresponding graphs do pass the horizontal line test. In particular, if f(x) =
sin(x) for then the graph of y = f(x) passes the horizontal line test, that
is, f is a one-to-one function (see the first diagram of figure 5.30). The graph of
its corresponding inverse function (the inverse sine function or arcsine function)
is also shown in the first diagram as the reflection across the line y = x. We use
the notations arcsin(x) or sin−1 x for the inverse sine function. The graph of y =
sin−1x is shown again in the third diagram. Similarly, if f(x) = cos(x) for 0 ≤ x ≤
π, then the graph of y = f(x) passes the horizontal line test; that is, f is a one-to-
one function. The graph of its corresponding inverse function (the inverse cosine
function or arccosine function) is shown in the second diagram of figure 5.30 as
the reflection across the line y = x. We use the notations arccos(x) or cos−1 x for
the inverse cosine function. The graph of y = cos−1 x is shown again in the fourth
diagram in figure 5.30.
The inverse tangent function (or arctan function) is defined by restricting the
tangent function to the interval and reflecting across the line y = x, as
shown in figure 5.31. Note that the vertical asymptotes for the
tangent function become the horizontal asymptotes and for the arctan
function.

FIGURE 5.30. The inverse sine and inverse cosine functions.

 FIGURE 5.31. The inverse tangent function.

It is also possible to define inverse secant, cosecant, and cotangent functions,

but we will not do so here.
In the examples below it will be helpful to refer to table 5.8, which lists the
domain and range of each of the inverse trigonometric functions. Any answer
obtained from a calculation involving an inverse trigonometric function should
be in accordance with the information in table 5.8; that is, any answer must be in
the correct range.
TABLE 5.8. Domain and range of the inverse trigonometric functions

EXAMPLE 5.13.9.

(i)
 (i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(Watch out! The answer is not because this is not in the range of the

arcsine function.)

(v)

(vi)

(We used the first identity in formula (4.10) to get an answer in the range

of the arcsine function.)

In the following example, keep in mind that trigonometric ratios are ratios of
the sides of right triangles. Thus, if x > 0, then tan−1 x, for example, can be
regarded as an angle in a right triangle with opposite side x, adjacent side 1, and,
by the Pythagorean Theorem, hypotenuse (If x < 0, then tan−1x is a
negative angle, and we place the corresponding triangle in the fourth quadrant.)
It is also helpful to know the identity

EXAMPLE 5.13.10. Simplify the expressions:

(i) cos(tan−1 x)

(ii)

(iii)
(iii)

Answers:
(i) As explained above,
(ii) Because is an angle in a 3-4-5 triangle,

(iii) Lets then A is an angle in a right triangle with

adjacent side and hypotenuse 4, and B is an angle in a right triangle
with adjacent side and hypotenuse 4. Now we expand using formula
(4.7b)

EXERCISES

5.1. Decide whether each of the diagrams in figure 5.32 determines a relation.
In each case, the elements of set A are in the first column, and the
elements of set B are in the second column. An arrow points from the first
element of a coordinate pair to the second element of the coordinate pair.

FIGURE 5.32.

5.2. Plot each of the following relations in the Cartesian plane. What is the
range of each relation?
(a) {(0, 0.5),(0, 1.5),(−0.5, 1),(0.5, 1),(−2, 0),(0, 0),(2, 0),(0, −1),(−1,
 −2),(1, −2)}
(b) {(−2, 2),(−2, 0),(−1, 0),(−1, −2),(0, −2),(0, −1),(2, −1)}
5.3. If C = {mouse, cat, dog} and D = {mouse, rabbit, porcupine}, which of
the following is a relation with domain in C and range in D?
(a) {(mouse,dog), (mouse,porcupine), (mouse,rabbit), (cat,rabbit)}
(b) {(mouse,dog), (mouse,porcupine), (mouse,rabbit), (cat,rabbit)}
(c) {(dog,mouse), (porcupine,mouse), (rabbit,mouse), (rabbit,cat)}
(d) {(mouse,rabbit)}
5.4. Which of the following relations is a function? Find the domain and range
of each function.
(a) {(0, 1),(1, 2),(2, 3),(3, 4),(4, 5),(5, 0)}
(b) {(−2, −2),(−1, −2),(0, 0),(1, 1),(2, 1)}
(c) {(−2, −2),(−2, −1),(0, 0),(1, 1),(1, 2)}
(d) {(−2, 0),(0, 2),(2, 0),(0, −2)}
5.5. Which of the following sets cannot be the description of a function?
(a) {f(1) = −1, f(−1) = 1, f(0) = −1}
(b) {f(−1) = −1, f(1) = 1, f(0) = 0}
(c) {f(0) = −1, f(1) = 1, f(0) = 1}
(d) {f(1) = 0, f(−1) = 0, f(0) = 0}
(e) {f(1) = f(−1), f(−1) = (0), (0) = 1}
5.6. If A = {−3, −1, 0,1, 3} and B = {−3, 0,3}, which of the following sets
define a function with domain A and codomain B?
(a) {(−3, −3),(−1, −3),(0, 0),(1, −3),(3, 3)}
(b) {(3, −3),(1, −3),(0, 0),(−1, 3),(−3, 3)}
(c) {(3, 1),(1, −1),(0, 0),(−1, 1),(−3, 1)}
(d) {(−3, 1),(0, 0),(3, 1)}
 (e) {(−3, 0),(−1, 0),(0, 0),(1, 0),(3, 0)}
5.7. In which of the following definitions of pairs of functions (i) and (ii) are f
and g the same function?
(a) (i) domain = {1, 2,3, 4}, codomain = {r, s, t, u} f = {(1, r), (2, u), (3,
t), (4, s)}
(ii) domain = {4, 3,2, 1}, codomain = {r, s, t, u}, g = {(4, s), (3, t),
(2, u), (1, r)}
(b) (i) domain = {1, 2,3, 4}, codomain = {r, s, t, u, w}, f = {(1, u), (2, u),
(3, t), (4, r)}
(ii) domain = {1, 2,3, 4}, codomain= {r, s, t, u, x}, g = {(1, u), (2, u),
(3, t), (4, r)}
(c) (i) domain = {1, 2,3, 4}, codomain = {r, s, t}, f = {(1, r), (2, s), (3, t),
(4, t)}
(ii) domain = {1, 2,3, 4}, codomain = {r, s, t}, g = {(1, r), (2, s), (3,
s), (4, t)}
5.8. Find the domains of the following functions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

5.9. Evaluate the following functions at each of the indicated values of x.

 (a) f(x) = 2x3 + x2 + 3, at x = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
(b)

5.10. Sketch a graph of the function f(x) = x + x3 by plotting points from a table
of values using some integer values of x and then some integer and half-
integer values of x. Connect the points with straight-line segments.

5.11. Sketch a graph of the equation 2xy = 1 + y2, x, y > 0, by plotting points
from a table of values obtained by solving the equation with some positive
integer values substituted for y and then solving the equation with some
positive integer values substituted for x. Connect the points with straight-
line segments.
5.12. Use the vertical line test to decide whether or not each of the graphs in
figure 5.33 below is the graph of a function.

FIGURE 5.33.

5.13. Sketch the graph of f(x) = x2 with domain A, for each of the following
choices of A.
(a) A = [−2, 2]
(b) A = [−3, −2] ∪ [−1, 0]∪[1, 3]
(c) A = {−3, −1.5, 0,1, 2}
(d) A = [0, 3]
(e) A = Z∩[−3, 3]
5.14. Let f(x) = xsinx. Answer the following questions:
(a) What is the domain of f?
(b) If n is an integer, what is the value of f(nπ)?
 (c) If n is a non-negative integer, what is the value of

(d) If n is a positive integer, what is the value of

(e) Based on your answers from (a) to (d) above, sketch the graph of y =
f(x), for x ≥ 0.
5.15. Try to explain the behavior of the graph of f(x) = sin(x), where the domain
is the set of natural numbers, that is, the graph shown in figure 5.6.
5.16. Draw the graphs of f(x) = |x − 1| and g(x) = |x + 1| on the same set of axes.
(Hint: start by making a table of values.)
5.17. Simplify the following expressions.
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

5.18. Evaluate the following functions at each of the indicated values of x.

(a)

(b)

5.19. Draw the graphs of f(x) = 2x, g(x) = 3x, and h(x) = 10x on the same set of
axes.

5.20. Draw the graphs of and g(x) = 3x on the same set of axes.
5.21. Draw the graphs of the following functions.
(a) f(x) = 3x+1
(b) f(x) = 3·2x
(c) g(x) = 5x − 1
(d) g(x) = 2x + 3x
(e) h(x) = ex
(f) h(x) = 2x + 2−x
5.22. Draw the graphs of the following functions. You might need to start with a
table of values.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

5.23. Determine the simplest form of the following rational expressions.

(a)
 (b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

5.24. Sketch the graphs of the following functions. What is the domain of each
function?

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

5.25. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

(a)
(b)

5.26. Sketch the graphs of the following piecewise defined functions.

 (a)

(b)

(c)

5.27. Make use of the piecewise definition of the absolute value function to
sketch the graphs of the following functions. (Hint: refer to example 5.8.2)
(a) f(x) = |x| + x
(b) f(x) = sin(|x|)

(c)

(d)

5.28. Decide whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or neither.
An algebraic test can be used.
(a) f(x) = x2 + x4
(b) f(x) = x + sin(x)
(c) g(t) = sin(|t|)
(d) g(t) = cos(t) + sin(t)
(e) h(y) = ycos(y)
(f) h(y) = |y|sin(y)
 (g)

(h)
3
(i) l(w) = ew+w
(j) l(w) = 2w + 2−w
(k) l(w) = 2w − 2−w

5.29. If find the domains of the functions f + g, f · g,

Evaluate each of the following expressions.

(a) (f + g)(4)
(b) f · g(16)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

5.30. If f(x) = 2x and g(x) = 3x, evaluate each of the following expressions.
(a) (f + g)(−1)
(b) f · g(3)

(c)

(d)

5.31. If g(t) = t2 and h(t) = |t|, (i) plot the graph of

5.32. If find the domains of the functions g + h,

Evaluate each of the following expressions (if possible).

(a) (g − h)(4)
(b) g · h(1)
(c) g · h(−1)

(d)

5.33. Prove carefully that the product of any pair of odd functions is an even
function and that the absolute value of any odd function is an even
function. (Your proof should be a general proof, that is, a proof not
involving any particular functions.)

5.34. If find the simplest expressions for the following functions and
find their domains.
(a) f ∘ f(x)
(b) f ∘ f ∘ f(x)
(c) f ∘ f ∘ f ∘ f(x)

5.35. If find the simplest expressions for the

following functions and find their domains.
(a) f ∘ g(x)
(b) f ∘ f(x)
(c) f ∘ g(x)

5.36. Let f(t) = t3 + 1, g(t) = t − 1, and Find the simplest expressions

for the functions (1) f ∘ g(t), (2) g ∘ f(t), and (3) f ∘ h(t) and find their
domains.

5.37. If f(u) = 2u, determine the following values.

 (a) f ∘ g(−2)
(b) f ∘ g(1/2)
(c) g ∘ f ∘ g(1/3)
(d) f ∘ g ∘ f(−3)
(e) f ∘ f ∘ f(2)
(f) g ∘ g ∘ g(−1)
5.38. Sketch the graph of each of the following functions as a vertical or
horizontal shift of the graph of function that you are familiar with. Be sure
to label the intercepts of the graph with the axes.
(a) f(x) =|x −3|
(b) f(x) = ex-2
(c) f(x) = 4−x −4
(d) g(t) = sin(πt − π)
(e) g(t) = 1 + cos(t − π)
(f) g(t) = t2 + 2t + 2
(g)

(h)

(i)

5.39. Sketch the graph of each of the following functions as a vertical stretching
or compression of the graph of a function you are familiar with. Be sure to
label the intercepts of the graph with the axes.
(a) f(x) = 2 |x − 3|
(b) f(x) = 4.4− x

(c)

(d) g(t) = 4t2 + 8t + 4

 (e)

(f)

5.40. Sketch the graph of each of the following functions as a horizontal

stretching or compression of the graph of a function you are familiar with.
Be sure to label the intercepts of the graph with the axes.
(a) f(x) = sin(2x)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

5.41. Sketch the graph of the each of the following functions as a reflection over
the x or y axes of the graph of a function you are familiar with. Be sure to
label the intercepts of the graph with the axes.
(a) f(x) = |3 − x|
(b) f(x) = 4−x+1
(c) g(t) = −sec(t)
(d) g(t) sin(2π−t)
(e)

(f)

5.42. Sketch the graph of each of the following functions as a combination of

transformations of the graph of a function that you are familiar with. Be
sure to label the intercepts of the graph with the axes.
 (a) f(x) = 1 − |3 − x|
(b) f(x) = 2.42-x

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

5.43. Figure 5.34 shows the graph of y = (x − h)2 − k, for some

constants k and h, and the graph of y = mx + c, for some constants m and c.
Based on the information given in the graph determine the values of the
constants k, h, m, and c. You will need to do a few calculations. (The axis
of symmetry of the parabolas is shown with a dotted line, and the line and
parabola have an intersection point at )

FIGURE 5.34.

5.44. Sketch the graphs of the following piecewise defined functions.

 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

5.45. Sketch the trajectory of the following vector-valued function:

where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2. Indicate the direction of the trajectory for increasing

values of t. It will help to construct a table of values.

5.46. Suppose that x(t) = t2 and then the vector-valued function

determines the trajectory of an Asian tiger mosquito, for 0
≤ t ≤ 4. Compute a table of values for some values of t and sketch the
trajectory of the mosquito.
5.47. Sketch the trajectory of the following vector-valued function.

where −∞ < θ < ∞. Indicate the direction of the trajectory for increasing
values of θ.
5.48. Find (a) a vector-valued function, (b) parametric equations, and (c) a
 Cartesian equation for the line that is parallel to the vector −2, 6 and
passes through the point P(−4, 5)
5.49. The trajectory of an ice skater starting at the center of an ice rink is given
by the vector-valued function as t increases from t = 0 to t
= 8, with x(t) and y(t) given by the formulas below. Compute a table of
values for some values of t and sketch the skater’s trajectory.

5.50. A charged particle in a magnetic chamber moves with coordinates

as t increases from t = 0, with x(t) and y(t) given as x(t) = 2
+ cos(t) and y(t) = 3 + sin(t). Compute a table of values for some values of
t and sketch the trajectory of the particle.
5.51. Restate the following equations according to the inverse property for
logarithms; that is, translate each logarithmic statement into exponential
form and restate each exponential statement into logarithmic form.
(a) log5125 = 3

(b)

(c)

(d) 73 = 343

(e)

(f)

5.52. Evaluate each logarithm.

(a) log5625

(b)

(c)
 (d) log91
(e) log3(log273)

(f)

(g)

(h)

5.53. Prove (II) and (III) of the laws for logarithms (table 5.6).
5.54. Use the laws for logarithms to simplify the following expressions.
(a) log5625 + log381

(b)

(c) log333 − log399

(d)
(e) log104.25 − log10 17 + log100.4

(f) log2811

(g) log5345 − log5353

(h)

5.55. Solve for x.

(a) 2log x = 21
2

(b)

(c) log55x = 2

(d) 23x-7 = 64
(e) log2x = −3
(f) log3(6x + 4) = 3
 (g) log3(log8(log2x)) = −1
(h) log2(log3(log3(log4x)) = 0
(i) log10x + log10(x + 3) = 1
2
(j) 8 = 25x · 4x
(k) 2 = log3(x + 2) + log3(x − 2)
(l) ln x + ln(2x) = 1
5.56. Use the change of base formula to simplify the following logarithms.
(a) log927
(b)

(c)

5.57. Simplify the expression

5.58. Sketch the graphs of the following functions and sketch the reflections of
the graphs about the line y = x. Which functions are invertible?
(a) f(x) = ex −1
(b)

(c) f(x) = x2 − 2
(d) f(x) = log2x

(e)

(f)

(g) f(x) = cos(x)

(h) f(x) = cos(x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ π
5.59. Find an explicit expression for the inverse function of each of the
functions in the previous exercise. State the domain of the inverse function
in each case.

5.60. Identify the intervals on which the function f(x) = −x2 − 7x + 8 is

increasing or decreasing.
5.61. In which intervals is f(x) = sin(x) increasing?
5.62. Answer True or False for each of the following statements. You may
assume that all functions are real-valued functions.
(1) If f and g are increasing functions on an interval I, then f + g is an
increasing function on the interval (I).
(2) If f and g are strictly decreasing functions on an interval I, then −f −
g is a strictly decreasing function on the interval (I).
(3) The function f(x) = x3 − x is increasing on the interval [−1, 1].
(4) If f(x) is an increasing function on an interval I, then x + f(x) is a
strictly increasing function on the interval (I).
(5) If f(x) is an increasing function on an interval [3, 7], then f(7) ≥ f(3).
(6) If f(x) is a strictly increasing function on the interval [3, 7], then f (7)
≥ f(3).
(7) If f(x) is a decreasing function on an interval [0, 4], then x3 − f(x) is a
strictly increasing function on the interval [1, 3].
5.63. Find the exact value of each of the following expressions.
(a) sin−1(−1)
(b) cos−1(−1)
(c)
(d) sin−1(sin(2))

(e)
 (f)

(g) cos(cos−1(−0.7))
(h) sin(2 cos−1(−1))

(i)

(j)

(k)

(l)

5.64. Simplify the following expressions.

(a) sin(sin−1(x))
(b) sin(sin−1(2x))
(c) sin(cos−1(2x))
(d) tan(cos−1(x))
(e) sin(tan−1(y))
(f) sin(2 cos−1(−y))

(g)

(h)
 CHAPTER 6

TECHNIQUES OF ALGEBRA

6.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter will bring the student up to the level of skill needed in algebra in
order to be able to solve problems in calculus. Section 6.2 deals with the algebra
of rational expressions, that is, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and
simplifying rational expressions. This is followed by section 6.3 on algebra with
rational exponents and radicals (the algebra of expressions involving square and
cube roots, for example).
The heart of this chapter is section 6.4 which is an overview of the methods
for solving equations involving all the types of expression we have considered in
this book. These include polynomials, rational expressions, the absolute value,
exponents, radicals, logarithms, and trigonometric expressions. In section 6.5,
students will get their first exposure to the formulas for partial fractions. This
will not only give them more practice with the manipulation of rational
expressions but also prepare them for the topic of integration of rational
expressions that they will do later in their calculus curriculum (not in this book).
Finally, section 6.6 deals with the methods of solving inequalities, where,
again, the examples involve all the types of expression mentioned above. At the
end, there are some demonstrations of the solutions of two-variable inequalities
as shaded regions in the Cartesian plane.

6.2 THE ALGEBRA OF RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

We will demonstrate in this section how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide
rational expressions in order to produce new rational expressions. For this
reason, we can talk about the algebra of rational expressions. A rational
expression of one variable is of the form where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials
in one variable, a rational expression of two variables is of the form where
p(x, y) and q(x, y) are polynomials in two variables, and so on. Note that we can
regard any polynomial as a rational expression with a unit in its denominator.
In this section, we will only work with rational expressions in one variable.
We will also suppose that the polynomials have real coefficients and so can, in
principle, be factored into a product of linear and irreducible quadratic factors.
Students will recall that a rational expression is in simplified form if p(x) and
q(x) have no common factors.
We have explained the procedure for simplifying rational expressions in
section 5.6. We will use this technique in some of the examples below.

6.2.1 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions

Multiplying rational expressions is as simple as multiplying ordinary
fractions; that is, numerators and denominators are multiplied together. The
resulting fraction can be simplified by canceling common factors in the
numerator and denominator.

EXAMPLE 6.2.1. Write the following product of rational expressions as a single

rational expression in simplified form:

Answer: If the denominators in the first and third rational expressions are
factorized, then the product of the numerators divided by the product of the
denominators is

Division by a rational expression, as with ordinary fractions, is a case of

multiplying by the reciprocal of the rational expression.
EXAMPLE 6.2.2. Write the following ratio of rational expressions as a single
rational expression:

Answer: If all the polynomials are factorized and the division is expressed as
multiplication by the reciprocal, then the result is

6.2.2 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

The basic idea for adding rational expressions was explained in example
3.2.4, where the rational expressions were added by finding their
lowest common denominator (LCD); that is, the polynomial 2(2x − 1)(x + 5). In
general, if the denominators of the rational expressions to be added are not given
in factorized form, then it helps (if possible) to find all the linear and irreducible
quadratic factors of the denominators by factorizing the denominators. It might
be possible to simplify the rational expressions before adding them.
The LCD is obtained by identifying all of the linear or irreducible quadratic
factors that occur in all of the denominators and taking the product of all of these
factors, with the multiplicity of each factor chosen according to the highest
multiplicity that occurs in any of the denominators.
Subtracting a rational expression is the same as adding its negative, so we
need not say more about this.

EXAMPLE 6.2.3. Perform the addition of the rational expressions, as indicated.

Write the answer as a single rational expression:

Answer: The denominators of the first and third expressions factorize as (x −

2)(x + 1) and x3(x2 + x + 1), respectively. Thus, in all of the denominators, we
can identify the linear factors (x + 1), (x − 2), and x (with the highest
multiplicities for each being 1, 2, and 3, respectively) and the irreducible factor
(x2 + x + 1) (with multiplicity 1); so the LCD is

(x + 1)(x − 2)2 x3(x2 + x + 1).

We now multiply and divide each rational expression above by the product
of missing factors needed to make up the LCD in its denominator, resulting in
this sum of fractions:

Because all the fractions are expressed with the same denominator, the
numerators can be added, resulting in the rational expression

Each of the three terms in the numerator can be expanded into a sum of
powers of x and all of these can be added to give the final answer:

which cannot be simplified (check this!). The denominator can be left in

factorized form.

EXAMPLE 6.2.4. Add the rational expressions, as indicated. Write the answer as a
single rational expression:

Answer: By the factor theorem (theorem 3.4.2), (x − 3) is a factor of x3 + x2 −

8x − 12 and then, by long division or synthetic division, we find that x3 + x2 − 8x
− 12 = (x + 2)2(x − 3). Next, x4 − 3x3 − 4x2 + 12x = x(x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12) and the
cubic polynomial can be factorized by grouping, with the result
 x(x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12) = x(x − 3)(x2 − 4) = x(x − 3)(x − 2)(x + 2).

Thus, after cancellation of common factors, the sum is

which we now want to express as a single rational expression. Because the

LCD is x(x − 2)(x + 2)2, the sum can be expressed as

REMARK 6.2.1. Rational expressions can also be expressed using negative

exponents, for example, x(1 + x)−2 means the same thing as Some
exercises involving negative exponents are included at the end of this chapter.

6.3 ALGEBRA WITH RATIONAL EXPONENTS

Fractional exponents were introduced in section 5.5.1. We now go a step further
and introduce algebraic expressions that involve fractional exponents. In table
6.1, we give the products of some binomials and trinomials with terms
containing fractional exponents.
TABLE 6.1. Products involving rational exponents
 The terms with fractional exponents in table 6.1 can also be expressed as
radicals, as demonstrated in table 6.2.
TABLE 6.2. Products involving radicals
 Expressions involving fractional exponents can be multiplied, divided,
added, or subtracted in the same manner as was demonstrated above for rational
expressions.

EXAMPLE 6.3.1. Add the expressions with fractional exponents, as indicated.

Write the answer as a single fraction without negative exponents.

Answer:

EXAMPLE 6.3.2. Add the following terms with fractional exponents, as indicated.
Write the answer as a single fraction with a rational denominator.

Answer: We will begin by rationalizing the denominator of each term. This

can be done with the help of the formulas in table 6.1. In particular, note that, if
the denominator of the first term is multiplied by then the product is x3 − 1,
and if the denominator of the second term is multiplied by then the
product is x − 1. The third term can be left as it is. Of course, we cannot change
the terms so we multiply and divide the first and second terms by the factors
 respectively. We proceed to add the terms:

EXAMPLE 6.3.3. Add the terms involving radicals, as indicated. Write the answer
as a single fraction with a rational denominator.

Answer: For this problem refer table 6.2. Note that the denominator of the
first term can be rationalized by multiplying by thus
6.4 SOLVING EQUATIONS

The objective of this section is, by means of twelve examples, to give an
overview of methods that can be used to solve equations that involve all the
expressions that have been introduced so far in this book, including the absolute
value, radicals, exponents, and logarithms. All but one of the examples will
require that a quadratic equation be solved at some stage. It is important to check
whether the solutions obtained at the end are solutions for the original equation
because some terms of the original equation might not be defined if the
“solutions” are plugged in and, if this is the case, they need to be excluded.
It is best to learn the methods for solving equations that can also be applied
to solving inequalities. (It helps to develop good habits from the start.) For
example, if rational expressions occur somewhere in an equation, then it is
tempting to multiply all terms of the equation by a factor that will get rid of the
rational expressions. While this does lead to the correct solution when solving an
equation, it is not a good method for solving an inequality because multiplying
all of the terms by a factor will require the direction of the inequality to change if
the factor is negative (and this will depend on the value of the variable), which is
likely to cause a great deal of confusion!
Students who would like to see more examples of solving equations can
consult an algebra textbook, where each type of example would be treated in
detail in a separate section.

EXAMPLE 6.4.1. Solve for x in the equation

(3x − 2)(4x + 3) = 5 x(2 x + 1).

Answer: After the expansion of terms on each side of the equation, all the
terms can be brought to the left-hand side of the equation, resulting in a
quadratic equation that can be solved by factorizing, as explained in section
3.5.4:

Therefore, the solutions are x = 3 and x = −1.

EXAMPLE 6.4.2. Solve for x in the equation

Answer: A trick is to make use of the identity (Verify it.) The

equation can thus be expressed in the following form, resembling a quadratic
equation:

To simplify this problem, we make the identification In terms of the

new variable V, the equation becomes an ordinary quadratic equation that can be
factorized as:

V2 − 9V − 10 = 0

(V − 10)(V + 1) = 0.

The solutions for this equation are V = 10 and V = −1. In terms of the
variable x, this gives the following two equations:

We can rewrite each expression as a rational expression equal to 0:

A basic property of fractions to remember in this situation is that a fraction is

0 if and only if its numerator is equal to 0. We thus obtain all solutions for each
equation by setting the numerator of the rational expression in each equation
equal to 0, resulting in two quadratic equations:

x2 − 10x −1 = 0 and x2 + x − 1 = 0.
 The solutions for the first and second equation are
These are all the solutions for the original equation.

EXAMPLE 6.4.3. If the product of two real numbers is and their reciprocals
differ by find the numbers.
Answer: We will denote the two real numbers as x and y. According to the
statement of the problem, We would like to solve an equation
that involves a single variable, which can be either x or y, so we solve the first
equation for y. This gives By making use of this value for y in the second
equation, the latter becomes

If all the terms are brought to the left side of the equation and the terms are
added as rational expressions, then the equation becomes:

Once again, a solution is possible if and only if the numerator is equal to

zero. Therefore, we factor the numerator to obtain the equation

(3x + 2)(2x − 1) = 0.
The two solutions for x that we get from this equation are and
the corresponding values for y (which we get from the equation
We can therefore express the final solution as the two
pairs of values

EXAMPLE 6.4.4. A blue creepy crawly cleans a swimming pool in x number of

hours, and a red creepy crawly takes 3 h longer. If, working together, the two
creepy crawlies clean the swimming pool in 3 h, 36 min, find the value of x.
Answer: The blue creepy crawly cleans the portion of the swimming pool
in 1 h, and the red creepy crawly cleans the portion of the swimming pool in
1 h. This means that, working together, they clean the portion of the
swimming pool in 1 h. Because 3 h, 36 min can be expressed as h, we can use
the given information to write the equation

Now, we solve for x:

The negative solution can be discarded, leaving the positive solution x = 6

as the solution to the problem: it takes the blue creepy crawly 6 h to clean the
swimming pool.

EXAMPLE 6.4.5. Solve for x in the equation

Answer: The first step is to factorize all of the denominators:

Each of the factors (5x + 2), (3x − 5), and (2x + 3) occurs with multiplicity
one, so the LCD is their product. Therefore
 We now add the terms on the left-hand side of the equation:

and expand all the products in the numerator to get

Setting the numerator equal to zero and applying the quadratic formula
results in the two solutions

EXAMPLE 6.4.6. Solve for x in the equation

|(x + 2)(3x − 1)|= 10.

Answer: When solving an equation involving an absolute value like the one
above, there are always two possibilities:

(x + 2)(3x − 1) = 10 or (x + 2)(3x − 1) = − 10,

which is equivalent to

3x2 + 5x − 12 = 0 or 3x2 + 5x + 8 = 0.

The solutions for the first equation are and x = −3 and the second
equation are These are all the solutions for the original
equation.

EXAMPLE 6.4.7. Solve for x in the equation

 5x+1 − 5x−1 = 120.
Answer: A common factor for the terms on the left-hand side of the equation
is 5x. The algebra that follows is straightforward:

EXAMPLE 6.4.8. Solve for x in the equation

Answer: This is equivalent to the equation

which, in turn, is equivalent to

By setting and the numerator equal to zero, we obtain a quadratic

equation

4V2 − 5V − 6 = 0

In factorized form, this is

(4V − 3)(V + 2) = 0.

Because the two solutions are and V = −2, we get two equations
 that we need to solve for x. Finally, the two solutions for the
problem are and x = −8.

In most cases, the approach to solving an equation in which polynomials

occur inside a radical is to take a power of both sides of the equation that
eliminates one or more of the radicals. The procedure can be repeated until there
are no radicals left in the expression, and the equation can then be solved. In the
next example, the square is taken on both sides, and this needs to be done twice.
EXAMPLE 6.4.9. Solve for x in the equation

Answer:

It’s a good idea to check the solution:

Equations involving logarithms very often reduce to rational expressions, as

in the next example.

EXAMPLE 6.4.10. Solve for x in the equation

2log(x + 1) − log(x + 2) = 0.
Answer:
 By the inverse property of logarithms (formula (6.1)), this is equivalent to

Once again, it’s a good idea to check both solutions. Taking the positive sign
in front of the square root gives a solution for the equation:

However, taking the negative sign in front of the square root does not give a
solution because simplifies to which is not defined. (A
logarithm is not defined for negative numbers.)

Solving trigonometric equations like the equation in the next example is a

skill that involves the correct application of trigonometric identities in order to
arrive at an equation that can be solved using the algebraic methods learned so
far (e.g., the method of factorizing to solve quadratic equations). If there are
cosine and sine terms involved, then the Pythagorean identity cos2(θ) + sin2(θ) =
1 would typically be used to rewrite the equation so that all the terms are powers
of sin(θ) or cos(θ).
EXAMPLE 6.4.11. Solve for x in the equation

Answer:

where n is any integer. As there is a step in which both sides of the equation
are squared, we need to check whether these are all solutions of the original
equation. The solutions and are indeed valid solutions but
are not solutions (recall that the cosine ratio is negative in the second
quadrant).

The trigonometric equation that we solved in the previous example actually

belongs to a class of trigonometric equations that we will solve in the next
example, using a different method.

EXAMPLE 6.4.12. Solve for x in the equation

a cos(x) + b sin(x) = c.

where a, b, and c are real numbers such that a ≠ 0, b > 0, and

Answer: Note that if we multiply both sides of the equation in example
6.4.11 by −1, then it is an equation of the type above, with b = 1, and c
= −1. The first step in solving the equation above is to divide both sides by
:

The reason for writing the equation this way is that we can express as
the cosine of some undetermined angle θ. Indeed, it is helpful to draw a right-
angled triangle with the short sides labeled a and b and the hypotenuse labeled
and θ placed so that and (If a > 0 then θ will
be in the first quadrant and a < 0 then θ will be in the second quadrant.) We
replace the coefficients of cos(x) and sin(x) on the left-hand side of the equation
by cos(θ) and sin(θ), respectively, so that the equation becomes

By means of the trigonometric identity in formula (4.7a), we can write the

equation above as

We write the solution for this equation as follows.

where n is any integer. Because we can replace θ with the final

answer can be expressed as:
 where n is any integer. Note that if we now make the substitutions
and c = −1, then we get the solution for exercise 6.4.11:

6.5 PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Imagination and creativity are required to find ways to reverse processes in
mathematics. In this section on partial fractions, we are going to discover
methods for reversing the addition of rational expressions. A simple example of
adding rational expressions is

If we write the equations in reverse order, then we obtain

By means of this reversed calculation, we write A situation in

which it is useful to do this is when we need to draw the graph of It might
not be immediately obvious what this graph should look like, but in the
alternative form we know immediately that, if we start with the graph of
then we can shift this graph two units to the left, reflect the graph over the
x-axis and shift the graph up one unit to finally obtain the graph we want.
A more general form of the calculation above is:

Here, a can be any real number, but it is easier to let a be any positive
number and instead use the following calculation if “a” above is negative.

It is very helpful to memorize the pair of equations that we have derived:

EXAMPLE 6.5.1.

(i)

(ii)

A calculation that is not as easy to reverse is shown in the next example.

EXAMPLE 6.5.2.

This motivates that we write the general equation

 where a and b are any real numbers with a ≠ b, and then figure out what A
and B should be. The way to do this is not difficult: we begin by adding the
rational expressions on the right-hand side of the equation:

Now the rational expressions on each side of the equation are equal to each
other and have the same denominator. Therefore, it must be true that the
numerators on each side of the equation are equal. Hence,

1 = (A + B)x − Ab − Ba.

This equation might look confusing. What it actually says is that the
polynomial 0x + 1 on the left-hand side of the equation is equal to the
polynomial (A + B)x − Ab − Ba on the right-hand side. Now, it is a basic fact that
two polynomials p(x) and q(x) are the same polynomials if and only if the
corresponding coefficients of the powers of x are all equal. Thus, the equation
above is true if and only if:

0 = A + B and 1 = −Ab − Ba.

According to the first equation, A = −B. If this is substituted in the second

equation, then:

1 = −(−B)b − Ba = B(b − a).

In other words, From this we also get Therefore, we have

solved for A and B in terms of a and b, and these expressions for A and B can be
replaced in formula (6.2), that is,
 where a ≠ b. A good way to memorize formula (6.3) is to note that the
coefficient of the term on the right-hand side of the equation can be obtained
by deleting the factor (x − a) in the denominator of the expression on the left-
hand side and replacing x with a in the adjacent factor (x − b) (to obtain the
coefficient ). Similarly, the coefficient of the term on the right-hand side
can be obtained by deleting the factor (x − b) in the denominator of the
expression on the left-hand side of the equation and replacing x with b in the
adjacent factor (x − a) (to obtain the coefficient ). The terms
in the equation above are called partial fractions of the
rational expression

EXAMPLE 6.5.3.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)
 In the following calculation, we will use the method above to find the partial
fractions in the more general case where the linear factors in the denominator are
of the form (kx − a) and (lx − b), where k, l, a, and b are real numbers with k ≠ 0,
l ≠ 0, and

The interpretation of this result is that the coefficient of on the right-

hand side is obtained by deleting the factor (kx − a) in the denominator on the
left-hand side and substituting the root of this linear factor, that is, for x in the
remaining part of the expression. The coefficient of on the right-hand side
can be obtained similarly. The following notation can be used:

The vertical bar indicates that a substitution is made for x.

EXAMPLE 6.5.4.

(i)
 (i)

(ii)

(iii)

This method of finding the partial fractions of a rational expression with a

product of two linear factors in the denominator and a constant in the numerator
can be applied to find the partial fractions of a rational expression with a product
of three linear factors in the denominator and a constant in the numerator. The
idea is to group terms and then apply the method twice:

Thus, we have derived the formula

 where a ≠ b ≠ c ≠ a. Note that the shortcut method explained above for
finding the coefficients of the partial fractions when there are two linear terms in
the denominator can also be applied when there are three linear terms in the
denominator. That is, to find the coefficient of the term on the right-hand
side of the formula above, delete the factor (x − a) in the denominator of the
expression on the left-hand side of the equation and replace x with a in the
remaining part of the expression (to obtain the coefficient The other
two coefficients can be obtained similarly.
Furthermore, there is also the more general formula (which we will not
derive), which is a generalization of formula (6.5):

EXAMPLE 6.5.5.
(i)

(ii)

(iii)
 The next type of rational expression that we consider involves a linear factor
in the numerator and a product of two linear factors in the denominator. We find
the partial fractions by grouping the factors and making use of the formulas that
have already been derived. Here is how this works in the simplest case:

where a ≠ b. In the general case, the coefficients of the partial fractions are:

EXAMPLE 6.5.6.

(i)
(ii)

We also consider rational expressions that involve a quadratic factor in the

numerator and a product of three linear factors in the denominator. Again, we
will find the partial fractions by grouping the factors and making use of the
formulas that have already been derived. In the simplest case, this is:

By now, it should be no surprise that the formula for the coefficients of the
partial fractions, in the general case, is

EXAMPLE 6.5.7.
 There are expressions equivalent to those we have derived for rational
expressions with products of four or more different linear factors in the
denominator. For these, and for the cases that were considered above, the degree
of the numerator is supposed to be less than the degree of the denominator
(expanded as a polynomial). In the case that the numerator of a rational
expression has the same or larger degree than the degree of the denominator,
then the numerator should first be divided by the denominator using long
division.

EXAMPLE 6.5.8. Find the partial fractions of

Answer: The expanded form of the denominator is 3x2 + x − 2. By means of

long division, we find that

Now, by means of the formulas above, we can find the partial fractions:

The methods that have been used in this section can be used to find the
partial fractions of rational expressions when some of the linear factors in the
denominator are repeated, for example, rational expressions of the type
 where a ≠ b. However, in order to find the partial fractions of rational
expressions of the most general type, for example, when some of the factors in
the denominator are irreducible quadratic expressions, an algebraic technique
that involves solving systems of equations is preferable. We will not discuss this
here.

6.6 INEQUALITIES

In example 5.2.10, the inequality 4 − 3s − s2 ≥ 0 was solved to find the domain
of the function The method that was used to solve this
inequality is basically the method that can be used to solve any inequality that
involves polynomial or rational expressions. In this section, we are going to
practice this method of solving inequalities. To begin with, we need to see how
an inequality can be simplified.

6.6.1 Simplifying Inequalities

If x is a real variable (i.e., x may be any real number), then an inequality such as
2x + 3 < 9 represents all real numbers less than 3. The reason is that if a real
number less than 3 is substituted for x (e.g., x = 1), then the inequality is true
(2(1) + 3 < 9 is a true statement because 5 < 9); on the other hand, if a real
number greater than or equal to 3 is substituted for x (e.g., x = 5), then the
inequality is false (2(5) + 3 < 9 is a false statement because ). To see
precisely why x = 3 is the cutoff point, we create an equivalent inequality (i.e.,
an inequality with the same solution) by subtracting 3 from both sides of the
inequality to obtain 2x < 6 and then dividing both sides of the inequality by 2 to
obtain x < 3.
Performing the same algebraic operation on both sides of an inequality to
produce an equivalent inequality is the basic method for simplifying inequalities.
However, we need to be careful when multiplying or dividing both sides of an
inequality by a negative number. We know, for instance, that −5 < −2 is true but
changing the sign on both sides, which is the same as multiplying both sides by
−1, produces 5 < 2 which is false. Similarly, multiplying both sides by −12, for
example, produces 60 < 24, which is also false. What we have to do when we
multiply or divide an inequality by a negative number is change the direction of
the inequality. For example, an inequality that is equivalent to −2x + 14 < 10 −
6x is the inequality x − 7 > 3x − 5 (divide both sides by −2).
EXAMPLE 6.6.1. The inequality 1 − x4 < 2 − x2 − 3x4 can be expressed in the
factorized form

(1 + x2)(1− x2) < (1 + x2)(2 − 3x2).

Because the factor 1 + x2 is positive for all values of x, we can divide both
sides of the inequality by 1 + x2 to obtain the equivalent inequality (1 − x2) < (2
− 3 x2). If we now add 3x2 to both sides and subtract 1 from both sides, we
obtain the equivalent inequality 2 x2 < 1. This, in turn, is equivalent to

EXAMPLE 6.6.2. The inequality −2x3 + 5x2 − 8x + 3 ≤ − x3 + 2x2 − 3x can be

expressed in the factorized form

(2 x − 1)(−x2 + 2x − 3) ≤ x(−x2 + 2x − 3).

Because the factor −x2 + 2x − 3 is negative for all values of x (because the
equation 0 = −x2 + 2x − 3 has imaginary roots and the graph of y = −x2 + 2x − 3
is a downward pointing parabola), we obtain the equivalent inequality 2x − 1 ≥ x
by dividing both sides by −x2 + 2x − 3 and changing the direction of the
inequality. This can be further simplified to the inequality x ≥ 1.

6.6.2 Solving Inequalities

In this section, we will look at inequalities involving one real variable (x),
beginning with inequalities involving polynomials and then moving onto
inequalities involving rational expressions, roots, absolute values, and, finally,
other kinds of expression (exponents, logarithms, and trigonometric ratios).
When solving an inequality involving polynomials, the first objective, as
with solving an equation involving polynomials, is to move all the terms to one
side of the inequality (so that zero is on the other side) and then to factorize the
resulting expression as a product of linear and irreducible quadratic factors.
The next step is to determine the sign of this product on each of the intervals
(of the number line) determined by the roots of the linear factors. A test point
chosen from any one of the intervals can be used to determine the sign of the
product on that interval. The sign (of the product) on all the other intervals can
then be determined by using the fact that it changes across any root
corresponding to a linear factor raised to an odd power. The solution for the
inequality is then the union of the intervals on which the inquality is a true
statement. The examples below will make this clear.

EXAMPLE 6.6.3. Solve the inequality

2x + 1 < 3 − x.

Answer: The solution is which can alternatively be expressed by stating

that x is an element of the interval that is,

EXAMPLE 6.6.4. Solve the inequality

11x2 + 13x + 2 < 0.

Answer: In factorized form, the inequality is (11x + 2)(x + 1) < 0. The roots
of the linear factors are and x = −1. These two roots divide the number line
into the intervals and At x = 0 (a test point in the
interval the sign of the product (11x + 2)(x + 1) is positive. Therefore,
the sign of the product (11x + 2)(x + 1) will be positive on the interval
negative on the adjacent interval and positive on the interval (−∞, −1).
The final solution can then be expressed by means of the double inequality

EXAMPLE 6.6.5. Solve the inequality

x3 ≥ x2 + 5x + 3.

Answer: This inequality is equivalent to x3 − x2 − 5x − 3 ≥ 0. In factorized

form, this is
 (x + 1)2(x − 3) ≥ 0.
The roots of the linear factors are x = − 1 and x = 3. Again, we can use x = 0
as a test point to determine that the product (x +1)2 (x − 3) is negative on the
interval (−1, 3). Because there is no sign change at x = −1 (the linear factor (x +
1) is squared), the product (x + 1)2(x − 3) is also negative on the interval (−∞,
−1). However, the product (x + 1)2(x − 3) will be positive on the interval (3, ∞).
Thus, the inequality is solved if x = − 1 (where the product is zero) or if x ≥ 3,
that is, x ∈ {−1} ∪ [3, ∞). (The square bracket means that 3 is included in the
interval.)

EXAMPLE 6.6.6. Solve the inequality

x5 + x4 − x3 − x2 − x + 1 < 0.
Answer: By the factor theorem, (x − 1) is a factor of the left-hand side, and
by long division or synthetic division we obtain the factorization

and so the inequality can be expressed as (x − l)(x2 + x + l)(x2 + x − 1) < 0. The

factor x2 + x + 1 is irreducible (the roots are imaginary); however, the factor x2 +
x − 1 has the real roots and Therefore, the intervals we need to
consider for the solution for the inequality are

and (1, ∞). It is helpful to label these intervals I1, I2,

I3, and I4, respectively. (Mathematicians use the “:=” symbol when naming or
defining something, so in future we will use the notation etc., for
naming intervals.) The product

(x − 1)(x2 + x +1)(x2 + x − 1)

is positive in the interval I2 (check x = 0) and negative in the adjacent intervals I1

and I3. Therefore, the solution for the inequality is x ∈ I1 or x ∈ I3, that is,

When an inequality involves rational expressions, the first objective, as

before, is to obtain all the terms on one side of the inequality (and zero on the
other side) and then to add the terms to obtain a single rational expression in
simplest form. The numerator and denominator of this rational expression can
then be factorized separately into a product of linear and irreducible quadratic
factors. Thereafter, the principle for solving the inequality is exactly the same as
explained for polynomials above: odd powers of linear factors in the numerator
or denominator change their sign at their roots while irreducible quadratic
factors in the numerator or denominator do not change their sign and even
powers of linear factors are positive except at their roots (where they are zero).

EXAMPLE 6.6.7. Solve the inequality

Answer: This is equivalent to which can be expressed as

The roots of the linear factors are x = − 1, x = 0, and x = 1. These roots divide
the number line into the intervals (−∞, − 1), (−1, 0), (0, 1), and (1, ∞). A test
point (e.g., x = 2) determines that the rational expression is negative in the
interval (1, ∞). The solution for the inequality is therefore x ∈ (−1, 0)∪(1, ∞).

EXAMPLE 6.6.8. Solve the inequality

Answer: This is equivalent to

 which simplifies to

The roots of the linear factors are x = − 5, − 1, 1, 3, and 7, which divide the
number line into the intervals (−∞, − 5), (−5, − 1), (−1, 1), (1, 3), (3, 7), and (7,
∞). A test point (e.g., x = 0) determines that the rational expression is negative in
the interval (−1, 1). Therefore, the final solution is x ∈ (−∞, −5)∪(−1, 1)∪(3, 7).

EXAMPLE 6.6.9. Solve the inequality

Answer: This is equivalent to

which simplifies to

The factor (x2 + 2x + 7) is irreducible and (x2 + 2x − 7) has roots

Thus, the intervals we consider are and
The test point x = 0 determines that the rational expression on
the left-hand side of the inequality above is negative in the interval I2. Therefore,
the solution for the inequality is

Inequalities involving root terms can be solved in a manner similar to solving

equations with root terms, as long as the following facts are taken into careful
consideration (assume that k is a natural number, k > 1, and a and b are real
numbers):

(i) If k is odd, then if and only if a < b.

(ii) If k is even and a > 0 and b > 0, then if and only if a < b.

EXAMPLE 6.6.10. Solve the inequality

Answer: The root is not defined if x < −6, so we make the restriction x ≥ −6.
Because a square root is always nonnegative, the inequality will be false if −6 ≤
x < 0 and also false if x = 0. Now, if x > 0, then is true if and only if x
+ 6 < x2 is true (by (ii) above). The previous inequality is equivalent to (x − 3)(x
+ 2) > 0. Therefore the final solution is x ∈ (3, ∞).

EXAMPLE 6.6.11. Solve the inequality

Answer: The inequality is equivalent to The root is not

defined if so we make the restriction Because a square root is always
nonnegative the inequality will be true if If we suppose that x > 11, then
the inequality is true if (x − 11)2 < 4(2x − 1). This is equivalent to (x − 25)(x − 5)
< 0, which is true if 11 < x < 25 (because we are supposing that x > 11). The
final solution is

An inequality involving an absolute value should be interpreted either as a

double inequality or pair of inequalities, depending on the direction of the
inequality. For example, if k is a positive number and p(x) is an algebraic
expression (a polynomial or rational expression, for example), then |p(x)| < k is
equivalent to the double inequality −k < p(x) < k, and |p(x)| > k is equivalent to
the pair of inequalities p(x) > k or p(x) < − k. The double inequality can be
solved by treating it as two inequalities and taking the intersection of their
solutions as the final solution. The pair of inequalities can be solved by taking
the union of their solutions as the final solution.
EXAMPLE 6.6.12. Solve the inequality

|2x + 1| < 11.

Answer: This is equivalent to the double inequality − 11 < 2x +1 < 11. We
will solve each of the inequalities − 11 < 2x +1 and 2x +1 < 11, separately. The
solution for the first inequality is − 6 < x and the second inequality is x < 5.
Thus, the final solution is x ∈ (−6, 5).

EXAMPLE 6.6.13. Solve the inequality

|x2 + x − 12|> 8.
Answer: There are two cases to consider here. We first consider the case x2 +
x − 12 > 8, which is equivalent to (x + 5)(x − 4) > 0. The solution for this case is
x < −5 or x > 4. The second case, we need to consider is x2 + x − 12 < −8, which
is equivalent to x2 + x − 4 < 0. The roots of x2 + x − 4 are and so the
solution for this case is Note that We can
conclude, therefore, that the final solution is

Another way to solve inequalities involving absolute values, especially if

there is more than one absolute value, is to break up the problem into cases
depending on whether the expressions inside the absolute values are positive or
negative. The two cases here are |p(x)| = p(x) if p(x) ≥ 0 and |p(x)| = −p(x) if p(x)
≤ 0.

EXAMPLE 6.6.14. Solve the inequality

|3x +1| − |x + 4| < 1.

Answer: The four cases we need to consider are:

Case (i) 3x + 1 ≥ 0 and x + 4 ≥ 0;
 Case (ii) 3x + 1 <0 and x + 4 ≥ 0;
Case (iii) 3x + 1 ≥ 0 and x + 4 < 0;
Case (iv) 3x + 1 < 0 and x + 4 < 0.

Case (i) is equivalent to and x ≥ −4. These two inequalities combine as

and, in this case, the original inequality becomes (3x + 1)−(x + 4) < 1. This
simplifies to x < 2, so the solution for this case is
Case (ii) is equivalent to and x ≥ −4. These two inequalities combine as
and the original inequality becomes −(3x + 1) − (x + 4) < 1. This
simplifies to so the solution for this case is
Case (iii) is equivalent to and x < −4. These two inequalities have no
intersection, so there is no inequality to solve for this case.
Case (iv) is equivalent to and x <−4. These two inequalities combine as
x < −4, and the original inequality becomes −(3x + 1) + (x + 4) < 1. This
simplifies to x > 1, so there is no solution for this case (because we have the
restriction x < −4).
Therefore, by combining cases (i) and (ii) we obtain the final solution

The only types of problem involving exponential, trigonometric, and

logarithmic expressions that we will consider in this section are those that can be
solved using the same methods used to solve inequalities that involve
polynomial or rational expressions. So, essentially, nothing new is being
introduced now. Knowledge of the graphs of exponential, trigonometric, and
logarithmic expressions comes in very useful!

EXAMPLE 6.6.15. Solve the inequality

2x − 2−x+1 − 1 > 0.

Answer: We represent 2x as X and then write the inequality as

which is equivalent to or, in factorized form, We may
suppose that X > 0, as it represents 2x, which is positive for all values of x.
Therefore, the solution for the inequality is X > 2 (we discard the other
possibility, X < −1). In terms of x, this is 2x > 2, which is satisfied if and only if x
> 1, that is, x ∈ (1, ∞).

EXAMPLE 6.6.16. Solve the inequality

Answer: We multiply both sides of the inequality by 2 and make use of the
identity sin(2θ) = 2sin(θ) cos(θ). The inequality then becomes With
reference to the graph of the sine function, we can deduce that the inequality is
solved if 2x belongs to any interval of the form where n is any
integer. This in turn means that where n is any integer.

EXAMPLE 6.6.17. Solve the inequality

(log3(x))2 + log3(x) − 2 > 0.

Answer: In factorized form, this is (log3(x) + 2)(log3(x) − 1) > 0, and so the

solution is log3(x) < −2 or log3(x) > 1. The first of these inequalities is equivalent
to 0 < x < 3−2, which is the same as (these are the values of x for which
the graph y = log3(x) is below the horizontal line y = − 2), and the second of
these inequalities is equivalent to x > 31, which is the same as x > 3 (these are the
values of x for which the graph y = log3(x) is above the horizontal line y = 1).
The solution for the problem, therefore, is

6.6.3 Two-Variable Inequalities

A solution for an inequality of the form
 p(x, y) < q(x, y),

where p(x, y) and q(x, y) are expressions in terms of variables x and y, is a

pair of real numbers (a, b), such that if x = a and y = b, then the inequality is a
true statement. The solution set for the inequality is the set of all such solutions.
It can be represented as the following set S:

S = {(a, b) | p(a, b) < q(a, b)}.

Each solution (a, b) can be regarded as a pair of coordinates in the Cartesian

plane, and the set S can be regarded as a subset of the Cartesian plane. Therefore,
in all of the examples below, the set S can be represented by shading a region of
the Cartesian plane.
It is difficult, in general, to find the solution for an inequality involving two
variables. However, if the inequality relates to a familiar graph, then the solution
can be obtained by shading the region above or below the graph.

EXAMPLE 6.6.18. Consider the inequality

x < y.
The solution set S for this inequality is the set of all coordinate pairs (a, b),
where a and b are real numbers and a < b. In the same way that the solution set
of the equation x = y is represented in the Cartesian plane as a line through the
origin, the solution set S for the inequality x < y can be represented in the
Cartesian plane as the region above this line (because every point directly above
any point on this line has the same x coordinate but larger y coordinate). In
figure 6.1, this is the shaded region. The line y = x is shown as a dotted line
because it is not included in the set S.
 FIGURE 6.1. The graphical representation of the solution set for x < y.

EXAMPLE 6.6.19. The solution sets for the inequalities y ≤ x2, x2 + y2 < 9 and the
double inequality x − 1 ≤ y < x + 1 are the shaded regions in the first, second,
and third diagrams in figure 6.2, respectively. Note that, in the third diagram, the
lower boundary line for the shaded region is shown as a solid line because
equality is included in the lower inequality x − 1 ≤ y, whereas the upper
boundary line for the shaded region is shown as a dotted line because the upper
inequality y < x + 1 is a strict inequality.

FIGURE 6.2. Diagram for example 6.6.19.

We can also regard the shaded region in the third diagram in figure 6.2 as a
representation of the solution set for the system of inequalities {y < x + 1, y ≥ x −
1}, that is
 S = {(a, b)|b < a + 1}∩{(a, b)|b ≥ a − 1}
We now give a few more examples of systems of inequalities and their
corresponding shaded regions.

EXAMPLE 6.6.20. The shaded region representing the solution set for the system
of inequalities

{y > −2x2 − x + 6, y ≥ 2x − 3, x ≥ 2.5}

is shown in figure 6.3.

FIGURE 6.3. Diagram for example 6.6.20.

EXAMPLE 6.6.21. The shaded region representing the solution set for the system
of inequalities

{x2 + y2 ≤ 9, xy ≤ 1, y − x < 0}

is shown in figure 6.4. (Note that inequality xy ≤ 1 is represented by the region

between the two components of the graph of the hyperbola .)
 FIGURE 6.4. Diagram for example 6.6.21.

EXAMPLE 6.6.22. The shaded region representing the solution set for the system
of inequalities

{x ≤ 1 − y2, x ≥ y2 − 1}

is shown in figure 6.5. It’s a good idea to check that a test point in the region that
has been shaded verifies the inequalities. In this case, the origin (0, 0) can be
used a test point. Because both inequalities are true if x = 0 and y = 0, the correct
region is shaded.

FIGURE 6.5. Diagram for example 6.6.22.

EXERCISES

6.1. Perform the indicated product or division of rational expressions. Write
each answer as a single, simplified rational expression.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

6.2. Perform the indicated operation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, or

division) of rational expressions. Write each answer as a single, simplified
rational expression.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)
 (h)

6.3. Perform the indicated operation of rational expressions. Write each answer
as a single, simplified rational expression without negative exponents.

(a)

(b) 1 + y −(1 − y)−1

(c) 1 + t − 2t(1 + t)−1
(d) (2r − 6(r + 2)−1)·(1 + 3(r − 1)−1)
(e) (3 − 2(2s + 1)−1 + 10(s − 1)−1) ÷ (1 − 6(2s + 1)−1 + 2(s + 1)−1)
6.4. Factorize the following expressions so that the resulting factors contain
only square roots, cube roots, and squares of cube roots.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e) (Hint: factor by grouping in pairs.)

6.5. Add or subtract the expressions, as indicated. Write the answer as a single
fraction without negative exponents.
(a)

(b)

(c)

6.6. Add or subtract the expressions, as indicated. Write the answer as a single
fraction and rationalize the denominator.
 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

6.7. Simplify the following rational expressions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

6.8. Solve each equation for x.

(a) 15(x2 + 1) = 34x
(b) (x + 1)(x − 2) = (2x − 1)(x + 2)
(c) (x + 1)(x − 2) = 2(x − 5)(x − 4)
6.9. Solve each equation for t.
(a) (t + 3)2 + 2(t + 3) − 3 = 0

(b)

(c) (t2 + t − 5)(t2 + t − 7) = 15

(d) (t + 1)2 = (t + 2)2

(e)

(f)
 (g)

6.10. Two numbers differ by 2 and their reciprocals differ by . Find the two
numbers.
6.11. The product of two consecutive numbers added to the square of their sum
is 151. Find the numbers.
6.12. If the squares of two numbers add up to 5, and three times one of the
numbers plus the other number equals 5, what are the numbers?
6.13. A blue hose can fill a swimming pool in x h and a red hose takes 6 h
longer. Running together, they can fill the swimming pool in 4 h. Find x.
6.14. Solve each equation for r.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

6.15. Solve each equation for y.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
6.16. Solve each equation for υ.
(a) | υ − 2|= υ + 4
(b) | υ − 2|= υ2 +1
(c) 2| υ2 − 2|= 3 − υ2
(d) |υ|2 −2 |υ| + 1 = 0
(e) |(υ − 4)(υ + 2)|= 7
(f) |(υ − 3)(υ − 1)|= υ − 1
(g) |(υ − 3)(υ − 1)|= (υ − 3)(υ − 1)
6.17. Solve each equation for x.
(a)

(b)

(c) 8 · 7x = 392
(d) 6x+1 − 6x−1 = 210
(e) 72x − 6 · 7x − 7 = 0

(f)

(g)

6.18. Solve each equation for w.

(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)

(e)
 (f)

(g)

6.19. Solve each equation for s.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)

(k)

6.20. Solve each equation for υ.

(a) log2υ = 8
(b) log3(υ − 2) = − 1
(c) log256 + log υ = log1, 024
(d) logυ = 1 − log(υ + 9)
(e) ln(υ2 + 1) = 1
(f) logυ = log2υ
(g) log23υ = log23 + log2υ

(h) logυ2 = log(+ − υ)

(i) 2logυ = log(6 − υ)
 (j) logυ = − log(υ + 3)
(k) log6(3υ + 4) = 2 + log6(υ − 3)
(l)
(m) logυ log(υ + 1)log(υ + 2) = 0
6.21. Solve each equation for k.
(a) ln(k2 + 1) = 1 + ln 2k

(b)

(c) 2log8(2k + 3) = log8(k + 1)

(d)

(e) log(9k + 10)2 = 2 + log(2k + 5) + log(k + 2)

(f) 2log(9k + 10) = 2 + log(2k + 5) + log(k + 2)
6.22. Solve each equation for x.
(a) cos(2x) + sin(x) = 1

(b)

(c) sin(4x) − 2sin(2x) = 0

(d) sec2(x) + 3tan(x) − 11 = 0

(e)

6.23. Solve each equation for θ.

(a)
(b) 12sin2(θ) − 17sin(θ) + 6 = 0
(c) 3cos2(θ) − 2sin(θ) − 1 = 0
6.24. Solve each equation for α.
 (a) −12cos(α) + 5sin(α) = 10.
(b) 3cos(α) − 4sin(α) = 2.
(c)

6.25. (a) Use the trigonometric identity cos(2θ) = 2cos2(θ) − 1 to prove that

(b) Solve the trigonometric equation for θ in the interval [0, 2π]:

(Hint: (x − a)(y − b) = xy − ay − by + ab.)

6.26. (a) Use trigonometric identities to prove that

sin(2x) + sin(4x) + sin(6x) = 4sin(3x) cos(2x) cos(x)

(b) Solve the trigonometric equation for x in the interval [0, 2π]:
sin(2x) + sin(4x) + sin(6x) = 2cos(2x) cos(x)

6.27. Find the partial fractions of the following rational expressions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)
 (g)

(h)

6.28. Find the partial fractions of the following rational expressions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

6.29. Find the partial fractions of the following rational expressions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
 (f)

(g)

(h)

6.30. Find the partial fractions of the following rational expressions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

6.31. Find the partial fractions of the following rational expressions.

(a)

(b)

(c)
 (d)

(e)

6.32. If a ≠ b, then the partial fractions of are of the form

for constants A1, A2, and B. For example,

Find the partial fractions of the following rational expressions. (Hint: start
by grouping the factors.)

(a)

(b)

(c)

6.33. Solve the following inequalities.

(a) 6x − 7 > x + 2
(b) 2x2 − 9x − 35 ≤ 0
(c) (x + 1)(x + 2)2(x + 3)3(x + 4)4 > 0
(d) (x + 1)(x − 2) < 2(x − 5)(x − 4)
(e) 6x3 + 2 ≤ 3x + 11x2
(f) (x2 + x + 2)(x2 − x + 2)(x2 − 6) < 0
(g (x4 + 3x2 + 4)(x2 − 6) > 0

6.34. Solve the inequality x4 + x3 − x2 − 2x − 2 ≥ 0.

 (Hint: rewrite the polynomial as x4 + x3 + x2 − 2x2 − 2x − 2 and factor by
grouping.)
6.35. Solve the following inequalities.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

6.36. Solve the following inequalities.

(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)

6.37. Solve the following inequalities.

(a) |1 − 2υ| −3 < 0
 (b) |1 − 2υ| −3 > 0
(c) |12υ + 13| ≤ 156
(d) |1 − 2υ| + 6 < 3υ
(e) |3 − υ| ≥ 4υ − 2
(f) |4υ − 2| < 3 − υ
(g) |3 − υ| ≤ 3 − υ
(h) |(4 − υ)(3 − υ)| ≤ 2
(i) |(4 − υ)(3 − υ)| < 5 − υ

(j)

(k) |υ + 3| + |4υ − 1| < 1

(l) |υ + 3| − |4υ − 1| < 1
6.38. Solve the following inequalities.
(a) (3x − 1)2 > 4
(b) (3x − 1)2 > 4 (express your answer as a logarithm)
(c) 4x − 2x > 0
(d) log2(4x − 2x) > 0 (express your answer as a logarithm)

(e) 12sin2(θ) − 17sin(θ) + 6 < 0 (express your answers in terms of sin−1)

(f) sin(2x) + sin(x) > 0
(g) (log3(x))2 + 3log3(x) + 2 < 0
(h) log3(x) > log4(x)

(i)

6.39. Shade the regions in the Cartesian plane representing the solution set for
each of the following inequalities.
(a) y ≤ 3x − 4
 (b) x < 3y − 4
(c) y ≥ x2 − 2x + 4
(d) x > y2 − 2y + 4
(e) x ≤ 2y
(f) x < 2y
6.40. Shade the regions in the Cartesian plane representing the solution set for
each of the following double inequalities.
(a) 0 < y < x
(b) 0 < y < 2
(c) −4 < y < 1 − 2x
(d) 0 < y < sin(x)
(e)

(f)

(g) x2 − 2x < y < 2x − x2

(h) x2 + 2x − 1 < y < 1 + 2x − x2
(i)

6.41. Shade the regions in the Cartesian plane representing the solution set for
each of the following systems of inequalities.
(a)

(b) {y < 2x, y > − 2x, x > 0}

(c) {y < log3(x), y > log4(x), x > 64}
(d) {y < x + 1, y > x − 1, y < 1 − x, y > − 1 − x}
(e)

(f) {x2 + 2x − 1 < y < 1 + 2x − x2, y < 2x}

 (g) {x2 + y2 ≤ 1, x2 + 2x + y2 ≤ 0, y > 0}
(h)
(i)

(j)

6.42. Figure 6.6 shows a circle centered at the origin with radius equal to 4, the
graph of and a parabola that intersects the x-axis at x = −2 and x
= 6 and the y-axis at y = 4.
(a) Determine the equation of the circle
(b) Determine the equation of the parabola
(c) Express the shaded area as a representation of the solution set of a
system of inequalities
(d) Calculate the domain of the shaded area (i.e., all x values for points
in the shaded area)
(e) Calculate the range of the shaded area (i.e., all y values for points in
the shaded area).

FIGURE 6.6. Diagram for exercise 6.42.

6.43. The two inequalities and xy < 1 do not have the same solution set
(check this!). Sketch the shaded regions representing the solution sets for
these two inequalities. (Recall that the graph of the hyperbola has two
components.)
 CHAPTER 7

LIMITS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The concept of a limiting value of a function plays an important role in calculus,
because the formal definition of the derivative of a function at a point in its
domain can be expressed as the limiting value of a particular expression
involving the function.
The meaning of “limit” in mathematics is more subtle than that in everyday
speech. A speed limit that applies on a highway is a speed that motorists may not
exceed. The meaning of “limit” in mathematics is similar to that in the following
sentence: “In the minute to win it competition the contestant was pushed to the
limit of his abilities.” Thus, a “limit” in mathematics is something (like a number
or geometrical figure) that is approached and might or might not be reached.
It is in keeping with the historical approach of this book to begin with the
method of exhaustion as an example of an occurrence of a limit in mathematics,
as this is the method that Archimedes and other Greek mathematicians of his
time used to calculate approximate values of certain areas, for example, the area
of a disk. In section 7.3, the concept of a limit is explained carefully using
number sequences without giving the completely rigorous treatment (involving ε
arguments) that are given in more advanced textbooks. Students of this book will
probably not benefit from such a theoretical approach at this stage.
The notion of the left or right limit of a function, introduced simplistically
(by reading from a graph) in section 7.4, leads to the definition of continuity of a
function in section 7.5. The property of continuity is important because many
theorems about functions, for example, the Intermediate Value Theorem (in
section 7.7), apply only to functions that are continuous.
 Most of the skills that students need to learn in this chapter are introduced in
sections 7.6 and 7.8. They are the algebraic skills required for calculating limits.
The algebraic methods that have been explained in chapters 3 and 6, such as
expanding and factorizing expressions, come into play here.
The study of the graphs of rational functions is one of the topics in this book.
In section 7.9, the different kinds of behavior of the graph of a rational function
near a vertical asymptote are investigated. This involves the behavior of a
rational function f(x) as x approaches a vertical asymptote from the left or the
right.
This chapter ends with a demonstration (in section 7.10) of the way the
Squeeze Theorem and rules for limits are used to evaluate certain types of limits
involving trigonometric ratios. The evaluation of these limits will make it
possible to compute the derivatives of trigonometric functions in chapter 8.

7.2 THE METHOD OF EXHAUSTION

The areas of certain geometrical shapes (e.g., a disk) can be calculated as closely
as desired by approximating the shape with polygons and computing the areas of
the polygons. This is called the method of exhaustion. The area of the
geometrical shape can be regarded as the limit of the areas of polygons that
approximate the shape in a more and more refined way.

EXAMPLE 7.2.1. If a regular polygon is inscribed in a disk (see figure 7.1), then
the area of the polygon approximates the area of disk. (Recall that in a regular
polygons all the sides have the same length, and they all meet at the same angle.)
Such inscribed polygons fill out more and more of the disk as their number of
sides increases (i.e., as their sides get shorter and shorter). Figure 7.1 shows an
equilateral triangle, regular hexagon, and regular dodecagon inscribed in a disk.
If we call these regular polygons a 3-gon, 6-gon, and 12-gon, respectively, then
the next regular polygon in our approximative scheme would be a 24-gon. In
general, the area of the disk can be approximated by the area of a 3 × 2n-gon, for
any nonnegative integer n.
 FIGURE 7.1. Polygons inscribed in a disk.

Figure 7.2 shows how we can compute the area of the triangle and the
hexagon. We will assume that the radius of the disk is 1. In the diagram on the
left, the area of the big triangle is six times the area of the shaded right triangle.
The area of the latter is

Therefore, the area of the big triangle is

Similarly, in the diagram on the right, the area of the hexagon is twelve times
the area of the shaded right triangle. The area of the latter is

so the area of the hexagon is By similar reasoning, the area of

the dodecagon in figure 7.1 is The area of a 3 × 2n-gon in

this progression, beginning with the traingle (n = 0), is
(verify this!). We can think of this as a formula that generates an infinite
sequence of numbers

1.299,2.598,3,3.106,3.133, …

(check these calculations) that approximate the area of a disk with radius 1, and
the larger the value of n, the better the approximation. On the other hand, the
Archimedean formula for the area of the disk with radius 1 is π(1)2 = π. Thus,
plugging in any value for n in the formula above gives an approximate value for
π. In his treatise measurement of a circle, Archimedes did the calculation for n =
5 (i.e., by inscribing a 96-gon inside a disk) and found the value of π to be larger
than but less than

FIGURE 7.2. A triangle and a hexagon inscribed in a disk.

7.3 SEQUENCES

Infinite sequences of numbers, usually called sequences, are interesting to
mathematicians. The numbers that form a sequence might appear to be random,
or they might follow some sort of pattern, in which case the numbers can be
given by some kind of formula. We will look at a few examples, in order to
develop the concept of a limit.

EXAMPLE 7.3.1. We consider the sequence of numbers given by the formula

where an stands for the nth term of the sequence. Any natural number n
may be substituted into the formula to obtain the corresponding term of the
sequence. For example, if n = 3, then Here is the sequence with the
first five terms computed:

The ellipsis (three dots) at the end indicates that the sequence is infinite (we
cannot list all of the terms). Note that each term of the sequence is smaller than
the term succeeding it because

We want to know whether the sequence has a limit as n gets larger and larger
(mathematicians use the expression as n tends to infinity). In other words, we
want to know whether the formula approaches a particular value as n gets
larger and larger. It is obvious that can never be larger than 1, because the
numerator is smaller than the denominator.
However, can we conclude that the sequence approaches 1 as n tends to
infinity? A mathematical answer to this question requires a mathematical
interpretation of the question, which is to phrase the question this way: if we
choose any number x smaller than 1, is there an element of the sequence such
that it and all elements of the sequence beyond this element are larger than x?
For example, if we choose the number x = 0.9999999999, is there a natural
number N such that for any n ≥ N it is the case that 0.9999999999 < an ≤ 1? The
answer is YES: if N = 34, then which is clearly larger
than 0.9999999999, and all terms of the sequence beyond a34 will be larger than
a34.
We see that answering the question amounts to finding a real number t that
solves the equation and then taking N to be any natural number
bigger than t. In general, we can solve for t in the equation where x is any
positive real number less than 1 (and as close to 1 as we would like it to be), and
then we take N to be any natural number larger than t, so that x < aN < 1. (The
equation can, in fact, be solved using basic algebra and taking a
logarithm. Do it yourself!)
Our conclusion is that the limit of the sequence is 1. The mathematical
notation we use for this statement is

This should be read as: “The limit as n tends to infinity of an is 1.” This notation
will be used again.

EXAMPLE 7.3.2. As a variation of example 7.3.1, consider the sequence

which consists of the terms of the sequence in example 7.3.1 alternating with
“1.” As in example 7.3.1, for any given value x < 1, we can find an odd natural
number N such that for any n ≥ N it is the case that x < an≥ 1. Therefore, we
conclude again that the limit of the sequence is 1. (It does not matter that
infinitely many terms of the sequence are also equal to 1.)

EXAMPLE 7.3.3. As a variation of example 7.3.2, consider the sequence

in which all terms of the sequence beyond the fifth term are equal to 1. In this
case, it is trivially true that x < an ≤ 1 if n ≥ 6, for any value x < 1, so here we
conclude again that the limit of the sequence is 1.

EXAMPLE 7.3.4 As another variation of example 7.3.1, consider the sequence

for which the first seven terms are as follows:

The terms of this sequence alternately rise above and fall below the number
1. The limit of this sequence is also 1, but it is slightly more complicated to
prove this using the method of example 7.3.1

There are sequences that do not have a limit. Here is an example:

EXAMPLE 7.3.5 Let for which the first seven terms are

The negative terms approach –1, whereas the positive terms approach 1, so
the sequence has no limit.

A great deal more can be said about sequences and limits of sequences, but
now we move on to limits of functions.

7.4. LIMITS OF A FUNCTION

The following three examples introduce what is meant, graphically, by the
limiting value of a function f(x) if x approaches a particular value.

EXAMPLE 7.4.1. The graph of a piecewise-defined function f(x) with different

definitions to the left and right of x = 1 is shown in figure 7.3. According to the
graph, we see that f(x) approaches the value 1 as x approaches 1 from the left,
and f(x) approaches the value −2 as x approaches 1 from the right. We write this
mathematically as follows:

The minus sign in the first case means that the approach is from the left (i.e.,
x approaches 1 from numbers smaller than 1), and the plus sign in the second
case means that the approach is from the right (i.e., x approaches 1 from
numbers larger than 1). If we omit the direction indicator in the limit, that is, if
we do not specify the direction of approach (from the left or the right), then we
write
 (The abbreviation d.n.e. can be used instead.) The reason the limit does not
exist is that the left and right limits are different (1 and –2, respectively).

FIGURE 7.3. Limits from the left and the right.

EXAMPLE 7.4.2. The graph of a piecewise-defined function f(x) with different

definitions to the left and right of x = 2 is shown in figure 7.4. According to the
graph, f(x) approaches the value 1.4 as x approaches 2 from the left, and f(x)
approaches the value 1.4 as x approaches 2 from the right. We write this
mathematically as follows:

Therefore, as f(x) approaches the same value 1.4 as x approaches 2 from both
directions, we can omit the direction indicator in the limit. That is, we can write

(This means the limit above exists and is equal to 1.4, in contrast to example
7.4.1, where the limit did not exist.)
 FIGURE 7.4. The limit from the left equals the limit from the right.

EXAMPLE 7.4.3. The graph of a function f(x) with a vertical asymptote at x = −1

is shown in figure 7.5. Here f(x) approaches negative infinity as x approaches −1
from the left, and f(x) approaches positive infinity as x approaches −1 from the
right. We write this mathematically as follows:

If the direction indicator is omitted, then the limit does not exist, that is,

FIGURE 7.5. Diagram for Example 7.4.3.

 The following concrete examples will show how these different situations
can arise:

EXAMPLE 7.4.4. Given we determine a piecewise expression for f and

sketch the graph of f in figure 7.6:

We have the following limits:

FIGURE 7.6.

EXAMPLE 7.4.5. A variation of example 7.4.4 is shown in figure 7.7. If

then f(x) can be expressed as a piecewise-defined function as follows:

Note that the domain of f is {x ∈ ℝ}. As provided in example 7.4.4, we have

the same limits at x = − 1 and x = 1.

FIGURE 7.7. Diagram for Example 7.4.5.

EXAMPLE 7.4.6 Let Then, a composition function h is

defined as follows: with domain {x ∈ ℝ| x ≠ −1}. Here, h(x) has
the following piecewise definition:
 In figure 7.8, we see that limx→(−1) h(x) = 0 and limx→(−1) h(x) = 0. As the left
− +

and right limits are the same, we write limx→(−1)h(x) = 0.

FIGURE 7.8. Diagram for Example 7.4.6.

EXAMPLE 7.4.7. If

then we can rewrite f as the following piecewise-defined function:

The graph of y = f(x) is shown in figure 7.9. Note that the domain of f is {x ∈
ℝ} and f(0) = 0. The left and right limits at x = 0 are, respectively, limx→0 f(x) =
−

−1 and limx→0 f(x)= 1. Because the left and right limits are different, limx→0f(x)
+

does not exist.

 FIGURE 7.9. Diagram for Example 7.4.7.

EXAMPLE 7.4.8. We define functions f and g as follows:

The graph of y = g(x) is shown in figure 7.10. We compute the following

limits for the functions f and g:

However, the values of the functions f and g at x = 1 differ because f(1) = 2,

whereas g(1) = 3.
 FIGURE 7.10. Diagram for Example 7.4.8.

7.5 CONTINUITY

The assumption of continuity of a function is a prerequisite for many of the
theorems of calculus. The property of continuity of a function relates to
smoothness of the function. Just as we might describe an object as smooth in
everyday life, we might think of a function as being smooth if the function is
“nice,” or “well behaved,” in some mathematical sense. For example, we will
see in this section that if a function is continuous (smooth), then limits that
involve the function can be evaluated by substitution into the function.

7.5.1 Definition of Continuity at a Point

DEFINITION 7.5.1. If a point a is in the domain of a function f(x), and, if it is the
case that

that is, both left and right limits at x = a are equal to the function value at x = a,
then we say that the function f(x) is continuous at x = a. This statement can be
abbreviated as

because the left and right limits are the same. Formula (7.1) is called the
equation of continuity for f(x) at the point x = a.

DEFINITION 5.2. If it is the case that

then f(x) is said to be continuous from the left at x = a, and if it is the case that

then f(x) is said to be continuous from the right at x = a. Formulas (7.2) and
(7.3) are called the equations of left and right continuity, respectively, for f(x) at
x = a.

EXAMPLE 7.5.1. In example 7.4.8, f is continuous at x = 1, according to definition

7.5.1, but g is not continuous at x = 1.

7.5.2 Discontinuity at a Point

DEFINITION 7.5.3. If a point x = a is in the domain of a function f(x) and the
equation of continuity fails at x = a, then we say that the function f(x) has a
discontinuity at the point x = a. The discontinuity can be one of three types:
removable, jump, or infinite discontinuity.

DEFINITION 7.5.4. A discontinuity is removable at x = a in the domain of a

function f(x) if the left and right limits at x = a exist and are equal but not equal
to f(a). A function f(x) has a jump discontinuity at x = a in its domain if the left
and right limits at x = a exist but are not equal. A function f(x) has an infinite
discontinuity at x = a in its domain if either the left or right limit at x = a is plus
or minus infinity or both limits are plus or minus infinity.

EXAMPLE 7.5.2. In example 7.4.4 (and figure 7.6), the values x = −1 and x = 1 are
not in the domain of f(x), so f(x) has no discontinuities at these values (there is
nothing to say regarding continuity at these values because the function is not
defined at these values); however, in example 7.4.5 (and figure 7.7), f(x) has an
infinite discontinuity at x = −1, because
 limx→(−1) f(x) = limx→(−1) f(x) = −∞.
− +

and a removable discontinuity at x = 1, because

In example 7.4.7 (and figure 7.9), f(x) has a jump discontinuity at x = 0,

because

limx→0 f(x) = −1≠lim→0 f(x) = 1.

− +

In example 7.4.8 (and figure 7.10), g(x) has a removable discontinuity at x =

1, because

limx→1 f(x) = limx→1 f(x) = 2 ≠ f(1) = 3.

− +

EXAMPLE 7.5.3. An example of a function with jump discontinuities is the floor

function. It maps every integer to itself and every noninteger real number x to the
largest integer preceding it. The notations that are used for this function are floor
(x) and ⌊x⌋. The graph of y = f(x) = ⌊x⌋ in figure 7.11 shows a jump discontinuity
at every integer. A function that is related to the floor function is the sawtooth
function. Its definition is f(x) = x − ⌊x⌋. You can see from the second graph in
figure 7.11 how this function gets its name.
 FIGURE 7.11. The floor function and the sawtooth function.

7.5.3 Continuity on an Interval

DEFINITION 7.5.5. A function f(x) is continuous on an interval I if it is continuous
at each point in the interval (in terms of the definition of continuity at a point).

REMARK 7.5.1. It is tempting to think that continuity on an interval I means “you

can draw the graph of the function on the interval I without picking up your
pen.” However, this notion is too simplistic, in general. For example, the
function

is continuous on the interval I = (−1, 1) according to the definition above (why?),

but the graph has infinitely many “wiggles” near x = 0 so you cannot draw the
graph on I. The graph is shown in figure 7.12.

FIGURE 7.12. Diagram for Remark 7.5.1.

7.5.4 Continuous Functions

DEFINITION 7.5.6. A continuous function is a function that is continuous at every
point in its domain.
All the standard functions that are studied in calculus are continuous. (This
can be proved using methods of real analysis that is too advanced to explain
here.) The standard functions are trigonometric, polynomials, rational, the
absolute value, root, exponential, and logarithmic. The significance of this is that
the equation of continuity or the equations of left and right continuity, that is,
formulas (7.1)–(7.3), can be used to evaluate limits for any of these functions.

7.5.5 More Continuous Functions

Any finite number of algebraic operations (adding, subtracting, multiplying,
and dividing) performed on continuous functions produces new continuous
functions. For example, if f(x) = x and g(x) = cos(x), then f(x)·g(x) = xcos(x) is
continuous and continuous.

Another way to produce new continuous functions is to form compositions

of continuous functions. For example, the functions and g(x) = cos(x)
are continuous for all real values of x, so the composition
is also continuous for all real values of x.

7.6 COMPUTING LIMITS

The conceptual and practical difficulties relating to the computation of limits
form an important topic in the branch of mathematics called analysis. We are
now going to look at the evaluation of limits in a few situations.

7.6.1 Limits in the Domain of a Continuous Function

In each of the following examples, the limit involves a continuous function
and a value in the domain of the function, so the limit is computed by
substitution into the function. In other words, the evaluation of the limit is an
application of the equation of continuity (formula (7.1)) that defines continuity at
a point.

EXAMPLE 7.6.1.

(i)

Here, f(x) = 4x2 + 3x − 1 is a continuous function because it is a

polynomial.
 (ii)

Here, is a continuous function because it is the composition

of a root function with a polynomial.

(iii)

Here, is a continuous function because it is the sum of

compositions of continuous functions.

7.6.2 Limits Involving Piecewise-Defined Functions

In the examples below, we compute the limits (where they exist) of
piecewise-defined functions at the points where the definitions of the functions
change. Left and right limits can be computed by substitution into the
appropriate definition of the function at these points.

EXAMPLE 7.6.2.

We conclude that limx→6 f(x) = 0 (because left and right limits are both equal
to 0).

EXAMPLE 7.6.3.
 We conclude that (because left and right limits are both equal
to ).

EXAMPLE 7.6.4.

We conclude that limx→−πf(x) = 0 but limx→πf(x) does not exist.

7.6.3 Computing Limits by Simplification
If a point x = a is not in the domain of a function f(x) then limx→af(x) might
or might not exist. We will look at some examples where it is possible to
simplify the limit and, consequently, the limit can be evaluated by means of a
substitution, as in section 7.6.1.

EXAMPLE 7.6.5. The domain of the rational function

excludes x = −4. If we try to evaluate limx→−4f(x) by substitution, the result is

We have placed this result in quotes because division by zero is not allowed.
However, we refer to as the type of the limit and it does give us a clue about
how to evaluate the limit because the Factor Theorem (theorem 3.4.2) tells us
that (x + 4) is a factor of both of the polynomials in the numerator and
denominator of f(x). If we proceed by factorizing the numerator and denominator
of f(x), then we obtain

Clearly, a function that is related to f(x) is the function

Note that f(x) and g(x) are not the same function because the domain off is {x
∈ ℝ| x ≠ −4, x ≠ 3}, while the domain of g is {x ∈ R | x ≠ 3}. As we are
interested in computing limx→−4 f(x), it does not matter that f(x) is not defined at
x = − 4. What does matter is finding the value that f(x) approaches as x
approaches –4. Therefore, it is helpful to write the following piecewise
definition for f(x):
 We can do this because we are excluding the value x = −4 at which f(x) and
g(x) differ. We now see that

and so

It is easier (although the underlying reasoning should be remembered) to

write the evaluation of this limit by means of the following steps:

EXAMPLE 7.6.6.
EXAMPLE 7.6.7.

The next example is typical of the expression of a limit for computing the
derivative of a function (as we will see later).

EXAMPLE 7.6.8.

The same method of canceling common factors across the numerator and
denominator also works with nonrational expressions, as we demonstrate in the
following examples.
EXAMPLE 7.6.9.

EXAMPLE 7.6.10.

In the first step above, a technique for rationalizing the numerator was used.
This technique involves multiplying and dividing by a conjugate radical. (In this
case, the conjugate radical is A “conjugate radical” is not a bad-
tasting vegetable: the word conjugate refers to the sign between the terms
in the conjugate radical being the opposite (“+,” in this case) from
the sign that appears in the numerator of the limit being computed, and the word
radical refers to the presence of root terms
7.7 APPLICATIONS OF CONTINUITY

Continuous functions are important because of their mathematical properties,
which we will begin to explore in this chapter. We have already seen a
connection between continuity and the evaluation of limits.
Many processes in the real world happen in a continuous way (without
breaks and jumps), and so these processes can be represented by continuous
functions. For example, if a hiker walks from the bottom to the top of a
mountain, then his altitude is a continuous function of the time elapsed. His
altitude as a function of the horizontal distance he has walked could also be a
continuous function (this function would not be continuous if the hiker has to
climb up a vertical rope at a cliff face!).

7.7.1 The Intermediate Value Theorem

We now state an important theorem relating to continuous real-valued
functions:
Theorem 7.7.1. The Intermediate Value Theorem: if a real-valued function
f(x) is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and v is any real number between
f(a) and f(b) (assuming f(a) ≠ f(b)), then there exists a real number c in the
interval (a, b) such that f(c) = v.
The proof of the Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT) uses methods of real
analysis that are too advanced to be presented here, so the proof is omitted.

REMARK 7.7.1. Loosely speaking, the IVT states that, if the domain of a
continuous real-valued function is a closed interval I, then the range of the
function always contains the closed interval determined by the values of the
function at the end points of the interval I. For example, if the domain of a
continuous real-valued function is the closed interval [2, 3], then its range
contains the interval [f(2), f(3)] or [f(3), f(2)], depending on whether f(2) < f(3) or
f(3) < f(2). (In the case that f(2) = f(3), the IVT does not say anything.)
The assumption of continuity of a real-valued function on a closed interval is
essential for the conclusion of the IVT to be valid. Here are a few examples that
demonstrate this:

EXAMPLE 7.7.1. Consider the floor function f(x) = ⌊x⌋ on the closed interval [0.5,
1.5]. We know that f(x) has a jump discontinuity at x = 1, where the value of f(x)
changes from 0 to 1, and so, for every real number υ between 0 and 1, there is no
real number c between 0.5 and 1.5 such that f(c) = υ.

EXAMPLE 7.7.2. Recall from example 7.4.8 (and figure 7.10) that the function

has a removable discontinuity at x = 1. The conclusion of the IVT does not apply
on the interval [0.5, 3], where f(0.5) = 1.75 and f(3) = 8 because there is no
number c in the interval (0.5, 3) for which f(c) = 2.

REMARK 7.7.2. The IVT is an existence theorem because it guarantees the

existence of at least one real number c in the interval [a, b] with the property f(c)
= υ. This does not exclude the possibility of there being more than one value
between a and b with this property. For example, we can consider the function
f(x) = sin(x) on the interval Because and , the IVT
guarantees the existence of at least one number x = c in the interval such
that f(c) = 0; however, we know there are three such numbers: c = 0, c = π and c
= 2π.

REMARK 7.7.3. The converse of the IVT is not true, meaning that a function that
satisfies the conclusion of the IVT on a closed interval need not be a continuous
function. We can illustrate this with the function

on the interval (We can, in fact, consider any interval containing x = 0.)
As x tends to zero, from either the right or the left, the function f(x) will oscillate
between –1 and 1 infinitely many times (the oscillations become more and more
compressed) and so any value υ between –1 and 1 will be the image of infinitely
many points in Yet, f(x) is not a continuous function on the interval
In particular, f(x) is not continuous at x = 0 because do
not exist (why?).
We demonstrate by means of the following examples that the IVT can be
used to solve certain existence problems, such as proving that an equation has a
solution.

EXAMPLE 7.7.3. Show that the equation 3x + cos(πx) = 6 has a solution in the
interval (0, 2).
Answer: Define the function f(x) = 3x + cos(πx). Because f(x) is a continuous
function of the interval [0, 2], and f(0) = 1 and f(2) = 7, there must exist, by the
IVT, a number c such that 1 < c < 2 and f(c) = 6 (because υ = 6 is between 1 and
7).

EXAMPLE 7.7.4. Show that the equation has a solution on the interval [1,
4]
Answer: Define the function Because f(x) is a continuous
function of the interval [1, 4], and there
must exist, by the IVT, a number c such that 1 < c < 4 and f (c) = 0 (because υ =
0 is between − 1 and 0.866).

The IVT can be used repeatedly to approach closer and closer to the solution
of an equation:

EXAMPLE 7.7.5. Show that there is a solution of the equation 3x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 3 =
0 in the interval [0, 1]. Find an interval of width less than 0.01 that contains this
solution.
Answer: Define the function f(x) = 3x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 3. Because f(0) = −3 and
f(1) = 2, the equation f(x) = 0 has a solution in the interval (0, 1) (because − 3 < 0
< 2). If you plot the graph of y = f(x), you will find that this is the only real
solution of the equation (the other two solutions are complex). We can narrow
the search for this solution by subdividing the interval [0, 1] into the intervals [0,
0.5] and [0.5, 1]. Because f(0.5) = − 1.125, the solution is in the interval (0.5, 1).
Continuing in this way, we evaluate the function at the midpoint of each interval
we obtain and, depending of the sign, we take the subinterval to the left or the
right of the midpoint. Thus, we find that the solution is in each of the following
intervals that are successively smaller: (0.5, 0.75), (0.625, 0.75), (0.6875, 0.75),
(0.71875, 0.75), (0.71875, 0.734375), (0.71875, 0.7265625). The width of the
last interval is 0.0078125, so we can stop. The actual value of the solution is c ≈
0.726373.

EXAMPLE 7.7.6. We began this section with the example of a hiker climbing a
mountain. Suppose that the hiker starts walking at a steady pace on a path from
the base of the mountain at 8 a.m. on a particular day, takes no breaks, and
reaches the summit of the mountain at 6 p.m. on the same day. He camps
overnight and starts his descent the next day at 8 a.m. on the same path, at the
same steady pace and also takes no breaks, and reaches the base of the mountain
again at 6 p.m. Prove that the hiker was at a particular point on the path at
exactly the same time each day.
Answer: It is easy to understand why the statement should be true: if a
second hiker begins the descent of the mountain at exactly the same time that the
first hiker begins his ascent (along the same path and in similar fashion), then
they will meet somewhere along the path.
Now we can think of the second hiker as being the first hiker on his second
day, and this solves the problem. However, we can also turn the problem into a
mathematical problem and apply the IVT: Lets suppose that the distance the
hiker needs to walk along the path from the base to the summit of the mountain
is 3 miles (this number does not matter) and let f(t) be the distance the hiker has
walked from the base of the mountain (on the first day) at time t. We may
suppose that t = 0 corresponds to 8 a.m. and t = 10 corresponds to 6 p.m. Thus,
f(0) = 0 and f(10) = 3. Furthermore, we let g(t) be the hiker’s distance from the
base of the mountain (on the second day) at time t. So, g(0) = 3 and g(10) = 0.
We now define the function h(t) = f(t) − g(t) and suppose that f(t), g(t), and
h(t) are continuous functions. Because h(0) = f(0) − g(0) = −3 and h(10) = f(10)
− g(10) = 3 there must, by the IVT, be a time t0 at which h(t0) = 0, that is, f(t0) =
g(t0). At this time t0, the hiker will be at the same point on the path on each day.
7.8 HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES

Consider the functions Their graphs are shown in
figure 7.13. In both graphs, the y-axis is a vertical asymptote because the graph
of grows closer and closer to the y-axis, that is, as the value of x grows
closer and closer to zero, the corresponding y value increases toward infinity or
minus infinity depending on whether x approaches zero through positive or
negative values, respectively.

FIGURE 7.13. Functions with horizontal asymptotes.

What’s more, in the first graph, the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote because
the graph of grows closer and closer to the x-axis: as the value of x
grows larger and larger in both the positive and the negative directions, the
corresponding y value approaches 0; while, in the second graph, the line y = 1
(shown as a horizontal dotted line) is a horizontal asymptote because the graph
of grows closer and closer to the line y = 1.
Here are a few remarks regarding horizontal asymptotes.

REMARK 7.8.1. Figure 7.14 contains a graph with oscillations that grow narrower
and narrower, causing the graph to get closer and closer to the dotted line, as x
tends to infinity; therefore, the dotted line is a horizontal asymptote (i.e., the
graph does not have to stay above or below the asymptote).
 FIGURE 7.14. Oscillations approaching the horizontal asymptote.

REMARK 7.8.2. Although it might appear that the graphs of some functions
“flatten out,” they do not necessarily have horizontal asymptotes. The examples
shown in figure 7.15 are the graphs of and y = g(x) = ln(ln(x)).
These functions do not have horizontal asymptotes because y tends to infinity as
x tends to infinity.

FIGURE 7.15. Functions that tend to infinity as x tends to infinity.

REMARK 7.8.3. The x-axis is not a horizontal asymptote for f(x) = sin(x) because
there are y values as much as a unit distance from the x-axis no matter how large
x becomes, that is (as shown in figure 7.16), the graph does not grow closer and
closer to the x-axis.
 FIGURE 7.16. A function with no horizontal asymptotes.

REMARK 7.8.4. A function can have the same horizontal asymptote as x

approaches infinity in both positive and negative directions. An example is
Its graph is shown in figure 7.17.

FIGURE 7.17. Diagram for remark 7.8.4.

REMARK 7.8.5. A function might have two (different) horizontal asymptotes

depending on whether x approaches infinity through positive or negative values.
An example is Its graph is shown in figure 7.18. (It also has a
vertical asymptote at x = 1.6.)
Think about this: is it possible for a real-valued function to have three
horizontal asymptotes?
 FIGURE 7.18. A function with two horizontal asymptotes.

We will state the formal definition of a horizontal asymptote in terms of

limits. The interpretation of the statement is that, in any arbitrarily small
interval I containing the value L, there will be some point on the x-axis beyond
which (in the positive or negative direction) the value of the function will always
be in the interval I. (This is a mathematically precise way of saying that the
graph of y = f(x) approaches the line y = L.)

DEFINITION 7.8.1. A line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of a function f(x) if and

only if

We demonstrate, by means of the examples below, how to compute a limit as

x tends to infinity. The basic idea is that any fraction of the form where c is a
constant and k is any natural number, tends to 0 as x tends to infinity (through
positive or negative numbers).
Recall that a rational function is a function of the form where p(x)
and q(x) are polynomials. The function is a basic example of a rational
function. We will see that a rational function has a horizontal asymptote
whenever the degree of the numerator (the highest power of x in the numerator)
is the same as, or less than, the degree of the denominator (the highest power of
x in the denominator). In the following examples, we will let m be the degree of
p(x) and n be the degree of q(x). The method of computing limits at infinity will
require us to know the larger of the values of m and n. This is denoted “max{m,
n}” (the maximum of m and n).

EXAMPLE 7.8.1. Find the horizontal asymptotes of the rational function

Answer: The degree of p(x) := x2 is m = 2 and q(x):= x2 + 1 is n = 2. Because

max{m, n} = 2, we will factor x2 from the numerator and the denominator of f(x)
so that all the terms that remain (after cancellation of the common factor) in the
numerator and the denominator are constant terms or terms of the form where
c is a constant and n is a natural number:

Now, when we compute the limit, the term tends to 0. Thus,

By the same reasoning, the limit as x tends to −∞ is also equal to 1:

Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 1 (in both directions).

EXAMPLE 7.8.2. Find the horizontal asymptotes of the rational function

Answer: As in the previous example, we find that max{m, n} = 2, so we will

factor x2 from the numerator and the denominator of f(x) in order to take the
limit. Because the result will be the same whether x tends to ∞ through positive
or negative numbers, we will take the limit as x → ±∞:
 Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line (in both directions).

EXAMPLE 7.8.3. Find the horizontal asymptotes of the rational function

Answer: Because max{m, n} = 3, we will factor x3 from the numerator and

the denominator of f(x) in order to take the limit:

Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 0 (in both directions).

EXAMPLE 7.8.4. Find the horizontal asymptotes of the rational function

Answer: Because max{m, n} = 2, we will factor x2 from the numerator and

the denominator of f(x) in order to take the limit:

The factorization of the denominator in the final step above helps us to see
that
where the notation 0+ and 0– are used to mean that 0 is approached through
positive and negative numbers, respectively. In either case, there is no horizontal
asymptote.

This method for determining the horizontal asymptotes of rational functions

also works for nonrational functions.

EXAMPLE 7.8.5. Find the horizontal asymptote of the function

Answer: We factor from the numerator and the denominator of f(x) in

order to take the limit: because f(x) is only defined for positive values of x, we
take the limit as x → ∞.

Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = −1.

EXAMPLE 7.8.6. Find the horizontal asymptotes of the function

Answer: We factor x2 inside the square root in the numerator and factor x in
the denominator:

Because the factor is +1 or –1, depending on whether x is positive or

negative, respectively, we have to consider the limits x → ∞ and x → −∞
separately:
 This explains why the function has two horizontal asymptotes:
and

Certain limits to infinity can be computed after the given expression is

converted into fractional form by some means. In the next example, the method
of multiplying and dividing by a conjugate radical will be used to do this.

EXAMPLE 7.8.7.
7.9 VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

We now do a precise analysis of the behavior of the graphs of rational
functions near their vertical asymptotes. We already know that the positions of
the vertical asymptotes of the graph of a rational function coincide with the real
roots of the polynomial that remains in the denominator after all factors that are
common to the numerator and denominator of the rational function have been
canceled. Suppose now that is a rational function and that is a
rational expression in simplest form. If x = a is a real root of q(x), then f(x) can
be expressed in the form where k is a natural number, g(x) is another
rational function, g(a) ≠ 0, and the denominator of g(x) contains no factors of the
form (x − a). The behavior of the graph of y = f(x) near x = a depends on whether
k is an odd or even number and also depends on whether g(a) is positive or
negative. This allows four possible behaviors, which are shown in figure 7.19.
The behavior of a graph near a vertical asymptote can be referred to as its
asymptotic behavior. In the first diagram, y = f(x) approaches +∞ as x tends to a
from the left and right, while in the second, y = f(x) approaches −∞ as x tends to
a from the left and approaches +∞ as x tends to a from the right. In the third
diagram, y = f(x) approaches −∞ as x tends to a from the left and right, while in
the fourth, y = f(x) approaches +∞ as x tends to a from the left and approaches
−∞ as x tends to a from the right.
 FIGURE 7.19. Four cases of asymptotic behavior.

EXAMPLE 7.9.1. The graph of the rational function has vertical

asymptotes at x = −2 and x = 2. We will investigate the behavior of the graph of f
near these vertical asymptotes and explore some other properties of the graph of
f.

• To determine the behavior of the graph near x = −2, we write

where Because the behavior of the
graph near x = −2 should be as shown in the fourth diagram in figure 7.19.
• Similarly, in order to determine the behavior of the graph near x = 2, we
write where Because the
behavior of the graph near x = 2 should be as shown in the second diagram
in figure 7.19.
• We can determine some additional facts regarding the graph of y = f(x)
First, because the numerator of f(x) in completed square form is (x2 − 1)2 +
9 (which is never equal to zero), the graph of y = f(x) never cuts the x-axis;
second, because the degree of the numerator is larger than the degree of the
denominator, the graph does not have any horizontal asymptotes (in fact,
limx→±∞ f(x) = ∞).

The graph of y = f(x) is shown in figure 7.20.

 FIGURE 7.20. Diagram for example 7.9.1.

EXAMPLE 7.9.2. Sketch the graph of the rational function

Answer: In factored form, the expression for f(x) is This

means that the domain of f excludes x = 3 and x = −2. The corresponding rational
expression in simplest form is The graph of has a horizontal
asymptote at y = 2 and a vertical asymptote at x = 3. Because y can be expressed
in the form where g(x) = (2x + 1) and g(3) = 7 > 0, the behavior of the
graph of y near x = 3 should be as in the second diagram in figure 7.19. The x
intercept of the graph is at and its y intercept is at Without additional
information about what the graph should look like, it is best to sketch the
simplest graph that satisfies all of the stated properties. The graph of y = f(x) is
shown in figure 7.21.
 FIGURE 7.21. Diagram for example 7.9.2.

7.10 THE SQUEEZE THEOREM AND RULES FOR LIMITS

Limits involving trigonometric ratios of the form
for example, cannot be evaluated using any of the
methods learned so far. We are going to introduce the Squeeze Theorem (also
called the Pinching Theorem or Sandwich Theorem) and demonstrate how,
together with some techniques of estimation, it can be used to evaluate
We will then introduce the rules for limits and apply them in order to evaluate
the limits mentioned above and some other limits involving trigonometric ratios.

7.10.1 The Squeeze Theorem

Theorem 7.10.1. The Squeeze Theorem: if a point x = a belongs to an open
or closed interval I, and, if f(x), g(x), and h(x) are functions defined on the
interval I (except, perhaps, the point x = a) such that, for every x in I not equal
to a g(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ h(x) (i.e., g(x) is a lower bound, and h(x) is an upper bound for
f(x)) and limx→ag(x) = limx→ah(x) = L, then limx→af(x) = L.

REMARK 7.10.1. If I is a closed interval and x = a is a left or right end point of

the interval, then the statement of the theorem applies with limits from the right
or left, respectively. Also, if I is an infinite interval, then the statement could
hold with a = ±∞.
The Squeeze Theorem is proved in real analysis. We will not provide the
proof here. The Squeeze Theorem is, amusingly, also known as the two
policemen and a drunk theorem because, if two policemen escort a drunken
prisoner between them to his jail cell, then the prisoner will end up in the cell if
the policemen end up in the cell, no matter how much he wobbles about!
We did (without mentioning it) previously appeal to the Squeeze Theorem,
where we stated in remark 7.5.1 that the function

is continuous on the interval I = (−1, 1). The reason is that if we define

g(x) = −x and h(x) = x, then f, g, and h are defined on the interval (−1,
1) except at the point x = 0. Furthermore, because for all values of x
except x = 0, it is also the case that for all values of x except x = 0.

Now, because limx→0g(x) = limx→0(−x) = 0 = limx→0(x) = limx→0h(x), we

can conclude, by the Squeeze Theorem, that This
means that f(x) is continuous at x = 0.
We turn now to the problem of computing (We will see in section
8.6 that this limit computes the derivative of sin x at x = 0.) We will compute this
limit by applying the Squeeze Theorem to the following inequalities:

However, we first need to prove these inequalities. To this end, we begin by

proving the first inequality, that is, for with the help of the first
diagram in figure 7.22.
 FIGURE 7.22. A proof of formula (7.4).

By symmetry of the circle, the area of the shaded sector S of the unit disk is
in the same proportion to the area (π(l)2 = π) of the full disk, as the angle θ is in
proportion to the full angle (2π). This statement is expressed as the equation

which simplifies to What’s more, the height of the triangle in the first
diagram is tan(θ) (why?), and because the area of the triangle is greater than the
area of the shaded sector S (which it contains), we have the inequality

By means of a trigonometric identity, this is the same as

and this is equivalent to the inequality we want to prove. The inequality

is also true for because the functions on both sides of the
inequality are even functions.
Next, we prove the second inequality in formula (7.4), that is, for
with the help of the second diagram in figure 7.22. It is clear that the
height of the triangle (labeled L) is less than the length of the corresponding arc
of the circle (labeled l).
Because L = sin(θ) (why?) and l is the radian measure of θ, we have the
inequality

If we divide both sides by θ, this gives us the inequality we want to prove.

For the same reason as above, the inequality is also true if
We have now established formula (7.4) and so we can apply the Squeeze
Theorem to conclude that

The inequality in formula (7.4) is demonstrated in figure 7.23, which shows

the graphs of y = 1, and y = cos(x) on an interval containing [−2π, 2π].

FIGURE 7.23. A graph of formula (7.4).

7.10.2 The Rules for Limits

The rules for limits allow us to compute the limit of an expression when
limits of separate terms or factors of the expression are known. These rules can
be proved using methods of real analysis. It is enough for us, at this stage, to
know how to apply these rules.
Theorem 7.10.2. The rules for limits: suppose that c is a constant and that
the limits limx→af(x) and limx→ag(x) exist. Then

(I) limx→a(f(x)±g(x)) = limx→a f(x)±limx→ag(x)

(II) limx→a cf(x) = climx→a f(x)

(III) limx→a f(x)g(x) = limx→a f(x)limx→a g(x)

 (IV)

(V) limx→0 f(x) = limx→0 f(kx) for any k ≠ 0,

REMARK 7.10.2. It is to be understood from the statement of theorem 7.10.2 that

the functions f(x) and g(x) in the theorem are defined on an interval containing
the point x = a. Whenever x = a is the end point of the interval, then left or right
limits would be used, as appropriate. Also, if the interval is infinite, then rules (I)
−(IV) could hold with [a = ±∞].
The difficulty with using the rules for limits is that it may not be obvious
how to rewrite a given expression in such a way that the rules for limits can be
applied. Some practice with this is given in the next example.

EXAMPLE 7.10.1.

(i)

(This is an application of rule (IV).)

(ii)

(Rule (II) was applied in the second step, and then rule (V) was applied

with k =7.)

(iii)

(This is an application of rule (III).)

 (iv)

(This is another application of rule (III).)

For future reference, we record two of the limit formulas we have derived in
this section:

EXERCISES

7.1. Verify the calculation done by Archimedes to prove that by

inscribing a 96-gon inside a disk, as explained in example 7.2.1.
7.2. How would you phrase the argument to prove that the limit of the
sequence in example 7.3.4 of section 7.3 is equal to 1?
7.3. Which of the sequences below, if any, has a limit? If any does, what is its
limit?

(a) (sequence in example 7.3.1, terms

alternating with 0)
(b) 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3,… (1, 2, 3 repeating)
(c) 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2,… (2 repeating)

(d)
 (e) 3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9,… (What do these digits remind you of?)
7.4. Relating to the first graph in figure 7.24, compute the limits below. What
kinds of discontinuity does f(x) have at x = 0 and x = 2?
(a) limx→(−1) f(x)=
−

(b) limx→0f(x)=
(c) limx→2 f(x)=
−

(d) limx→2 f(x)=

+

FIGURE 7.24. Diagram for Exercise 7.4.

7.5. Relating to the second graph in figure 7.24, compute the limits below.
What kind of discontinuity does f(x) have at x = −1? (The dotted line is an
asymptote.)
(a) limx→(−1) f(x)=
−

(b) limx→(−1) f(x)=

+

7.6. Given determine a piecewise expression for f, then sketch the

graph of y = f(x). Determine the limiting value (if it exists) of f at the point
x = 1
7.7. Decide whether or not the following piecewise-defined function is
continuous at x = −1.
7.8. If consider the function

What kind of discontinuity does g(x) have at x = 0?

7.9. Consider the function

Rewrite the piecewise definition for f(x) in the form

(fill in the parentheses) in order to answer the following question: What kind
of discontinuity does f(x) have at x = 0?
7.10. The diagram in figure 7.25 shows part of the graph of y = f(x) = ⌊x⌋ + x|x|
−x. By inspection of the graph, find the values of the limits below (all of
your answers should be integer values).
(a) limx→(−1) f(x)=
+

(b) limx→0 f(x)=

−

(c) limx→0 f(x)=

+

(d) limx→1 f(x)=

−
 (e) limx→1 f(x)=
+

(f) limx→2 f(x)=

−

(g) limx→2 f(x)=

+

FIGURE 7.25. Diagram for exercise 7.10.

7.11. Rewrite the definition for f(x) = −⌊x⌋ + x|x| −x as a piecewise-defined

function on the intervals [−1, 0), [0, 1), and [1, 2), so that the expression
on each interval is a quadratic polynomial. (Hint: rewrite ⌊x⌋ as an integer,
and rewrite |x| as (x) or (−x), depending on the interval to which x belongs,
and simplify the resulting expression.)
7.12. Evaluate the following limits, for each of the functions below.
(i) limx→0 , (ii) limx→0 , (iii) limx→1 , (iv) limx→1 , (v) limx→2 , and (vi)
− + − + −

limx→2 +

(a) f(x) = floor(x)

(b) f(x) = x2 − floor(x)
(c) f(x) = x2 floor(2x)

(d)
7.13. Evaluate the following limits for each of the functions below. (i) limx→0 −

and (ii) limx→0+

(a)

(b)

7.14. If and what is the domain of f ∘ g(x)? Draw the graph of y

= f ∘ g(x). How should the graph of y = f ∘ g(x) be modified to create a
function that is continuous on the set {x ∈ ℝ|x ≠ 0}?
7.15. Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = |x| + ⌊x⌋ (i.e., the absolute value
function plus the floor function) for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2. What kind of discontinuity
does f(x) have at x = 0?

7.16. Write a piecewise definition for the function (simplify the

expressions for x < 0 and x > 0 as far as possible). Does limx→0 f(x) lim
exist?
7.17. Find the value of the constant c for which the function f(x) below will be
continuous for all real numbers (in particular, at x = 3). (Hint: you can
derive an equation that involves c by evaluating left and right limits at x =
3. Then solve for c.)

7.18. Find the values of the constants c and d for which the function f(x) below
will be continuous for all real numbers (in particular, at x = 1 and x = 2).
(Hint: derive a pair of equations that involves c and d by evaluating left
and right limits at x = 1 and x = 2, then solve for c and d.)

7.19. Evaluate the following limits.

 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

7.20. Compute limx→0 f(x) (if the limit exists) for

(Hint: write a piecewise definition for f(x).)

7.21. Compute linx→0f(x) (if the limit exists) for

(Hint: write a piecewise definition for f(x).)

7.22. Sketch the graph of y = f(x) for f(x) defined below, and compute the
indicated limits.

(a)

(b)

(c)

7.23. Compute limx→1 f(x) (if the limit exists) for f(x) defined below.
7.24. Compute limx→2 f(x) (if the limit exists) for f(x) defined below.

7.25. Evaluate the following limits.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

7.26. Explain why the floor function is an increasing function but not a strictly
increasing function.

7.27. Explain why the IVT cannot be applied to to conclude that the
equation f(x) = 0 has a solution in the interval [−1, 1]

7.28. Prove that there is a υ with 0 < υ < 2 such that υ2 + cos(πυ) = 4.
7.29. Prove that has a root between

7.30. Prove that the function 1 − 4x sin(πx) + x2 has two roots in the interval [2,
3].

7.31. Prove that there is a solution of the equation −3x3 + 2x2 + 4x − 5 = 0 in the
interval [−2, 1]. Find an interval of width less than 0.1 that contains this
solution.
7.32. Answer True or False for each of the following statements. You may
assume that all functions are real-valued functions.
(a) If f is continuous on [−3, 3], then
(b) If f is continuous on [−3, 3], then it must be the case that f(c) = 1 for
some number c in (−3, 3).
(c) If f is continuous on [−3, 3] and f(−3) = f(3) = 1, then f(x) = 0 must
have a solution in the interval (−3, 3).
(d) If f is continuous on [−3, 3] and f(−3) = f(3) = 1, then f(x) + x = 0
must have a solution in the interval (−3, 3).
(e) If f is continuous at x = 0, then g(x) = x2 f(x) is continuous at x = 0.
(f) If f is continuous on the intervals [0, 1] and [2, 3], and f(1) = −6 and
f(2) = 8, then it has to be the case that f(c) = 7 for some value c in the
interval (1, 2).
(g) If f(0) = 2 and f(1) = −2, then there must be a number c between 0
and 1 such that f(c) = 0.
(h) If f(2) = 2 and f(5) = 5, and f is continuous on the interval [2, 5], then
it must be the case that f(3) = 3.
(i) If f(−2) = −3 and f(5) = 5, and f is continuous on the interval [−2, 5],
then it must be true that f(c) = 0 for some number c with −3 < c < 5.
(j) If f(−2) = 1 and f(2) = −1, and f is continuous on the interval [−2, 2],
then it must be true that f(c) = 0 for some number c with −1 < c < 1.

(k) If then it must be the case that f(x) = sin(x).

(l) If f(−3) = 3 and f(−1) = −3, and if f(x) is decreasing on [−3,−1], then
 it must be the case that f(c) = 0 for some value c in the interval
(−3,−1) (Hint: increasing and decreasing functions need not be
continuous functions [think of the floor function].)

(m) If f is continuous on the interval then is continuous

on the interval

(n) Suppose that f is continuous on the interval (0, 1). If and

then there must be a number c between 0 and 1 such that
f(c) = 3.
(o) If f(x) is continuous on (0, 3), then f(3x) is continuous on (0, 1).
7.33. Determine the following limits.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

7.34. Sketch the graphs of the following rational functions.

 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

7.35. Use the rules for limits to compute the following limits (if the limits exist).

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)
(g)
 CHAPTER 8

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Differential calculus, the topic of this chapter, is, in large part, the legacy of Sir
Isaac Newton. In his gigantic publication, The Principia Mathematica, Newton
introduced the mathematics of calculus and applied it to the scientific study of
the orbits of the planets around the sun. Thus, he not only revolutionized science
but also created the mathematics he needed in order to do so.
This chapter deals with the derivatives of functions. While we study a
function abstractly as mathematical object, in real-world applications it is a
representation of motion (in a very general sense). In differential calculus, the
notion of the derivative of a function, and the corresponding geometric notion of
the slope of a tangent line to the graph of the function, relates to the idea of
“instantaneous motion.” As we will begin to explain, in this chapter, the
knowledge gained about the “instantaneous motion” of a function enables us to
investigate and discover important properties of the function; for example, where
the peaks of a function occur, or the approximate behavior of a function near any
particular point in the domain of the function.
In this chapter we will give the definition of the derivative, introduce the
notion of a derivative function and present the rules (the power rule, sum rule,
product rule, quotient rule and the chain rule) for computing it, and apply the
definition and rules to compute the derivatives of the standard functions (such as
polynomial, rational, root, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic, inverse
trig), and vector functions.
In section 8.2, the definition of the derivative is introduced in four parts: in
section 8.2.1, the notion of a graph “leveling out” at the origin and its
mathematical statement in terms of a limit is an intuitive and mathematically
simplest starting point. In section 8.2.2, the tangent line to a graph at the origin is
introduced as the best approximating line by means of a graphical example. This
is interpreted in section 8.2.3, as it is stated that the difference function (graph
minus tangent line) “levels out” at the origin. Consequently, the limit formula
from section 8.2.1 can be applied to derive the slope of the tangent line at the
origin. Finally, in section 8.2.4, this limit formula is generalized to compute the
slope of the tangent line at any point (wherever a tangent line exists) by means
of the simple trick of shifting the graph, so that the point in question is located at
the origin.
Derivative functions are introduced in section 8.3 by means of a graphical
demonstration of f(x) = x2 and f(x) = x3. This is followed by the introduction of
the power, sum, product, and quotient rules and their applications to computing
the derivatives of polynomial and rational functions. Tangent line problems and
applications (including Newton’s method for finding the roots of a function) are
the topic of section 8.4. The power rule is generalized to include rational
exponents in section 8.5, and the derivatives of trigonometric function are
presented in section 8.6.
Students can gain a glimpse of the power of calculus for solving practical
problems in the examples that are presented section 8.7. The first example deals
with the derivative as a calculation of instantaneous speed (of a motorcar). This
is followed by a discussion of the concept of linear approximation and the
application of calculating approximate values of a function. The third and fourth
examples deal with maximization and minimization problems, which are typical
applications of calculus.
The chain rule, for computing the derivatives of compositions of functions, is
explained in section 8.8. The calculus and the notion of a tangent vector to the
trajectory of a vector-valued function are discussed in section 8.9. This is
followed by the calculus of exponential and logarithmic functions (including a
limit formula for Euler’s number e) in section 8.10 and the derivative formulas
for inverse trigonometric functions in section 8.11. We end with the application
of finding the maximum viewing angle in a movie theater (which involves taking
the derivative of the arctan function).

8.2 DEFINITION OF THE DERIVATIVE

The notion of a graph “flattening” or “leveling” out at the origin, as explained in
section 8.2.1, will plays a crucial role in our derivation of the limit formula in
section 8.2.3.

8.2.1 Graphs Tangential to the x-axis at the Origin

Compare the graphs of f(x) = x, x2, x3 in figure 8.1 and f(x) = sin(x), cos(x)
−1 in figure 8.2.

FIGURE 8.1. Graphs of polynomial functions.

FIGURE 8.2. Graphs of trigonometric functions.

Observe that all the graphs pass through the origin and, furthermore, the
graphs of f(x) = x2, x3, cos(x) −1 “level out” at the origin. Mathematically
speaking, we say that the graphs of the latter are tangential to the x-axis at the
origin. In the case of the function f(x) = x2, imagine an airplane coming in to land
but at the moment of landing starts to takeoff again because the landing gear has
not come out. At the moment of landing and takeoff, the motion of the airplane
is tangential to the landing strip.
 The following equation is a mathematical statement about the behavior of the
function f(x) = x2 near the origin:

This leads to the following general statement:

DEFINITION 8.2.1. A function g(x) is tangential to the x-axis at the origin if and
only if it is the case that g(0)= 0 and

Note that the functions g(x) = x3 and g(x) = cos(x)−1 satisfy this definition,
and it is not hard to fabricate some other examples; for instance, g(x) = x3 + x2,
g(x) = x sin(x), and g(x) = x | x | all satisfy this definition.

EXAMPLE 8.2.1. The absolute value function g(x) = |x| is not tangential to the x-
axis at the origin, because

and so

8.2.2 The Tangent Line to a Graph at the Origin

Figure 8.3 shows the graph of a function f(x) that passes through the origin,
that is, f(0) = 0 along with the graphs of four lines. Now, the question of interest
is: Which of the straight lines through the origin “best” approximates the
behavior of f (x) close to the origin?
 FIGURE 8.3. Approximating lines near the origin.

We can consider infinitely many different lines passing through the origin,
but for simplicity, we are just comparing the four lines and asking which line
best matches or best follows the graph of the function f(x), as x approaches the
origin. A method for deciding this is to examine the dots that are placed on each
of the lines and the graph of f(x), corresponding to a particular value of x close to
zero, as shown in the diagram. If we visualize the movement of the dots as x
approaches zero, then one of the lines will contain the dot that remains nearest to
the dot on the graph of the function.
The line that we select in this way will be a candidate for the best
approximating line to the graph of f(x) at the origin. This method is not
mathematically precise, but it is a helpful way to think about it. In section 8.2.3,
we determine a formula that enables us to precisely find the best approximating
line called the tangent line. The term derivative is used for the slope of the
tangent line. Depending on the function, a tangent line might or might not exist
(This will be explained in more detail below, with examples).

8.2.3 A Formula for the Derivative

We can write a decomposition of any given real-valued function f(x) as a
sum of a linear function mx and a difference function g(x) as follows:

The difference function g(x) calculates the vertical distance between the
function f(x) and the line y = mx for any value of x.
As a demonstration, we can subtract the line that we selected as the best
approximating line (i.e., the tangent line) from the function f(x) in figure 8.3. The
graph of the resulting difference g(x) is shown in figure 8.4.

FIGURE 8.4. The graph of the difference function g(x).

Suppose that the slope of the tangent line in figure 8.3 is some undetermined
value m = α, that is, the line y = αx is a tangent line to f(x) at x = 0 for some value
of α. We observe in figure 8.4 that the difference function g(x) = f(x) −αx is
tangential to the x-axis at the origin. Therefore, according to definition 8.2.1

In order to calulate the value of α, we substitute m = α in formula (8.1) and

divide both sides of the equation by x to obtain

We now take the limit on both sides, as x tends to 0. As a result of formula

(8.2), we have

Reading the equation from right to left gives us a formula for α:

REMARK 8.2.1. This limit formula guarantees that any α that satisfies formula
(8.2) is unique (and it can be calculated by means of this formula). In other
words, if there is a tangent line to f(x) at the origin, then there is only one tangent
line.

REMARK 8.2.2. It is a good idea to use a letter different from x in the limit above
because the evaluation of the limit is a separate calculation from evaluating the
function. We use h in the continuation because this is the letter that is
traditionally used in the limit formulas for computing derivatives.
We now introduce some important notation and summarize the results of this
section:

DEFINITION 8.2.2. If a function f(x) is defined on an interval containing x = 0,

with f(0) = 0, then the derivative f′ (0) is the slope of the tangent line to f(x) at x
= 0, if a tangent line exists.

REMARK 8.2.3. The symbol above the f is called a prime and we say “f ′.”

DEFINITION 8.2.3. If a function f(x) is defined on an interval containing x = 0

with f(0) = 0, then f(x) is said to be differentiable at x = 0 with derivative f′ (0) if
and only if the function

g(x) = f(x) − f′(0)x

satisfies
 Furthermore, if f(x) is differentiable at x = 0, then

REMARK 8.2.4. If, for some function f, f(0) = 0, but the limit does not
exist (i.e., f is not differentiable at the origin), then it might be the case that the
graph of f(x) has a vertical tangent line at the origin, as shown in example 8.2.2.

EXAMPLE 8.2.2. If then

Because the limit tends to infinity, we conclude that the y-axis, that is, the
line x = 0, is a tangent line to the graph of at the origin (see figure 8.5).

FIGURE 8.5. Graph of the cube root function.

EXAMPLE 8.2.3.

(i) If f(x) = 2x + x,3, then

(ii) If then

8.2.4 Definition of the Derivative (General Case)

Our goal is to determine a formula for the tangent line (if a tangent line
exists) at any point x = a in the domain of a function f(x). We use the notation f′
(a) for the slope of the tangent line at x = a. In order to relate the general case to
the special case that we considered in section 8.2.3, we define

Note that F(0) = 0 and the graph of F can be obtained by shifting the graph
of f to the left or right depending on whether a is positive or negative and up or
down depending on whether f(a) is negative or positive. Note that the tangent
line to F at the origin will have the same slope as the tangent line to the graph of
f at x = a, that is, f′(a) = F′(0), as shown in figure 8.6.
 FIGURE 8.6. Shifted tangent lines that have the same slope.

According to Definition 8.2.1, if F(x) is differentiable at the origin, then the

derivative will be

Because we are equating f′(a) with F′(0), we have the following definition of
the derivative.

DEFINITION 8.2.4. If a function f(x) is defined on an interval containing x = a,

then f(x) is said to be differentiable at x = a with derivative f′(a) if and only if the
limit exists in the following formula.

REMARK 8.2.5. If the limit in formula (8.6) does not exist, then f(x) is not
differentiable at x = a and f′(a) is not defined.
By means of an algebraic reformulation of the right-hand side of formula
(8.6), we also have the alternative formula

Note that, for a value of x close to a, the quantity

is the slope of a secant line, that is a line intersecting the graph of y = f(x) = at
points (a, f (a)) and (x, f (x)). This observation allows an interesting geometric
interpretation of a derivative:

REMARK 8.2.6. The number f′(a) is the limit of slopes of secant lines as x tends to
a. Figure 8.7 shows secant and tangent lines passing through (a, f (a)).

FIGURE 8.7. A secant line and a tangent line.

Because f′(a) is the slope of the tangent line passing through (a, f(a)), we
have the following important formula for the point-slope of the equation for the
tangent line to the graph of y = f(x) at (a, f(a)).

EXAMPLE 8.2.4.

(i) If f(x) = 2x+x3, then

 The equation of the tangent line passing through (1, 3) is y − 3 = 5(x − 1).

(ii) If then

The equation of the tangent line passing through is

8.3 DERIVATIVE FUNCTIONS

In section 8.2, we introduced the notion of a function being differentiable at a
point in its domain. It is useful to know when a function is differentiable at every
point in its domain.

DEFINITION 8.3.1. A function f(x) is differentiable if and only if its derivative is

defined at each point in its domain; that is, at any value of x in the domain of
f(x), there is a nonvertical tangent line passing through (x,f(x)).
It is a fact that all of the following standard functions are differentiable:
polynomial, trigonometric, rational, exponential and logarithmic functions.
Imagine an experiment done on graph paper, as shown in figure 8.8, where
tangent lines are drawn to the graphs of the parabola y = x2 and cubic y = x3, and
their slopes are measured accurately by counting blocks on the graph paper. If
the slope values are plotted against the corresponding x values in a new
coordinate system, then they create the graph of a new function, called the
derivative function. In the case of the parabola, the graph of the derivative
function is the line y = 2x, and in the case of the cubic it is the parabola y = 3x3.

FIGURE 8.8. The derivative of the parabolic and cubic graphs.

In general, we have the following definition.

DEFINITION 8.3.2. If a function f(x) is differentiable, then the function f′ (x) that
specifies the derivative of f(x) at each value of x is called the derivative function.

REMARK 8.3.1. For any given differentiable function, the domain of the
corresponding derivative function will be the same as the domain of the
function.

REMARK 8.3.2. If a function is not differentiable, that is, if there are points in the
domain where the derivative does not exist, then a derivative function can be
defined on the restricted domain that excludes those points.

EXAMPLE 8.3.1. Figures 8.9 and 8.10 show the graphs of four functions and their
corresponding derivative functions directly below them. Note that for graph (a),
the value x = 0 is excluded from the domain of the derivative function, and for
graph (b), the values are excluded from the domain of the
derivative function.

FIGURE 8.9. Diagram for Example 8.3.1.

FIGURE 8.10. Diagram for Example 8.3.1.

An important observation regarding derivative functions is that the graph of

a derivative function passes through the x-axis at every value for x where the
function is differentiable and the graph of the function has an upward or
downward peak. The reason for this is that a tangent line at any peak of a graph
is horizontal (that is, having slope equal to zero). For example, in graph (c), in
figure 8.9, the graph of the function has a peak at x = 0, and the graph of the
corresponding derivative function in figure 8.10 passes through the origin.
Similarly, in graph (d), the function has four peaks, and the graph of the
derivative function passes through the x-axis four times at the values of x where
the peaks occur. Look closely at the graphs to verify this.

8.3.1 The Power Rule for Natural Numbers

We now use formula (8.6) to determine the derivative functions that are
powers of x, that is, f(x) = xn, where n is any natural number. In the case that n =
1, the tangent line at any point on the graph coincides with the graph itself (a line
through the origin with slope equal to 1); therefore, if f(x) = x, then f′(x) = 1 (the
identity function). If n = 2 that is, f(x) = x2, then for any real number

we have We can replace a with x, that is, if f(x) = x2, then f′(x) = 2x.
Similarly, we can do the following calculation if n 3
 Again, we can replace a with x, that is, if f(x) = x3, then f′(x) = 3x2. We now
have the following formula, which will be proved in exercise 8.11. at the end of
this chapter.

This is a special case of a more general formula, called the power rule, which
is stated and proved in section 8.10.4.

REMARK 8.3.3. As the slope of a horizontal line is zero, the formula above is, in
fact, also true if n = 0 that is, if f(x) = 1 = x0 (the identity function), then f′(x) = 0
= 0.x−1 (the zero function).

EXAMPLE 8.3.2. If f(x) = x101, then f′(x) = 101x100.

The special case of the power rule that we have given above is the first of
many rules and formulas that will be derived in this chapter for the computation
of derivative functions. Before continuing with this, we now present another
useful notation for the expression of derivatives and derivative functions.

8.3.2 Leibniz Notation

The prime notation being used up to now to express derivatives was
introduced by the French Mathematician Joseph-Louise Lagrange (1736–1813),
one of the great successors of Isaac Newton in the area of classical mechanics
(the study of the motion of projectiles). (He also proved, among other things,
that every natural number is a sum of four squares of whole numbers.)
Another major figure in the development of calculus was the French
Mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), who developed much
of calculus independently of, but slightly later than, Isaac Newton.
Unfortunately, the relationship between Newton and Leibniz turned very sour
after Leibniz published his results ahead of Newton in 1684 (Newton published
the first edition of his Principia Mathematica in 1687), and Newton accused
Leibniz of plagiarism. It can be said, however, that Leibniz’s calculus had a
much better grounding in terms of the notation that he invented; for example, the
notation that is now called Leibniz notation for the expression of a derivative
function is suggestive of the derivative as the limit of fractions (the limit of
slopes of secant lines). In Leibniz notation, instead of f′(x), we write

If we want to express the derivative at a particular value of x, at x = a, for

example, then instead of f′(a), we can write

Formula (8.9) can, using Leibniz notation, be expressed as

EXAMPLE 8.3.3.

8.3.3 The Sum, Product, and Quotient Rules

There are rules for computing the derivative of algebraic combinations of
functions; in particular, the formula for computing the derivative of a sum or
difference of functions or a function multiplied by a real number is called the
sum rule, the formula for computing the derivative of a product of two functions
is called the product rule, and the formula for computing the derivative of a
quotient of two functions is called the quotient rule.

THEOREM 8.3.1. If f(x) and g(x) are continuous, differentiable functions, then the
derivative of the sum or difference of f and g can be calculated using

THEOREM 8.3.2. If f and g are continuous, differentiable functions, then the

derivative of the product of f and g can be calculated using
THEOREM 8.3.3. If f and g are continuous differentiable functions, then the
derivative of the quotient of f and g can be calculated using

REMARK 8.3.4. The sum rule states that a derivative distributes through a sum or
difference of functions. The product and quotient rules, however, are not so
simple: a derivative does not distribute through a product or quotient of
functions as you might expect.

REMARK 8.3.5. It’s important to write the correct order of terms in the numerator
of the quotient rule because reversing the terms causes an incorrect sign:

g′(x)f(x) − g(x)f′(x) = −(f′(x)g(x) − f(x)g′(x)).

The sum, product and quotient rules are often expressed in the following
abbreviated formats:

They can be proved using formula (8.6), and the rules for limits stated in
section 7.10.2:
Proof of the sum rule: If f and g are continuous, differentiable functions, then
 The proof of the product rule is more tricky, as it requires adding and
subtracting the same term in the numerator in the second line of the proof and
grouping and factoring terms in the third line of the proof.
Proof of the product rule: If f and g are continuous differentiable functions,
then

In the last line of this proof, we are allowed to replace limh→0f(a+h) with f(a)
because we are assuming that f is a continuous function (in particular,
continuous at x = a).

The proof of the quotient rule is left as an exercise at the end of this chapter.
We will now look at some examples and applications of the rules above.
First, the sum rule can be combined with the power rule to compute derivatives
of polynomials.

EXAMPLE 8.3.4. If f(x) = 1+2x+3x2+4x3, then

 As an application of the product rule consider the following example:

EXAMPLE 8.3.5. If f(x) = x6 and g(x) = x7, then by the product and power rules,

(f · g)′(x) = f′(x) g(x) + f(x) g′(x) = (6x5)(x7) + (x6)(7x6) = 13 x12.

Of course, we could have first multiplied the functions and then applied the
power rule to obtain the same answer, that is,

Similarly, the product rule can be applied to a product of polynomials:

EXAMPLE 8.3.6.

There is no need to expand the answer.

The product rule will become more useful as we learn derivative formulas
for different types of function in this chapter. On the other hand, we can use the
quotient rule immediately to obtain a generalization of the power rule: if m is a
positive integer, then by the quotient rule,

(The quotient rule was applied with f(x) = 1 and g(x) =xm.) This verifies the
following statement of the power rule.
 The quotient rule can be combined with the power rule and sum rule to
compute derivatives of rational expressions.

EXAMPLE 8.3.7.

REMARK 8.3.5. It frequently happens, when the quotient rule is applied (as in the
example above), that the expression in the numerator can be simplified.
However, there is usually no need to expand the expression in the denominator.
It might be the case that a function is expressed in terms of some unknown
constants. When taking the derivative, the sum rule applies to these constants in
the same way that it applies to real numbers (as constants). In the following
examples, the constants are the numbers a, b, c, and d.

EXAMPLE 8.3.8.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)
8.4 TANGENT LINE PROBLEMS

At this point, we take a break from the theoretical development of calculus to
look at some applications that involve tangent lines. A calculus problem can
typically be expressed as a problem that involves finding a tangent line with a
particular slope or constructing a particular tangent line. In this section, we are
going to begin with simple examples and then move on to an interesting
application, called Newton’s method.
The simplest application involving a tangent line is to apply formula (8.8) to
find the equation at a given point on a graph (assuming a tangent line exists at
the given point). Here is an example:

EXAMPLE 8.4.1. Find the equation of the line that is tangent to the graph of

Answer: The corresponding derivative function is

so the slope of the tangent line at x = 1 is and the tangent line

passes through coordinates Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is

A slightly more complicated problem is finding a tangent line with specified

slope.

EXAMPLE 8.4.2. At what point(s) on the graph of is (are) the tangent

line(s) parallel to the line x = 2y?
Answer: The slope at any point on the graph of is given by

In order for a tangent line to the graph to be parallel to the line x = 2y, it must
have the same slope as this line, which is (write the equation for the line as
). Thus, we set

Now, using the above expression for we need to solve for x in the
equation

This reduces to solving the quartic equation

1− 4x2− = x4 = 0

which can be solved as a quadratic equation by means of the substitution X = x2.

Thus, the roots of the equation are and, consequently, the required
points on the graph are

These coordinates are approximately (0.4859, 0.393) and (−0.4859, −0.393),

respectively.

The following problem involves finding the tangent lines (to a specified
graph) that pass through a given point in the plane (which need not be a point on
the graph). The solution to this problem involves introducing an additional
variable a to represent an arbitrary point on the graph that the tangent line passes
through. The required value(s) of a are then obtained by solving an equation
determined by the requirement that the line passes through the given point.

EXAMPLE 8.4.3. How many tangent lines to the graph of pass through the
point Find the coordinates of the points at which the tangent lines touch
this graph.
 Answer:

Therefore, the equation for a tangent line passing through coordinates

with slope is

Because we require the tangent line to pass through coordinates we

substitute x = 2 and into this equation to produce

This simplifies to the equation

a2 + 2a − 5 = 0.

The two solutions for a (corresponding to two tangent lines) are and
the corresponding coordinates on the graph of are

The coordinates are approximately (−3.45,0.775) and (1.45, 3.22),

respectively. Figure 8.11 shows the two tangent lines passing through these
points on the graph.
 FIGURE 8.11. Diagram for Example 8.4.3.

A widely used application involving tangent lines is Newton’s method (also

called the Newton–Raphson method). This is a procedure for calculating
accurately and efficiently the intercept of a graph of a function with the x-axis
when the exact value of this intercept cannot be determined precisely (or cannot
be determined easily). The method involves starting with an arbitrary value x1
that is close to the intercept (it might be helpful to have a computer-generated
graph of the function to begin with), and then, by means of an algorithmic
procedure involving tangent lines, as demonstrated in the example below,
finding values x2, x3, x4, and so on that move closer and closer to the intercept.
This method will always work if the following conditions are satisfied:
• the function is differentiable in an interval containing the x-intercept in
question,
• the derivative of the function is not zero at the x-intercept in question, and
• the value x1 is close enough to the intercept (if it is not close enough for the
method to work, then a closer value should be used).

EXAMPLE 8.4.4. Use Newton’s method to find correct to three decimal

positions (four significant digits).
Answer: If f(x) = x5 − 7, then the root of this function in the interval (1,2) is
the value we are looking for because if we label this root x = c, then f (c) = 0
means that (Note that f (1) −6 and f(2) = 25, so, by the Intermediate
Value Theorem, we know there is a root in the interval (1,2).) In the first step of
the algorithm, we set x1 = 2 Figure 8.12 shows a tangent line to the graph of y =
x5 −7 through the coordinates (2,25). Because f′(x) = 5x4, the slope of the tangent
line is f′(2) = 80, and the equation for this tangent line is y − 25 = 80(x −2). or y
= 80x − 135. We will label the x-intercept of this tangent line as x2. Then 0 =
80x2 − 135 determines that The second diagram demonstrates
the next stage of the algorithm: another tangent line through the coordinates
is drawn, and its intercept is found. We can see in
the diagram that the values x2 and x3 are closer to the intercept. The values x ≈
1.4786, x ≈ 1.47578 and x ≈ 1.47577 can be computed by continuing this
procedure. Because the values x5 and x6 are stagnant in the first four decimal
positions, we can state with confidence that

FIGURE 8.12. Two iterations of Newton’s method.

8.5 THE POWER RULE FOR RATIONAL EXPONENTS

We now state the power rule for rational exponents. Again, this is a special case
of the general formula for the power rule stated in section 8.10.4.
 Taking gives the formula for the derivative of a square root:

Because this formula will be used frequently, it is helpful to memorize it in

the following form.

Loosely speaking, this states that “the derivative of a square root is one over
twice a square root.” Similar formulas can be obtained for the third and fourth
roots:

The power rule for rational exponents can be combined with the sum,
product, and quotient rules to compute the derivative of any rational algebraic
expression in one variable, that is, any expression that contains a variable and a
finite number of algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and exponentiation with a rational exponent).

EXAMPLE 8.5.1. Using the sum, product, and quotient rules, respectively, (i)
8.6 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

We will use formulas (8.3) and (8.6) to compute the derivatives of trigonometric
functions.
If f(x) = sin(x) and g(x) = cos(x), then

(These limits are given in formula (7.5).) Furthermore, we can compute f′(x)
and g′(x) for any x by making use of the trigonometric identities for sin(A + B)
and cos(A + B), the rules for limits and the two limits computed above:

We have thus obtained the following derivative formulas.

 The derivatives of the remaining four trigonometric ratios can be obtained by
means of the reciprocal trigonometric identities and the quotient and product
rules. For example,

The proofs of the remaining trigonometric ratios are left as exercises. It is

well worthwhile memorizing their derivatives given in table 8.1.
TABLE 8.1. Derivatives of trigonometric ratios

The following examples demonstrate the product rule combined with the
derivatives of trigonometric functions.

EXAMPLE 8.6.1.

(i)
(ii)

8.7 SOME BASIC APPLICATIONS OF CALCULUS

By means of the examples below, we demonstrate how the techniques of
calculus can be used to solve many kinds of practical problems.
In the first example, we introduce the important notion of instantaneous rate
of change and explain how it relates to the derivative of a time–displacement
function of an object in motion. The general study or science of motion is called
dynamics, and, because of this relationship of the derivative to instantaneous
change, calculus is an essential tool in dynamics. A more general and
sophisticated expression for a moving body than a simple time–displacement
function is a differential equation. Students often ask why they need to learn
calculus. The best answer to this question is that calculus is the foundation for
the mathematics of differential equations.

EXAMPLE 8.7.1. A car approaches an intersection with time–displacement

function s(t) = t2 −4, where s is measured in meters and t is measured in seconds.
(The letter s is the variable that physicists typically use to represent displacement
or position, and t is the letter used to represent time, so s(t) is a function that
gives the position of the car at any given time.) The value s(0) = −4 is the initial
displacement. If the car is 4 m from the intersection when t = 0 (when an
observer starts his timer), then the car passes through the intersection when t = 2.
The graph of the time–displacement function s(t) = t2 − 4 is shown in figure 8.13
with time t on the horizontal axis and displacement s on the vertical axis.
In the first diagram in figure 8.13, the slope of the secant line determines the
average speed of the car from t = 0 to t = 2 because average speed is calculated
using the formula where the symbol “Δ” denotes change, that is, Δs is the
change in displacement and Δt is the change in time. For the secant line,
As s is measured in meters and t is measured in seconds, the average speed of
the car from t = 0 to t = 2 is 2 m/s.
Similarly, in the second diagram in figure 8.13, the slope of the secant line
determines the average speed of the car from t = 1 to t = 2 Here, so the
average speed of the car from t = 1 to t = 2 is 3 m/s.
 Finally, in the third diagram in figure 8.13, there is a tangent line to the graph
at t = 2. We can imagine secant lines as in the first and second diagrams merging
with the tangent line as Δt gets smaller and smaller. Therefore, we calculate the
slope of the tangent line in order to determine the instantaneous speed of the car
when t = 2 (the reading on the speedometer at the moment the car passes through
the intersection). Because the instantaneous speed of the car at t = 2
is 4 m/s.

FIGURE 8.13. A car approaching an intersection.

In a certain sense, calculus is a science of approximation. The reason for this

begins with the observation that a tangent line is a good approximation to a
function close to the point of tangency. Indeed, this was the criterion used in
section 8.2.2 to define the tangent line.
Now, recall formula (8.8), which is the equation for the tangent line if f(x) is
differentiable at x = a and the point of tangency is (a, f (a)). If x is close to a
(here, “close” just means close enough for the purpose in mind), then the factor
(x − a) can be abbreviated by Δx, meaning a small increment in the dependent
variable y. The equation for the tangent line can thus be expressed as Δy = f′
(a)Δx. This states that the increment in y along the tangent line is proportional to
the increment in x according to the factor f′(a). The actual amount by which the
function f changes corresponding to the increment Δx is f(a + Δx)− f(a) and this
is approximately the value Δy. Another way to write this approximation is
 This is shown in figure 8.14.

FIGURE 8.14. Linear approximation of a function.

REMARK 8.7.1. The equation Δy = f′(a) Δx or (with x replacing a) Δy = f′(x) Δx

resembles the equivalence We do not regard as a fraction in the
usual sense; however, in the advanced mathematics of tensor algebra,
expressions such as dy, df, or dx are called differential forms, and they are given
a precise meaning. We cannot explain this in detail here, but we will regard the
equation dy = f′(x)dx as a valid statement and call the terms differential forms.
Formula (8.23) can now be expressed as the differential approximation formula

EXAMPLE 8.7.2. Suppose we want to know an approximae value for cos(2.1),

given that cos(2.0) ≈ −0.416 and sin(2.0) ≈ −0.9 We define f(x) = cos(x) and use
formula (8.23) with a = 2.0 and Δx = 0.1 to obtain

cos(2.1) ≈ cos(2) − 0.09(0.1) ≈ − 0.416 − 0.009 = − 0.506

(The actual value of cos(2.1) is −0.50484…)

 It has already been mentioned (at the end of section 8.3) that the slope of the
tangent line is zero wherever the graph of a differentiable function has an
upward or a downward peak. This is known as Fermat’s Theorem, after the
French Mathematician Pierre de Fermat, and it can be proved rigorously using
the definition of the derivative. (We will not provide the proof here.)

DEFINITION 8.7.1. A local extremum x0 of a real-valued function f is a value for x

where the graph of f(x) has an upward or downward peak.

THEOREM 8.7.1. Fermat’s Theorem: if x0 is a local extremum of a real-valued

function f defined on an interval (a,b) containing x0 and, if f is differentiable at x
= x0, then f′(x0) = 0
Thus, a method of locating an upward or downward peak of graph (an
extremum) involves taking the derivative of the function, setting it equal to zero
and solving for x. The solutions for x are called critical values. Additional
information about the shape of the graph can then be used to determine whether
a particular critical value obtained in this way is a local extremem. The next two
examples demonstrate this.

EXAMPLE 8.7.3. A rectangular open box that is twice as long as it is wide has a
volume of 48 cm3. What are the dimensions of the box if it has the smallest
possible surface area.
Answer: If the unknown width is labeled x, then the length should be labeled
2x. The unknown height of the box can be labeled h (see figure 8.15). We have
the following formulas for the volume (V) and surface area (SA):

V = 2 x2 h = 48

SA = 2(2 xh) + 2(xh) + 2x2 = 6xh + 2x2.

Now, if we solve for h in the first equation above and substitute the result in
the second equation, then we can define the following function of x, which
determines the surface area:
 Note that

Furthermore, the following calculation determines that there is a single

critical point, which must be the point where f attains its minimum value.

Therefore, the box should have a width of a length of

and a height of

FIGURE 8.15. A rectangular, open box.

 FIGURE 8.16. Folding a rectangular sheet.

EXAMPLE 8.7.4. How would you fold an arbitrarily long rectangular sheet of
paper with centimeters wide to bring the upper left corner to the right-hand edge
and minimize the length of the fold? That is, in figure 8.16, how do you choose x
in order to minimize l?
Answer: It is generally a good problem-solving strategy to consider a few
possibilities before writing down any equations: first, if x = 0, then folding the
upper left corner to the right-hand edge creates an equilateral, right triangle,
where the two short sides have length w centimeters and the length of the
hypotenuse (the fold) is equal to centimeters; second, the maximum value
of x for which it is possible for the upper left corner to be folded to the right-
hand edge is centimeters (half of the width), and this would result in a fold of
infinite length (as we are assuming the rectangular sheet is arbitrarily long). So,
presumably, the value for x we are looking for must be somewhere between 0
and centimeters (the answer clearly cannot be centimeters, although it can
be 0 centimeters).
We now proceed by setting up some equations and applying the methods of
calculus. We begin by identifying and labeling all the parameters of the problem,
as shown in figure 8.16. The fold forms the hypotenuse of two congruent right
triangles that have one side of length w − x and another side of length h. Along
the right edge of the sheet, p and q add up to h. Our strategy will be to find an
expression for h in terms of x and the constant w and then to use it to find an
expression for l in terms of x and w. (Try to do this yourself before reading
ahead.)
The first step is to solve for p in the Pythagorean formula

p2 + x2 = (w — x).
Thus,

Consequently,

We now substitute this expression for q into the Pythagorean formula

 q + w2 = h2

to obtain

By expanding the left-hand side of this equation and subtracting h2 from both
sides, we are left with

Thus, we can solve for h to obtain

Finally, we have

We can take the square root on both sides so obtain an explicit expression for
l in terms of x, but the calculus will be easier if we set L = l2 and then find the
value for x that minimizes L. (This is a good trick that is worth remembering.)
So, now we apply the quotient rule to the function

to obtain
 Now solving for x in the equation

yields the critical values

(We are not interested in the critical value x = w.) Now, it is a consequence
of the following calculation:

and

that we get a shorter fold by folding at than by folding at x = 0 or and,

because is the only critical value in the interval folding at one quarter
of the width must produce the shortest possible fold.

8.8 THE CHAIN RULE

The chain rule is a method for taking the derivative of a composition of
functions. In the simplest case, we can consider the composition of lines passing
through the origin. For example, if the lines are the graphs of equations
and u = L1(x) = 3x, then the composition L2° L1 of these lines is the
line

The graphs of the lines are shown in figure 8.17 in the (x, u)-coordinate
plane, the (u, y) coordinate plane, and the (x, y)-coordinate plane, respectively.
It is important to note that the slope of the third line is the product of the
slopes of the first two lines, that is, taking a composition of lines results in a new
line whose slope is the product of slopes of the lines.

FIGURE 8.17. A composition of lines.

Suppose that, instead of lines L1(x) and L2(u) passing through the origin, we
have functions f(u) and g(x) whose graphs pass through the origin, that is, f(0) =
0 and g(0) = 0. Suppose, furthermore, that g and f are differentiable at the origin,
that is, g′(0) and f′(0) exist and so, by formula (8.3), can be expressed as:

We can use formula (8.3) again and rules for limits to compute the derivative
(f ° g)′ (0) of the composition f ° g.
 We have proved the following special case of the chain rule: if f(0) = 0 and
g(0) = 0, then

provided g′(0) and f′(0) exist.

From this result we can conclude, furthermore, that the tangent line (through
the origin) to the composition function f ° g is the composition of the tangent
lines (through the origin) to the functions f and g. This is illustrated in figure
8.18.

FIGURE 8.18. A composition of graphs.

EXAMPLE 8.8.1. The diagram in figure 8.18 was generated using
and
Because
Therefore, by formula (8.25),
 It will be proved in exercise 8.47 that formula (8.25) can be generalized to
compute the derivative of a composition of functions at any point in the domain
of the composition.
This generalization is:

THEOREM 8.8.1. The chain rule: If f and g are continuous differentiable

functions, and if a is in the domain of g and g(a) is in the domain of f, then the
derivative (f ° g)′(a) can be computed using

Theorem 8.8.1 states that the derivative of f ° g at x = a is computed as the

derivative of f evaluated at the image of g at x = a, multiplied by the derivative
of g at x = a. (Loosely speaking, we evaluate the derivative of the “outside
function” at the “inside function” and multiply by the derivative of the “inside
function”.)
The chain rule can also be expressed using Leibniz notation.

EXAMPLE 8.8.2. If y = u2 and u = sin(x), then

EXAMPLE 8.8.3. If y = sin(u) and u = x2, find

Answer:
 The functions that make up a composition are not always stated explicitly. In
this situation, the functions that make up the composition have to be determined.

EXAMPLE 8.8.4. The function h(x) = (1 − x2) is the composition f(g(x)), where
f(u) = u99 and g(x) = 1 − x2. Thus,

REMARK 8.8.1. When the “outside function” is of the form xα (as in the previous
example, with α = 99), then the application of the chain rule is sometimes called
the chain rule combined with the power rule.
In some cases, a function can be expressed in terms of several compositions
and then the chain rule has to be applied repeatedly in order to take the
derivative.

EXAMPLE 8.8.5. If then f(x) is a composition of the form

The derivatives of p(υ), q(u), and r(x) are

respectively, and so we compute f′(x):

8.9 THE CALCULUS OF VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS

The derivative of a vector-valued function is obtained by means of the same
limit formula that is used to obtain the derivative of a real-valued function. We
find the limit of a vector function by finding the limit of each component (in
other words, the limit distributes through the components of the vector).
Consequently, we take the derivative of a vector function by taking the
derivative of each component, as shown in the calculation below. We will use
the notation for a vector function and suppose that the component
functions x(t) and y(t) are differentiable. Then,

Thus,

In the same way that the derivative of a real-valued function produces the
slope of a tangent line, the derivative of a vector-valued function produces a
tangent vector. This is a vector contained in a tangent line to the trajectory of a
vector-valued function. In figure 8.19, a tangent vector is shown at a point t = a
along the trajectory of a vector function. Furthermore, the first two diagrams in
figure 8.19 demonstrate a geometric interpretation of the derivation above:
evidently, the tangent vector can be regarded as the limit of secant vectors
as h becomes smaller and smaller.

EXAMPLE 8.9.1. The diagrams in figure 8.19 were generated using the vector
function

with t = a = 3.75 (recall from example 5.12.4 that the trajectory of is a

spiral). By the product rule, applied to each component,

FIGURE 8.19. Secant vectors and a tangent vector.

Therefore,

This is the tangent vector shown in the third diagram.

REMARK 8.9.1. In applications where t represents time, determines a velocity
vector at any point on the trajectory of

EXAMPLE 8.9.2. The trajectory of the vector-valued function is

shown in figure 5.20. The derivative of this vector-valued function is
The tangent vectors for t = −2,−1,0,1,2,3 are shown in figure
8.20.

FIGURE 8.20. Tangent vectors along the trajectory of a vector function.

8.10 THE CALCULUS OF EXPONENTIAL AND

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The expression for the derivative of an exponential function f(x) = ax depends on
the choice of the base a, which can be any positive real number (but not equal to
1). We will first obtain the derivative in the case that a = e, the number
introduced in section 1.12.3 as Euler’s number. There are various ways to define
the number e. In order to derive the derivative formula for the exponential
function with base e, we will define e below according to certain statements that
should be intuitively true. There is no need, at this stage, to give a completely
rigorous definition for the number e.
From an examination of graphs of f(x) = ax − 1 for different choices of a > 1,
as shown in figure 8.21, it can be seen that the tangent lines through the origin
become steeper as the value of a increases. In particular, if a is close to 1, then
the tangent line will be close to horizontal, and if a is very large, then the tangent
line will be close to vertical. We can suppose, therefore, that there is a unique
value for a for which the tangent line through the origin will be the line y = x.
We will define e to be this particular value for a. Thus, the second diagram in
figure 8.21 shows the graph of f(x) = ex − 1 together with its tangent line y = x
through the origin. These graphs are drawn to scale so it can be surmised, by
comparison of the second diagram with the first diagram, that 2 < e < 4.

FIGURE 8.21 The definition of e.

Based on the second diagram in figure 8.21, we will make the assumption
that the graph of y = ex − 1 lies entirely above the tangent line through the origin
(this is another intuitive fact that can be proved using the property known as
convexity of the graph of y = ex). A statement of this assumption is

We will need this inequality below when we determine a limit formula e.

The tangency of the line y = x to the graph of f(x) = ex − 1 at the origin
implies

We can use this formula to compute the derivative of f(x) = ex any point x = a
 Thus,

This fact is another characterization of the number e: the function f(x) = ex is

the only function that is its own derivative.

8.10.1 A Formula for e

We are now going to derive a limit formula for the value of e. Refer to figure
8.22. We will start with the following interpretation of formula (8.31): for any
positive integer n, the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = ex at x = ln(n +
1) is equal to eln(n + 1) = n + 1. Consequently, the equation for the tangent line at
x = ln(n + 1) is

y −(n + 1) = (n + 1)(x − ln(n + 1)).

 FIGURE 8.22. A tangent line to the exponential graph

By substituting y = n into this equation we produce

1 = (n + 1)(ln(n + 1)−cn),

or

where (cn, n) are the coordinates on the tangent line at y = n, as shown in figure
8.22.
Furthermore (as a consequence of the convexity of the exponential graph), it
is the case that

ln(n) < cn < ln(n + 1).

Another way to express this inequality is

ln(n + 1) − ln(n) > ln(n + 1) − cn.

It follows now, from formula (8.32), that
 According to properties the properties of logarithms, this is equivalent to

Finally, using the inverse property of exponential and logarithmic functions,

we obtain the inequality

What’s more, by substituting in the inequality in formula (8.30), we can

derive a double inequality for e:

For example, if n = 100, then (in decimal form)

2.704 ≤ e ≤ 2.732.

Furthermore, if we divide the inequality in formula (8.33) by we obtain

As a consequence of formulas (8.33) and (8.34), we obtain

Now, according to the Squeeze Theorem, if we take the limit as n → ∞, then

 The investigation of the limit on the right-hand side of this equation by the
Mathematician Jacob Bernoulli led to his discovery of the number e near the end
of the seventeenth century. The limit arose in some problems relating to
compound interest that he was studying.

8.10.2 Derivatives of Exponential Functions

We continue with derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions. It is
helpful to know that the function f(x) = ex is sometimes expressed as f(x) exp(x).
With this notation, formula (8.31) becomes

With the derivative formula in this form, it is easier to apply the chain rule to
compositions that involve the exponential function, as in this example:

EXAMPLE 8.10.1.

(i) If f(x) = e2x, then

(ii) If f(x) = e−x, then

These examples have motivated the following:

 The following examples combine this formula with the sum rule and quotient
rule.

EXAMPLE 8.10.2.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

In more generality, an exponential function ex can be composed with any

other real-valued function f(x), and the chain rule can be applied to find the
derivative of the composition. Thus,

This is a useful result to remember.

EXAMPLE 8.10.3.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)
 An exponential function f(x) = ax, where a > 0 and a ≠ 1, can be expressed as
an exponential function with base e by means of a simple trick: as a consequence
of the cancellation equations (formula (5.5)) and property (III) of the laws for
x
natural logarithms in table 5.6 we can write ax = eln(a ) = e(x ln(a); and then the
application of formula (8.33) (with α = ln(a)) results in

Thus, we have proved the derivative formula for exponential functions with
base a:

Note that this reduces to formula (8.31) if a = e (because ln e = 1).

EXAMPLE 8.10.4.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

EXAMPLE 8.10.5. A first-order differential equation is any equation in which a

function is related to its own derivative. Differential equations typically arise in
mathematical modeling, where mathematical equations are used to represent and
study natural processes. For example, a model for population growth is the first-
order differential equation

where y(t) is the size of a population at time t, and k is a constant. If k > 0, then
this equation states that the rate of growth of the population is proportional to the
size of the population. A solution for this equation is any function y(t) that solves
the equation in the sense that plugging the function into the equation will make
the equation a true statement. For example, if y(t) = ekt, then y′(t) = kekt = ky(t),
and so y(t) is a solution.
A more sophisticated equation for modeling population growth is the logistic
differential equation

where y(t) and k are as above and M is a constant that specifies the maximum
possible size of the population (that is, y(t) < M). If k > 0, then this equation
models the growth of a population in an environment with limited food supply.
If the population has an initial of size m, that is y(0) = m, then a solution for the
equation is

We can check that this is a solution by calculating both sides of formula

(8.40):

and

We see that the left-hand side of formula (8.40) equals the right-hand side
and so y(t) is indeed a solution. A graph of y(t) with m = 2, M = 10 and k = 0.05
is shown in figure 8.23. This is called a logistic graph.
 FIGURE 8.23. A logistic graph.

8.10.3 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

If f(x) = ln x, then ef(x) = x The derivative of the left-hand side of this
equation is f′(x)ef(x), and the derivative of its right-hand side is 1. If we equate
these derivatives, we produce

Thus, we have found a formula for the derivative of the natural logarithm:

While ln(x) is defined only for x > 0, its derivative function is also defined
for x < 0. However, note that x ln |x| is also defined for x < 0 and by the chain
rule and exercise 8.4,

Thus, we have this extension of formula (8.41):

 The graph of ln |x| together with its derivative function is shown in figure
8.24.

FIGURE 8.24. ln |x| and its derivative function

When taking compositions of functions involving the natural logarithm, the

derivative of the natural logarithm evaluates as a reciprocal. The simplest case of
this is:

This result might seem surprising but note that, using properties of
logarithms,

(This is because ln(α) is a constant.) It is also true that

 A more general formula that is a consequence of the chain rule is

for any nonvanishing function f(x) (that is, a function f(x) that is never zero).
The change of base formula for logarithms (formula (5.6)) makes is easy to
compute derivatives for logarithms with any base:

for a > 0 and a ≠ 1. Similarly, we have the general formula

for a > 0 and a ≠ 1, and any nonvanishing function f(x).

EXAMPLE 8.10.6.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)
8.10.4 The Proof of the Power Rule
We can now state and prove

Proof: Because
α
xa = elnx = eαlnx

we can take the derivative of xα using the formulas for derivatives of exponential
and logarithmic functions:

EXAMPLE 8.10.7.

8.11 DERIVATIVES OF THE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS

If y = sin−1 x, then sin(y) = x. Taking the derivative of both sides of this equation
with respect to x (with y regarded as a function of x) results in cos(y)y′ = 1.
Solving for y′ gives
 Similarly, if y = cos−1 x, then and, if y = tan−1 x, then

We have thus proved

EXAMPLE 8.11.1.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

EXAMPLE 8.11.2. A rectangular movie theater is 20 m long, with seating on a flat

floor and the screen at one end. The top and bottom of the screen are 6 and 2 m
from the floor, respectively. Find the position in the theater with the largest
viewing angle.
Answer: In figure 8.25, the angle from a point x to the top of the screen is
labeled θ and to the bottom labeled α. Thus, the viewing angle from x is θ − α.
Because we can define the viewing angle as the function

We now take the derivative:

 By setting this equal to zero, we can solve for x to produce the critical value
For this value of x, the viewing angle is

This is the maximum possible viewing angle, at a distance of

from the front of the theater. Note that the viewing angle at the front of the
theater is limx→0 f(x) = 0 and at the back f(20) ≈ 0.523 (or 5.67°).
+

FIGURE 8.25. The viewing angle in a movie theater.

EXERCISES

8.1. In each of the diagrams in figure 8.26, decide whether the line is a tangent
to the graph (at one or more points).
 FIGURE 8.26. Diagram for exercise 8.1.

8.2. Use formula (8.3) to determine f′(0) for each of the following functions.
(a) f(x) = 2x cos(x)

(b)

(c) f(x) = 6x + 4x2

(d) f(x) = x2log(2+x)
(e)

8.3. Use formula (8.6), with a = 2, to determine f′(2) for each of the following
functions, and use formula (8.8) to find the equation of the tangent line at
x = 2.
(a) f(x) = 2x + x3
(b)

(c) f(x) = 6x + 4x2

(d)

(e)

(f)
8.4. Use formula (8.6) to prove that, if then

8.5. Each limit below represents the derivative of some function f at some
number a. State f and a in each case. (Hint: match each limit with formula
(8.6).

8.6. Match each graph from (a) to (d) in figure 8.27 with the graph of its
derivative from (i) to (iv) in figure 8.28.

FIGURE 8.27. Diagram for Exercise 8.6

FIGURE 8.28. Diagram for Exercise 8.6

8.7. At which points on the graph in figure 8.29 is it not possible to draw a
tangent line?
 FIGURE 8.29. Diagram for Exercise 8.7

8.8. For each the graphs in figure 8.30, sketch the graph of the corresponding
derivative function.

FIGURE 8.30. Diagram for Exercise 8.8

8.9. Prove the second part of the sum rule (formula (8.13)), that is, (cf)′(x) = cf′
(x).
8.10. If g is a differentiable function and g(a) ≠ 0, use formula (8.6) and the
rules for limits in section 7.10.2 to prove that

Furthermore, if f is a differentiable function, use the product rule to prove

that
 This is a proof of the quotient rule.
8.11. The power rule for natural numbers (formula (8.9)) was proved in section
8.3.1 for n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3; that is, it was proved that

Now apply the product rule to x4 = x · x3 to prove that

Similarly, apply the product rule to x5 = x · x4 to prove that

In general, assume it is true that for any natural number n and

then apply the product rule to xn+1 = x · xn to prove formula (8.9), that is,

(This method of proof, called the method of mathematical induction, is a

powerful method that can be applied to many other problems involving
natural numbers.)
8.12. Use the power rule (formula (8.9)) and sum rule (formula (8.13)) to
compute the derivatives of the following polynomials.
(a) f(x) = 1 + 2x
(b)

(c) f(x) = 6x6 + 7x7 + 8x8

(d) f(x) = 7 + 4x8 + 6x61
8.13. Use the power rule (formula (8.19)) and sum rule (formula (8.13)) to find
f′(x) if
(a) f(x) = x−2

(b)

(c)

(d) f(x) = 4x−3 − x−4

(e)
 (f) f(x) = 1 + 2x−1 + 3x−2 + 4x−3
8.14. Use the sum rule to compute f′(x) for the following functions f(x). Assume
that a, b, c, and d are constants. Do this in two ways: first, by expanding
the expression for f(x) and then taking the derivative; second, by applying
the sum rule repeatedly (without expanding). Check that your answers
agree.
(a) f(x) = a(x + b)
(b) f(x) = a(x + b(x + c))
(c) f(x) = a(x + b(x + c(x + d)))
8.15. Use the product rule (formula (8.14)) to compute f′(x) for the following
functions f(x). Assume that a, b, c, and d are constants.
(a) f(x) = x(b + x)
(b) f(x) = (a + x)(b + x)
(c) f(x) = x2(b + x)
(d) f(x) = (a + x)(b + x2)
8.16. Use the quotient rule (formula (8.15)) to compute the following
derivatives of rational expressions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

8.17. Use the quotient rule to compute the following derivatives of rational
 expressions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

8.18. Use the quotient rule to compute the following derivatives of rational
expressions.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

8.19. Compute f′(x) for the following functions f(x). Assume that a, b, c, and d
are constants. Do this in two ways: first, by expanding the expression for
f(x) and then taking the derivative; second, by applying the product rule
(formula (8.14)) repeatedly (without expanding). Check that your answers
agree.
 (a) f(x) = x(a + x)
(b) f(x) = x(a + x(b + x))
(c) f(x) = x(a + x (b + x(c + dx)))
8.20. Use the quotient rule to compute f′(x) for the following functions f(x).
Assume that a, b, c, and d are constants.
(a)

(b)

(c)

8.21. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the given equation at x
= 2. (Hint: use your answers from exercise 8.16.)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

8.22. Find the intercepts of each of the tangent lines from the previous exercise
with the x and y axes. Draw the graph of the equation together with the
graph of the tangent line.
8.23. Find the points on the graph of the given equation where the tangent line is
parallel to the line y = −4x + 1.

(a)

(b)
8.24. Find the points on the graph of the given equation where the tangent line is
parallel to the line x = 4y + 1.

(a)

(b)

8.25. Find the points on the graph of the given equation where the tangent line is
parallel to the line

(a)

(b)

8.26. How many tangent lines to the graph pass through each of the
following points? Find the coordinates of the points at which the tangent
lines touch this graph.
(a) (2,0)
(b) (2,1)
(c) (2,2)
(d) (2,3)
(e) (0,2)
8.27. Prove that the algorithm for Newton’s method, as explained in section 8.4,
is given by the formula

where x1 is the first approximation to a root of is the

second approximation to the root and so on. Use this formula to verify the
calculations in example.
Compute the following values with accuracy to two decimal positions
(three significant digits) using the method of example 8.4.4.
 (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
8.28. Use Newton’s method to find the three real roots of the polynomial f(x) =
x3 − 9x − 5 rounded to two decimal positions. (Hint: first use the
intermediate value theorem to locate three intervals containing the roots.)
8.29. Use the power rule for rational exponents (formula (8.20)) to compute the
derivatives of the following rational algebraic expressions

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

8.30. Find all points on the graph of the equation at which the
tangent line is horizontal.
8.31. Prove the derivative formulas for the secant, cosecant and cotangent ratios
in table 8.1.
8.32. Use the derivative formulas in table 8.1 to compute the derivatives below

(a)

(b)
 (c)

(d)

(e)

8.33. Find the points on the graphs of the following equations at which the
tangent line is horizontal.
(a) y = cos(x) + sin(x)
(b) y = x + sin(x)

(c)

(d)

(e) y = cot(x) + tan(x)

8.34. The location of a car as it approaches an intersection is given by the time–
displacement equation where s is measured in meters and t is
measured in seconds. At time t = 0 the car is 4 m from the intersection.
What is the speed of the car as it passes through the intersection?
(Hint: it’s not hard to guess the time when the car passes through the
intersection.)
8.35. Use formula (8.23) to find the approximate value of each of the following
numbers.
(a)
(b)

(c)

8.36. Find two positive numbers whose product is 121 and whose sum is a
minimum. Use calculus to solve the problem.
8.37. A vacationer wants to fence off a rectangular beach-front property using
1,200 m of fencing. What are the dimensions of the property with the
largest area? (Assume that the shoreline is straight and there is no fencing
along the beach.)
8.38. If 2,000 m of fencing are used to enclose a rectangular area and to divide it
into three equal areas, find the dimensions such that the area enclosed is
the greatest. Use calculus to solve the problem.
8.39. An open-topped box is to be constructed by cutting off equal squares from
each corner of a 6 m by 12 m rectangular cardboard sheet and folding up
the sides. Find the maximum possible volume of such a box.

8.40. Find the point on the parabola y = 3x2 that is closest to the point (1,5).
8.41. A cylindrical tin can is to be manufactured to contain a volume of 8 liters.
The circular end pieces will be cut from two square sheets of tin with the
corners wasted and the side of the can will be a rectangular sheet of tin
with two opposite ends joined together. Find the ratio of the height to the
radius of the most economical can.
8.42. Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a semicircle
of radius r.
8.43. A wire 30 in. long is cut into two pieces of possibly different lengths with
one piece bent into a circle and the other piece bent into a square. How
long must each piece be to minimize the total area enclosed by the circle
and the square? (Assume that the two areas are separated.)
8.44. A sheet of metal is 10 m long and 4 m wide. It is bent lengthwise down the
middle to form a V-shaped trough 10 m long. What should the width
across the top of the trough be in order for the trough to have the
maximum capacity?
8.45. Find the length of the longest straight rod that can be carried horizontally
(i.e., without tilting up or down) from a rectangular corridor 6 m wide into
another rectangular corridor, at right angles to it, that is 4 m wide (as in
figure 8.31).
 FIGURE 8.31. Carrying a rod through a rectangular corridor

8.46. Use the special case of the chain rule (formula (8.25)) to determine (f ∘ g)′
(0) for each of the following choices of f and g.
(a) f (u) = 5u, g(x) = 6x
(b) f(t) = 3t, g(u) = 11u
(c) f(u) = 2u, g(x) = 2x2
(d) f(t) = 3t2, g(u) = 4u
(e) f(u) = 2 sin (u), g(x) = 2x
(f) f(t) = 6t, g(u) = sin(u)
(g) f(u) = 2 sin (u) + cos(u) − 1,
g(x) = 2x2 + 2x
(h) f(t) = 6t2 + t, g(u) = 2 tan(u) + u
8.47. The purpose of this exercise is to prove the general formula for the chain
rule by making use of the formula for the special case of the chain rule
proved in section 8.8, that is, if f(0) = 0 and g(0) = 0, then (f ∘ g)′(0) =
f′(0)g′(0).
Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions and h = f ∘ g. Introduce
numbers a, b, and c such that x = a is in the domain of g(x), u = b = g(a) is
in the domain of f(u) and c = f(b) = f(g(a)) = h(a), as shown in figure 8.32.
Define the functions F, G, and H as follows:

F(u) = f(u + b) − c, G(x) = g(x + a) − b and H(x) = h(x + a) − c.

 Note that F′(0) = f′(b), G′(0) = g′(a) and H′(0) = h′(0) because F, G, and H
are translations of f, g, and h, as shown in figure 8.33.
Now prove the following:
(a) (F ∘ G)(x) = H(x)
(b) (f ∘ g)′(a) = f′(g(a))g′(a) (Hint: apply the special case of the chain
rule stated above to H′(0).)
(The two diagrams in figures 8.32 and 8.33 were generated using the
formulas g(x) = 1 + x2 and a = 1. Find the values of f′(2) g′(1)
and (f ∘ g)′ (1).)

FIGURE 8.32. A proof of the chain rule

FIGURE 8.33. A proof of the chain rule

8.48. Use the chain rule (formula (8.27)) to find in each case below.

(a) y = 5u, u = x2
(b) y = u2, u = 5x
(c) y = cos(u), u = πx
 (d) y = sin(u), u = 3x
(e) y = u2, u = x + π
(f) y = u2, u = cos(x)

8.49. Use the chain rule to find in each case below.

(a) y = 5u, u = sin(x)

(b) y = sin(u), u = 5x
(c) y = cos(u), u = 2x
(d) y = sin(u), u = 3x + π
(e) y = u2, u = cos(x)
(f) y = u2, u = tan(x)
8.50. Use the chain rule to find f′(x) for each function f(x).
(a) f(x) = (1 + x)9
(b) f(x) = (1 − x)9
(c) f(x) = (1 + x2)8
(d) f(x) = (1 + x + x2)8
(e) f(x) = (x3)4
(f) f(x) = (x8)9
(g) f(x) = (sin(x))3
(h) f(x) = sin3(x)
(i) f(x) = cos6(x)
(j) f(x) = (cos2(x))3
(k) f(x) = cos(x2)
(l) f(x) = sin(x + π)
 (m) f(x) = cos2(x + π)
(n) f(x) = cos(πx)
(o) f(x) = cos(π2x2)
(p) f(x) = cos(sin(x))
(q) f(x) = sin(sin(x))
8.51. Use the chain rule to compute f′(1) for each function f.
(a) f(x) = (1 + x)9
(b) f(x) = (1 + t2)8
(c) f(u) = sin(πu)
(d) f(u) = cos6(πω)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

(k)

(l)

8.52. Compute the derivative of each function.

(a) f(x) = (1 + sin(x))9
 (b) g(u) = tan(πu2)

(c)

(d)
(e)

(f)

(g) f(x) = (1+sin(x))9 cos2 x

(h) g(u) = tan(πu2)cos(πu)

(i)

8.53. Compute f′(x) for each function f(x).

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

8.54. Suppose that h(x) = f(g(x)) and

 g(2) = 4, g′(2) = 4, f(4) = 1, f′(4) = −1 and f′(2) = 0.
Use the chain rule to find h′(2).
(Hint: some of the given information is dummy information.)
8.55. Suppose that F(x) = f(g(h(x))) and

h(0) = 1, h′(0) = 2, g(1) = 1, g′(1) = −3, f(4) = 1, f(1) = 0 and f′(1) = 2.

Use the chain rule to find f′(0).
(Hint: some of the given information is dummy information.)
8.56. Find all points on the graphs of the following equations at which the
tangent line is horizontal. (Hint: there are infinitely many points in each
case.)
(a) y = cos(2x) + sin(2x)
(b) y = x + sin(2x)

(c)

(d)

8.57. Use formula (8.29) to find for each of the following vector-valued
functions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

(h)
 (i)

8.58. Plot the trajectory of each vector-valued function in the previous exercise
and plot the tangent vector corresponding to a few values of t.
8.59. Use formula (8.36) to compute f′(x) for the following functions f(t).
(a) f(t) = exp(2t)
(b) f(t) = e5t
(c) f(t) = e−3t
(d) f(t) = e3t + e−3t
(e) f(t) = e3t − e−3t

(e)

8.60. Use formula (8.37) to compute f′(u) for the following functions f(u).
(a) f(u) = exp(u2)
2
(b) f(u) = eu
(c) f(u) = eusin(u)
(d) f(u) = e1+u + e1−u
2
(e) f(u) = e1u + e1u

(f)

8.61. Prove the following generalization of the product rule to compute the
derivative of a product of three functions:

8.62. Use formula (8.50) to compute f′(x) for the following functions f(x).
(a) f(x) (1 + x)(2 + x2)(3 + x3)
 (b) f(x) = xsin(x)exp(x)
(c) f(x) = (1 + x)(2 + x2)ex
(d) f(x) (1 + x)sin(x)ex
(e)
(f)

8.63. Use formula (8.38) to compute f′(w) for the following functions f(w).
(a) f(w) = 6w
(b) f(w) = 2w + 3w
3 2
(c) f(w) = 2w + 3w
(d) f(w) = 6sin(w)+cos(w)
(e) f(w) = 2sin(w) + 3cos(w)
(f) f(w) = sin(2w)cos(3w)

(g)

8.64. Compute the derivative of f(x) = 2x3x in two different ways: (i) apply the
product rule and then use the laws for logarithms to simplify the answer,
(ii) write the expression for f(x) as a single exponent and then take the
derivative. Are your answers the same?

8.65. (a) Check that is a solution of the differential equation y′(t)

+ 2ty(t) = t.

(b) Check that is a solution of the differential equation y′(t) =

t2y2.
(c) Check that y(t) = 1 + t + 2et is a solution of the differential equation
y′(t) = y − t.
(d) Check that y(t) = ct − 1 − ln |t|,
where c is any constant, is a solution of the differential equation y =
 ty′(t) − ln |t|.
8.66. Use formulas (8.45) and (8.46) to compute the following derivatives.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

(k)

(l)

8.67. Use formulas (8.48) to compute the following derivatives.

(a)

(b)
 (c)

(d)

(e)

8.68. One hundred meters directly above ground level of an airport tower, a
helicopter and an airplane start flying due east. If the airplane travels four
times faster than the helicopter, what is the greatest angle of sight between
the two aircraft from the ground level of the tower?
8.69. At what point on the positive x-axis does the line-segment joining (0,2) to
(2,3) subtend the maximum angle? Verify that you have found the
maximum.
 CHAPTER 9

EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

9.1 INTRODUCTION

In Euclidean geometry, theorems are proved by means of a process of deductive
reasoning. This means that a conclusion (the theorem) is reached by stringing
together observations based on certain given “facts,” which might include
definitions, axioms, postulates, or previously proven theorems.
The first systematic and comprehensive compilation of geometry theorems
and constructions was made by the Greek Mathematician Euclid in about 300
BC. His work, called the “Elements,” formed the basis for more than two
thousand years for the study called “Euclidean geometry.”
Euclid’s geometry was based on discoveries made by the Greek geometers
who lived before him, including Pythagoras and Plato. It was Plato, in particular,
who emphasized the method of constructing diagrams and proving theorems
using a compass and straightedge. Plato decreed that, for a construction to be
acceptable, the straightedge should not be marked and the compass should not be
used to transfer distances.
The Elements, in turn, were taken as a starting point by geometers who
followed Euclid. Archimedes, for example, derived the formula πr2 for the area
of a disk with radius r. The Geometer Pappus, of Alexandria, who lived at the
beginning of the fourth century AD (near the end of the classical period), wrote a
collection of geometry books that also contained his own theorems on touching
circles and many other discoveries.
The content of Euclid’s Elements is outlined in section 9.2. This is followed
in section 9.3 by a discussion of terminology relating to lines, angles, polygons,
and circles. As preparation for understanding proofs in geometry, some basic
reasoning skills in geometry are explained in section 9.4. A selection of
elementary theorems from the Elements is stated and proved in sections 9.5 and
9.6, along with many examples of applications of the theorems.
Section 9.7 contains five interesting examples where the theorems of
sections 9.5 and 9.6 can be applied: the first involves a construction of the
golden ratio using a 3-4-5 right triangle; the second is a geometric illustration of
the classical means; the third is a proof of the fact that the circum-center,
centroid, and ortho-center of any triangle are collinear; the fourth is a
demonstration of a compass and straightedge construction of a common tangent
line to two circles; and the fifth example is a second proof of Ptolemy’s theorem
(theorem 9.6.8(a)) as a demonstration of the unification of algebra, trigonometry,
and geometry.

9.2 EUCLID’S ELEMENTS

We have mentioned the importance of Euclid’s Elements in the development of
geometry. Therefore, we will begin with a discussion of the Elements as a
starting point for learning geometry. The Elements contains 13 books that mostly
deal with geometry. There are a few books on number theory and the theory of
ratio and proportion.
In book 1, Euclid begins with the definitions of the basic objects of
geometry, such as points, straight lines, angles, triangles, quadrilaterals, and
parallel lines. Following these definitions, he states five postulates. The first
three postulates describe basic constructions that can always be carried out in
geometry: (i) a straight line can be drawn from any point to another; (ii) a finite
line can be produced continuously in a straight line (i.e., any straight line can be
made longer); (iii) a circle can be drawn with any center and radius. The fourth
postulate states that all right angles are equal to one another (perhaps Euclid
thought this was not obvious!). The fifth is often called the “parallel postulate”
because it states “that, if a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the
interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines,
if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the angles are less than two
right angles.” In terminology, this says that if cointerior angles formed by two
straight lines and a transversal add up to less than 180°, then the two straight
lines are not parallel; that is, they will intersect.
A postulate is a synthetic proposition, the contradiction of which, though
difficult to imagine, nevertheless remains conceivable. For this reason, the
parallel postulate was the subject of intense investigation until the nineteenth
century because geometers did not know if it could be proved (with assumption
of the first four postulates) or if Euclid was correct in stating it as a separate
postulate. In the first half of the nineteenth century, the Russian Mathematician
Nicolai Lobachevsky and the Hungarian Mathematician János Bolyai developed
a detailed geometric theory without the assumption of the parallel postulate.
(That is, the parallel postulate is not a consequence of the other postulates.) By
the end of the nineteenth century, mathematicians had constructed some planar
models of a “non-Euclidean” or “hyperbolic” geometry with the aid of certain
three-dimensional methods of projection, in which the parallel postulate failed.
After the statements of the five postulates, Euclid states five “common
notions”: (i) things that are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another;
(ii) if equals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal; (iii) if equals are
subtracted from equals, then the remainders are equal; (iv) things that coincide
with one another are equal to one another; and (v) the whole is greater than the
part. These statements can be called axioms because they are the basis for
reasoning in all of Euclid’s proofs.
The remainder of book 1, in the form of 48 propositions, is devoted to the
demonstration of elaborate constructions with a compass and a straightedge
(e.g., the construction of an equilateral triangle on a line segment) and
statements and proofs of basic theorems regarding parallel lines, triangles
(including the Pythagorean Theorem for right triangles), and parallelograms. We
list many of these theorems in section 9.5.

9.3 TERMINOLOGY

Terminology should be learned very well, so there can never be any doubt about
the meaning of the statement of a problem. We will introduce terminology
relating to lines, angles, polygons, and circles. The most important terminology
will be introduced in numbered definitions.

9.3.1 Lines, Angles, and Polygons

When we refer to a “line” or “line segment,” we will always mean a “straight
line” that is extended as far as it needs to be in order for the continuing
statements to make sense.
We will refer to a line segment by means of labels (usually uppercase letters)
that mark the two end points.
In figure 9.1, AB and CB are line segments that meet at B, forming an angle
with vertex at B. Notation for the angle is ∠ABC, ∠B, A C, or . If more than
one angle is formed at some point in a diagram, then the angles can be
numbered, as we will see in many diagrams below.

FIGURE 9.1. An angle.

DEFINITION 9.3.1. If two straight lines intersect so that the angles formed at the
point of intersection are all equal, then they are all right angles, and we say that
the lines are perpendicular to one another.
In figure 9.2, AB is perpendicular to CD, so we write AB ⊥ CD. A right
angle can be indicated using the square symbol, as shown in figure 9.2.
Angles are commonly measured in degrees, with the measurement for a right
angle being 90 degrees (notation: 90°).

DEFINITION 9.3.2. An acute angle is less than 90°. An obtuse angle is greater than
90° but less than 180°. A straight angle is equal to 180°. A reflex angle is greater
than 180° but less than 360°. A revolution is equal to 360°.

DEFINITION 9.3.3. A triangle is formed when three lines meet in such a way that
there are exactly three distinct intersection points called vertices.

FIGURE 9.2. A right angle.

In figure 9.3, three line segments AB, AC, and BC form triangle ABC
(notation: ΔABC). The angles are called the interior angles
(or angles) of ΔABC.

DEFINITION 9.3.4. An exterior angle of a triangle is formed when a side of a

triangle is produced (extended). It is the angle between the produced segment
and the adjacent side of the triangle.
In figure 9.3, AC is produced to E and BC is produced to D. are
exterior angles of ΔABC, but is not an exterior angle of ΔABC.

FIGURE 9.3. A triangle with exterior angles.

DEFINITION 9.3.5. If two angles add up to 90°, they are said to be complementary
angles. If two angles add up to 180°, they are said to be supplementary angles.
A line that intersects two other specified lines is called a transversal.

FIGURE 9.4. Parallel lines with a transversal.

In figure 9.4 the lines GH and BD (which might or might not be parallel) are
intersected by the transversal EF. The angles are a pair of alternate
angles because they lie either side of the transversal and the lines between GH
and BD. (There is one other pair of alternate angles in the diagram.) Angles
are a pair of corresponding angles because they are formed between
the transversal and the lines GH and BD in the same way. (There are three other
pairs of corresponding angles in the diagram.) The angles are a pair
of cointerior angles because they lie on the same side of the transversal and the
lines between GH and BD. (There is one other pair of cointerior angles in the
diagram.)

DEFINITION 9.3.6. Two angles situated at the same vertex along a common side
are referred to as adjacent angles. When two straight lines intersect, the two
nonadjacent angles are called vertically opposite angles.
In figure 9.4 are adjacent (e.g., also ) and
are vertically opposite (e.g., also for example). In figure 9.3,
are vertically opposite and are adjacent.

DEFINITION 9.3.7. Parallel lines in the plane are lines that do not intersect no
matter how far they are extended.
We use the “||” symbol for parallel lines. For example, in figure 9.4, if BD
and GH are parallel lines, then we write BD || GH.
We now present some of the terminology relating to triangles and polygons.
If two sides of a triangle (or polygon) have the same length, then, for brevity,
we will refer to them as “equal sides.” For example, an equilateral triangle has
three equal sides, an isosceles triangle has two equal sides, and a scalene
triangle has no equal sides.
An acute triangle has three acute angles, a right triangle has one angle equal
to 90°, and an obtuse triangle has one obtuse angle. In a right triangle, the side
opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse.
Any side of a triangle (or another geometric figure) can be taken to be the
base of the triangle (or geometric figure). An altitude of a triangle is the vertical
(perpendicular) distance from the base of the triangle to its highest point. A
median of a triangle is a line from any vertex of the triangle to the midpoint of
the opposite side.
A triangle is a polygon with three sides (or edges). In general, a polygon has
many (three or more) sides. In particular, a quadrilateral has four sides, a
pentagon has five sides, a hexagon has six sides, and an octagon has eight sides.
A regular polygon is a polygon with all sides equal in length and equal angles at
all the vertices. Figure 9.5 shows a regular triangle (an equilateral triangle), a
quadrilateral (a square), a pentagon, and a hexagon. A diagonal of a polygon is a
line segment joining any two nonadjacent vertices.

FIGURE 9.5. Regular polygons.

A rectangle is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides equal, and all
angles equal to right angles. A rhombus is a quadrilateral with all sides equal,
but the angles can be any size. A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent
sides equal. A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides
parallel. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides
parallel, see figure 9.6.

FIGURE 9.6. Special quadrilaterals.

DEFINITION 9.3.8. A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral with all four vertices

on the circumference of the same circle.
See figure 9.39 for an illustration of a cyclic quadrilateral.

DEFINITION 9.3.9. Congruent triangles (or polygons) are triangles (or polygons)
that are equal in all respects. Similar triangles (or polygons) are scaled copies of
each other; that is, they can be larger or smaller, but the angles do not change.
 We use the notation ΔABC ≡ ΔDEF if the triangles ΔABC and ΔDEF are
congruent, and we use the notation ΔABC ||| ΔDEF if they are similar.

9.3.2 Circles
DEFINITION 9.3.10. The circumference of a circle is the distance around it. A
diameter of a circle is a line passing through its center and joining two opposite
points. A radius of a circle is a line joining its center with any point on the circle
(plural: radii). A chord is a line joining any two points of the circle. A tangent
line to a circle is a straight line that touches it at exactly one point. A secant is a
line drawn from a point outside the circle that cuts it at two different points.
We say that two circles are touching if they intersect at a single point (see
figure 9.46).
In the first diagram in figure 9.7, AB is a diameter of the circle, OT is a
radius, MN is a chord, QTR is a tangent line, and CDEQ is a secant line. In the
second diagram, the chord JK divides the circle into a major segment and a
minor segment of JK. The points J and K divide the circumference of the circle
into a major arc JK and a minor arc JK.

FIGURE 9.7. Terminology for a circle.

Concentric circles are circles that have the same center but different radii.
Points are concyclic if and only if they lie on the same circle. A semicircle is
exactly half of a circle.
DEFINITION 9.3.11. To subtend means to stretch across or be opposite to.
Refer to figure 9.8. In the first diagram, the minor arc AB subtends an acute
angle Ô1 at the center of the circle and another acute angle Ĉ on the circle, while
the major arc AB subtends the reflex angle Ô2 at the center and the obtuse angle
on the circle. In the second diagram, the boundary of sector EQF is composed
of the two radii QE and QF and the minor arc EF.

FIGURE 9.8. Subtending an angle.

9.3.3 Other Important Terms

Our statements of theorems in geometry will make use of the precise
language that we introduce in the following paragraphs.
To intersect means to pass through or across another line or surface so as to
have one or more points in common; and to bisect means to divide into two
equal parts. Pairs of points are equidistant if they are equally distant from each
other.
To inscribe means to draw one figure within another figure so that the inner
touches the outer in as many points as possible. To circumscribe means to draw
one figure around another so as to touch as many points as possible.

DEFINITION 9.3.12. Three or more points are called collinear if they lie on the
same straight line. If three or more different lines pass through the same point,
then the lines are said to be concurrent.
Every triangle has unique inscribed and circumscribed circles. The center of
the inscribed circle is called the in-center, and it is the point of concurrency of
the bisectors of the angles of the triangle (see theorem 9.5.12(a) in section 9.5).
The center of the circumscribed circle is called the circum-center, and it is the
point of concurrency of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the triangle
(see theorem 9.5.12(b)). The centroid of a triangle is the point of concurrency of
the medians of the triangle (see theorem 9.5.12(c)). The ortho-center of a
triangle is the point of concurrency of the altitudes of the triangle (see theorem
9.5.12(e)).
A theorem is any statement or rule that can be proved to be true by reasoning
from the definitions, axioms, and postulates. Each theorem, once proved,
becomes a statement that can be accepted without proof in the proofs of
subsequent theorems.
A corollary is something proved by inference from something else already
proven, that is, a natural consequence or a result. A converse is a statement that
is turned around; for example, that which is “given” in a theorem becomes the
“required to prove” in its converse and is “required to prove” in the theorem
becomes the “given” in its converse. We give the following example of a
theorem and its converse:

EXAMPLE 9.3.1. If a transversal cuts two parallel lines, then the corresponding
angles are equal (this is a theorem); conversely, when a transversal cuts two
other lines, then these two lines are parallel if a pair of corresponding angles is
equal (this is the converse of the theorem). For example, in figure 9.9, if it is
given (as marked with arrows in the diagram on the left) that AB ‖ CD then we
can conclude from the theorem that . On the other hand, if it is given (as
marked with arcs in the diagram on the right) that then, by the converse
of the theorem, we can conclude that AB ‖ CD.

FIGURE 9.9. A theorem and its converse.

9.4 BASIC PROBLEM SOLVING IN GEOMETRY

Some basic observations and methods for proving theorems in geometry need to
be emphasized. In this section, we give examples of elementary deductions that
frequently form part of the longer proofs of more complicated problems.

EXAMPLE 9.4.1. As shown in the first diagram in figure 9.10, the size of an angle
can be computed if it is part of a larger angle.

A basic principle in mathematics is that when equals are subtracted from

equals, the differences are equal. Here are the two examples in which this
principle is applied to angles.

EXAMPLE 9.4.2. In the second diagram in figure 9.10, BÂE = DÂC, that is, Â1 +
Â2 = Â2 + Â3. Now Â2 can be subtracted from both sides to deduce that Â1 = Â3.

FIGURE 9.10. Parts of angles.

A good way to get used to the process of deductive reasoning in geometry is

to tabulate the steps of a proof in a two-column format with each statement in
the chain of reasoning given in the left column of the table, and the
corresponding reason for the statement alongside it in the right column. The
symbol “∴” is used as an abbreviation for “therefore.”

EXAMPLE 9.4.3. In figure 9.11, BÂC = 90° and AD ⊥ BC. We prove, by means
of the steps in table 9.1, that = Â2 = and Â1 = Ĉ. (We need theorem 9.5.5(c),
which states that the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°.)
TABLE 9.1.
 FIGURE 9.11. The duplication principle.

If angles are duplicated in a diagram, then it is useful to know the

duplication principle, which can be illustrated as follows: if • + • + + =180°, for
example, then • + * = 90°. The next two examples demonstrate this.

EXAMPLE 9.4.4. In the first diagram in figure 9.12, AFE is a straight line, with
We prove, by means of the steps in table 9.2, that
TABLE 9.2.
EXAMPLE 9.4.5. In the second diagram in figure 9.12, AB∥CD, KF bisects
and KG bisects FĜD. We prove, by means of the steps in Table 9.3, that
(in the first line of the table, we use part (iii) of theorem 9.5.3(a).)
TABLE 9.3.
 FIGURE 9.12. Diagram for examples 9.4.4 and 9.4.5.

Problems involving ratio and proportion of line segments are made easier by
assigning lengths to the line segments, as we demonstrate in the next example.

EXAMPLE 9.4.6. If B is a point on the line segment AC below such that 2|AB| =
3|BC|, write |AC| in terms of |AB|.

Answer: If we divide both sides of the equation by 2|BC|, then Now

we let |AB| = 3k units and |BC| = 2k units, as shown below.

Because |AC| = |AB| + |BC| = 3k + 2k = 5k units, we have which

simplifies to Consequently,

When two triangles overlap, it often helps to separate them. Then, one
immediately sees that a pair of equal angles emerges, namely, their common
angle.

EXAMPLE 9.4.7. In figure 9.13 we want to prove that ΔACD ||| ΔDCB. (It is given
that ) If the overlapping triangles are separated (as shown in figure 9.14),
then it is clear that two pairs of angles are equal and, therefore, the angle at D in
the triangle on the left is equal to the angle at B in the triangle on the right. Thus,
the triangles are similar.

FIGURE 9.13. Similar triangles.

FIGURE 9.14. Separated similar triangles.

9.5 ELEMENTARY THEOREMS RELATING TO LINES AND

POLYGONS

In this section, we will present sixteen theorems relating to lines and polygons
(including triangles and certain types of quadrilaterals). Most of them can be
found in book 1 of the Elements, but we do not follow Euclid’s sequence of
theorems and proofs.
The theorems can be categorized as statements about the relationships of
certain angles in a geometric figure (e.g., the sum of the angles in a triangle is
180°), relationships involving the lengths of line segments in a geometric figure
(e.g., the Pythagorean Theorem), or statements relating to proportions or
geometric divisions (e.g., the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other).
There are also theorems that determine when a polygon can be classified as a
certain type (e.g., if the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram). Lastly, there are theorems (called incidence
theorems) that determine when lines are concurrent (e.g., the medians of a
triangle are concurrent).
It is not our intention to give complete proofs of all the theorems. It will
suffice, in most cases, to state briefly the reason for the truth of the theorem or to
outline the proof of the theorem with the help of a diagram. Commentary and
examples of applications of the theorems are included to help with the
familiarization of the theorems. The theorems are restated in Appendix for ease
of reference.

9.5.1 Theorems about Angles

THEOREM 9.5.1.
(a) If two straight lines intersect, then the sum of any pair of adjacent
angles is 180°.
(b) (Converse) If the sum of any pair of adjacent angles is 180°, then
their noncommon sides lie on the same line.

THEOREM 9.5.1(a) is clearly true if the adjacent angles are equal to each other
because each angle is then a right angle (the definition of a right angle), and two
right angles add up to 180°. If the adjacent angles are not equal, then an
additional line can be drawn through the common vertex of the angles so that a
right angle is formed. It is then clear that the sum of the two original adjacent
angles is the same as the sum of three adjacent angles, which is 180°.
A mathematical statement can sometimes be proved by contradiction. This
means that the negation of the statement is assumed to be true and, by the
process of deduction, an obviously false statement is reached. Thus, the negation
of the statement has to be discarded and the only possibility that remains is for
the statement to be true. For example, the statement of theorem 9.5.1(b) can be
proved by contradiction: if the noncommon sides do not lie on a line, then one of
them can be extended through the common vertex forming a new (nonzero)
angle with the other noncommon side. This results in the contradiction that the
two original angles that sum to 180°, together with the new angle, also sum to
180°, by theorem 9.5.1(a). (Draw a diagram to convince yourself!)

THEOREM 9.5.2. If two lines intersect, then the vertically opposite angles are
equal.
This can be proved using the method explained in example 9.4.2.

THEOREM 9.5.3.
(a) (i) If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then pairs of
 corresponding angles are equal to one another.
(ii) If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then pairs of
alternate angles are equal to one another.
(iii) If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then pairs of
cointerior angles are supplementary.
(b) (i) (Converse) If two lines are intersected by a transversal such that
two corresponding angles are equal, then the two lines are
parallel.
(ii) (Converse) If two lines are intersected by a transversal such
that two alternate angles are equal, then the two lines are parallel.
(iii) (Converse) If two lines are intersected by a transversal such
that two cointerior angles are supplementary, then the two lines are
parallel.
The statements of theorem 9.5.3(a) and (b) are a consequence of Euclid’s
parallel postulate and theorems 9.5.1 and 9.5.2. Indeed, Euclid’s parallel
postulate states that, if cointerior angles add up to less than 180°, then the lines
are not parallel. It is also clear that, if cointerior angles add up to more than
180°, then the cointerior angles that are adjacent to them will add up to less than
180° and so, again, we conclude that the lines are not parallel. Therefore, it must
be the case that, if two lines are parallel, then the pairs of cointerior angles are
supplementary.

THEOREM 9.5.4. Lines that are parallel to the same line are parallel to each
other.
This can be proved by constructing a transversal that intersects all three
parallel lines and applying theorem 9.5.3.

THEOREM 9.5.5.
(a) The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the interior
opposite angles.
(b) The exterior angle of a triangle is greater than either of the interior
opposite angles.
(c) The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°.
 FIGURE 9.15. The exterior angle is equal to the sum of the interior opposite angles.

Theorem 9.5.5(b) is as a consequence of theorem 9.5.5(a). The reason for

stating theorem 9.5.5(b) separately is that it is a theorem in non-Euclidean
geometry, while theorem 9.5.5(a) is not in non-Euclidean geometry. For the
proofs of theorem 9.5.5(a) and (b), refer to figure 9.15, in which the line BE has
been constructed parallel to the side AC of ΔABC. The angles marked with a
bullet are equal because they form a pair of alternate angles with respect to the
parallel lines, and the angles marked with an asterisk are equal because they
form a pair of corresponding angles with respect to the parallel lines. It follows
that the exterior angle of ΔABC is equal to the sum of the interior
opposite angles  and Ĉ.
Theorem 9.5.5(c) can be proved by constructing a line parallel to any side of
a triangle and through the vertex opposite that side. This creates two pairs of
alternate angles with the angles at the other two vertices of the triangle. It can
then be deduced that the sum of the angles of the triangle is equal to the sum of
three angles along the constructed line that add up to 180°. (Draw a diagram!)

EXAMPLE 9.5.1. Refer to figure 9.16. Suppose that Use theorem 9.5.5(a)
to prove that
Answer: Theorem 9.5.5(a) asserts that, because is exterior to ΔABD,
Similarly, is exterior to ΔBCD, so Therefore,
and so we have proved that
 FIGURE 9.16. Diagram for example 9.5.1.

9.5.2 Theorems about Triangles

We say that two triangles are congruent if they are identical to each other.
This can mean, for example, that one triangle is the mirror image, or reflection,
of the other. Figure 9.17 shows a triangle T1 with vertices A, B, and C, together
with its mirror images T2, T3, and T4 with respect to its sides AB, BC, and AC,
respectively. Note that the triangle T3 can be rotated in a clockwise direction
around the vertex B so that it matches the triangle T2 exactly. In the same way,
any one of the triangles T2, T3, or T4 can be rotated to match any one of the
others. The triangle T5 is a copy of the triangle T4. All of these triangles are
congruent to each other. (They are identical triangles.)
 FIGURE 9.17. Congruent triangles.

If two triangles are congruent, then their vertices can be labeled A, B, C and
D, E, F, for example, so that in ΔABC the angle at A is the same as the angle at
D in ΔDEF, the angle at B is the same as the angle at E, and the angle at C is the
same as the angle at F. Similarly, the side AB in ΔABC has the same length as
side DE in ΔDEF, the side AC as side DF, and the side BC as side EF. In
summary, the six parts of ΔABC are equal to the six parts of ΔDEF.
In most situations, it is enough to know that two triangles have three pairs of
parts equal to each other in order to conclude that the two triangles are
congruent. Theorem 9.5.6 states all possible cases in which it can be concluded
that triangles are congruent if three pairs of parts are the same. These are called
the rules for congruence of triangles. It is helpful to refer to them by their
abbreviations in parentheses.

THEOREM 9.5.6.
(a) If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are, respectively,
equal to two sides and the included angle of another triangle, then
the two triangles are congruent (s∠s).
(b) If two angles and a side of one triangle are, respectively, equal to
two angles and the corresponding side of another triangle, then the
triangles are congruent (∠∠s).
(c) If three sides of one triangle are equal to three sides of another
triangle, then the triangles are congruent (sss).
(d) If, in two right triangles, the hypotenuse and one side of the one
 are, respectively, equal to the hypotenuse and one side of the other,
then the triangles are congruent (⊥hs).
Two triangles need not be congruent if two pairs of sides are the same, but
the angles that are the same are not the included angles (unless the angles that
are the same are right angles (which is the case ⊥hs). A detailed explanation of
this was given in section 4.13.2. It will be worthwhile to examine figure 4.33.

EXAMPLE 9.5.2. In figure 9.18, we can conclude, in the first diagram, that ΔABC
ΔDEF by the s∠s criterion because the sides AB and DE are marked as parallel
and equal in length, and so the alternate angles at B and E are equal, and the
corresponding sides BC and EF are also shown to be equal in length. In the
second diagram, we can conclude that ΔABC ≡ ΔCDA by the ⊥hs criterion
because ΔABC and ΔCDA have the common side AC, and it is given that the
hypotenuse of ΔABC equals the hypotenuse of ΔCDA.

FIGURE 9.18. Examples of congruent triangles.

THEOREM 9.5.7.
(a) The angles opposite the equal sides of an isosceles triangle are
equal.
(b) (Converse) If two angles of a triangle are equal, then the sides
opposite them are equal.
The proof of theorem 9.5.7(a) requires the construction of congruent
triangles; for example, if ΔABC is isosceles because |AB| = |AC|, then a line can
be drawn from the vertex A to a point D on the base BC so that the angle at A is
bisected. This creates two congruent triangles ΔBAD and ΔCDA by the s∠s
criterion. Thus, we can conclude that in ΔABC the angle at B equals the angle at
C. (Draw a diagram!) The proof of theorem 9.5.7(b), that is, the converse of
theorem 9.5.7(a), is almost identical, and so is left as an exercise.

REMARK 9.5.1. It is a corollary of theorem 9.5.7(a) that an equilateral triangle

has all angles equal to 60°, and it is a corollary of theorem 9.5.7(b) that, if all
angles of a triangle equal 60°, then the triangle is an equilateral triangle.

EXAMPLE 9.5.3. We will demonstrate, by means of figure 9.19, that an angle can
be trisected using a marked ruler (or straightedge). Suppose that the angle to be
trisected is BÔD, and B and D are points on a circle centered at O. A ruler, on
which the radius of the circle is marked, is aligned from B to a point A (which is
collinear with D and O) in such a way that |AC| is a radius of the circle and C is a
point of the circle. If O and C are joined, then triangle ΔACO is isosceles and,
therefore, OĈB = 2OÂC. Furthermore, ΔOCB is also isosceles (OB is another
radius) and, therefore, Now, because DÔB is an exterior angle to
ΔOAB, we have

We thus conclude that a line drawn from O parallel to AB will trisect BÔD.

FIGURE 9.19. Trisecting an angle using a marked ruler.

In 1837, it was proved by the French Mathematician Pierre Wantzel that it is

generally impossible to trisect and angle using only a compass and an unmarked
straightedge. This put an end to the attempts by geometers for thousands of years
to find a way to do it!
A fundamental theorem in Euclidean geometry is the Pythagorean Theorem
(theorem 9.5.8). There are many different and surprising ways to prove it. In this
chapter, we present four different proofs.

THEOREM 9.5.8.
 (a) The square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is
equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides
(the Pythagorean Theorem).
(b) (Converse) If the square of the length of one side of a triangle is
equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides,
then the angle opposite the first side is a right angle.
Our first proof of theorem 9.5.8(a) is a visual proof involving the
rearrangement of four identical copies of the same right triangle, as shown in
figure 9.20.

FIGURE 9.20. A proof of the Pythagorean Theorem.

Theorem 9.5.8(b), the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem, is the final

proposition of book 1 of Euclid’s Elements. Here is Euclid’s proof: in ΔABC in
figure 9.21, let the square of the side BC equals the sum of the squares of the
sides BA and AC. It will now be demonstrated that BÂC is a right angle. Draw
AD from the point A at right angles to the line AC so that |AD| = |BA| and join D
to C. (Note that we cannot assume that B, A, and D are collinear.) Then, the sum
of the squares on AD and AC equals the square on CD, by theorem 9.5.8(a).
What’s more, because the square on AD equals the square on AB, and AC is a
common side, it follows from the hypothesis that the squares on CD and CB are
the same. In this way, we conclude that |CD| = |CB|. The triangles ACD and ACB
are now seen to be congruent by the sss condition and, therefore, BÂC must be a
right angle.
 FIGURE 9.21. The converse of the Pythagorean theorem.

9.5.3 Parallelograms and Parallel Lines

THEOREM 9.5.9.
(a) The opposite sides of a parallelogram have the same length.
(b) (Converse) If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral have the same
length, it is a parallelogram.
(c) The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
(d) (Converse) If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are equal, then
it is a parallelogram.
(e) The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
(f) (Converse) If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other,
then it is a parallelogram.
(g) If both members of one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are
parallel and have the same length, it is a parallelogram.
(h) The diagonals of a rectangle have the same length.
(i) The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles and
bisect the angles of the rhombus.

Theorem 9.5.9(a) and (c) can be proved by joining a pair of opposite vertices of
a parallelogram with a diagonal line to create a pair of triangles. The two pairs of
alternate angles formed in this way are equal, and so the triangles are congruent
by the ∠∠s criterion. Thus, both members of a pair of opposite angles of the
parallelogram are equal, and both members of a pair of opposite sides are equal.
Similarly, the members of the other pairs of opposite angles and opposite sides
are equal. The proof of theorem 9.5.9(e) is also a consequence of the formation
of congruent triangles, when both diagonals are drawn. The proofs of the
converse statements, that is, theorem 9.5.9(b), (d), (f), and (g), are left as
exercises. Theorem 9.5.9(h) and (i) are two special cases that can be verified
easily.

EXAMPLE 9.5.4. In figure 9.22, the line AF is a median of both ΔABC and ΔADH
because the diagonals of the parallelogram BDCH bisect each other at F.

FIGURE 9.22. Diagram for Example 9.5.4.

THEOREM 9.5.10.
(a) The area of a parallelogram is bisected by each diagonal.
(b) A parallelogram and a rectangle on the same base and between the
same parallels have equal areas.
(c) The area of a triangle is equal to one-half the area of a
parallelogram on the same base and between the same parallels.
A diagonal of a parallelogram divides the parallelogram into two congruent
triangles, and so each of these triangles is half the area of the parallelogram (this
proves theorem 9.5.10(a)).
If a pair of parallel lines is drawn through a pair of opposite sides of a
rectangle and, if one of these sides of the rectangle is fixed as the base of the
rectangle, then we can distort the rectangle into a parallelogram by sliding the
side opposite the base of the rectangle along the other parallel line. This is called
a shear deformation of the rectangle. The height of any parallelogram obtained
by a shear deformation of a rectangle, as described above, is the (shortest)
distance between the parallel lines. Because the area of a parallelogram is
defined as the length of the base times the height of the parallelogram, shearing a
parallelogram does not change its area. This is exactly the statement of theorem
9.5.10(b).
Similarly, any side of a triangle can be taken as the base of the triangle and a
line parallel to the base can be drawn through the vertex that is opposite the base
so that the height of the triangle is the distance between the parallel lines. If the
opposite vertex is allowed to slide along the parallel line, the result is a shear
deformation of the triangle that keeps the area of the triangle unchanged (this
proves theorem 9.5.10(c)).

EXAMPLE 9.5.5. In figure 9.23, the points A, B, C, and D are on a line parallel to
a line containing the points E and F. The vertex A of ΔAEF can slide to any of
the points B, C, or D, and the corresponding triangles, that is, ΔBEF, ΔCEF, and
ΔDEF are shear deformations of ΔAEF that have the same area as ΔAEF.

FIGURE 9.23. Shear deformation of a triangle.

The next example is another proof of the Pythagorean Theorem, which

employs sheared triangles.

EXAMPLE 9.5.6. In figure 9.24, the right triangle ΔABC has the squares ADEC,
BCIH, and ABGH situated on its sides AC, BC, and AB, respectively. What needs
to be shown is that the areas of the smaller two squares, that is, the first two
squares, add up to the area of the largest square, that is, the third square. We start
with a shear transformation of ΔACD to ΔABD by sliding the vertex C along the
line EB (note that AD and BE are parallel lines). Now ΔADB is congruent to
ΔACF (rotate ΔADB around the point A onto ΔACF) and ΔACF can be
transformed by a shear to ΔAJF by sliding vertex C along the dotted line that has
been inserted parallel to AF. The end result is that the dark-shaded areas are
equal and, for the same reason, the light-shaded areas are equal. This proves the
Pythagorean Theorem.

FIGURE 9.24. A proof of the Pythagorean Theorem.

Here is another theorem involving parallel lines and triangles.

THEOREM 9.5.11.
(a) If three or more parallel lines cut off equal line segments on one
transversal, then they cut off equal line segments on any other
transversal.
(b) If a line drawn parallel to the base of a triangle bisects one of the
sides of the triangle, then it bisects the third side of the triangle.
(c) The line segment joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side and equal to half the third side (this is
 known as the midpoint theorem).
We will use the properties of parallelograms to prove theorem 9.5.11(a).
Figure 9.25 shows three parallel lines cut by transversals AC and DF. We need
to prove that, if |AB| = |BC|, then |DE| = |EF|. The method of the proof is to
create parallelograms ABXD and BCYE by constructing the lines DX and EY
parallel to AC, as shown. We can conclude that the angles marked with a bullet
are equal and the angles marked with asterisks are equal (corresponding angles),
and the segments DX, AB, BC, and EY are equal (opposite sides of a
parallelogram). It follows that ΔDXE ≡ ΔEYF and so we conclude that |DE| =
|EF|.

FIGURE 9.25. Proof of theorem 9.5.11(a).

Theorem 9.5.11(b) follows immediately from theorem 9.5.11(a) once a third

parallel line is drawn through the vertex that is opposite the base of the triangle.
The proof of theorem 9.5.11(c) is left as an exercise.

9.5.4 Concurrency, Proportionality, and Similarity

THEOREM 9.5.12.
(a) The internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent,
and the point of concurrence is the in-center of the triangle.
(b) The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are
concurrent, and the point of concurrence is the circum-center of the
triangle.
(c) (i) The medians of a triangle are concurrent, and the point of
concurrence is the centroid of the triangle.
 (ii) Furthermore, the centroid is one-third of the distance from the
opposite side to the vertex along any median.
(d) The altitudes of a triangle are concurrent, and the point of
concurrence is the ortho-center of the triangle.

The proofs of theorem 9.5.12(a) and (b) are exercises at the end of this
chapter.
Theorem 9.5.12(c) can be proved by means of a clever construction: figure
9.26 shows two medians DA and EC of a triangle ABC. A third line, passing
through B and the intersection point P of the two medians meets AC at F. (We
will prove that FB is a median.) EG and DH are constructed, as shown, so that
they are each parallel to BF. Now in ΔAPB, EG is parallel to PB and bisects AB,
and so, by theorem 9.5.11(b), EG also bisects AP. Similarly, DH bisects CP. We
can now conclude, by the midpoint theorem (theorem 9.5.11(c)), that GH ∥ AC.
It is also a consequence of the midpoint theorem that ED ∥ AC. Thus, EGHD is a
parallelogram (both pairs of opposite sides are parallel) and the diagonals EH
and DG bisect each other (theorem 9.5.9(e)). This proves that |AG| = |GP| = |PD|
and |CH| = |HP| = |PE|. We have therefore established that any two medians of a
triangle trisect one another. Consequently, because FB trisects DA (it passes
through P), it is also a median; that is, the medians of a triangle are concurrent,
proving part (i). Evidently we have also proved part (ii).

FIGURE 9.26. The proof of theorem 9.5.12(c).

The proof of theorem 9.5.12(d) is left as an exercise.

Theorem 9.5.12(a)–(d) is illustrated by means of figures 9.27 and 9.28. The
in-center, circum-center, centroid, and ortho-center of a triangle ABC are located
at the intersection of the dotted lines.

FIGURE 9.27. The in-center and circum-center of a triangle.

FIGURE 9.28. The centroid and ortho-center of a triangle.

THEOREM 9.5.13.
(a) A straight line parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other
two sides proportionally.
(b) (Converse) If a line cuts two sides of a triangle so as to divide them
in the same ratio, then it is parallel to the third side.
 FIGURE 9.29. The proof of theorem 9.5.13(a).

Theorem 9.5.13(a) can be proved with the help of figure 9.29. A line DE is
drawn parallel to the side BC of ΔABC and we want to prove that it divides the
sides AB and AC of ΔABC proportionally; that is, we want to prove that
The first observation we make is that ΔBDE and ΔCDE have the same
area because they lie on the same base (DE) and between the same parallellines
(DE and BC). Also, in figure 9.29, the common altitude of triangles ADE and
BDE is EF, and the common altitude of triangles ADE and CDE is DG.
Therefore, we can write the following sequence of equations:

EXAMPLE 9.5.7. An application of theorem 9.5.13(a) is the following: suppose an

angle bisector is drawn from vertex A of a triangle ABC and meets the side BC at
D. We will prove that Refer to the first diagram in figure 9.30. If a
line is drawn from the vertex B parallel to AD, meeting CA extended at E, as
shown in the second diagram, then the angles marked at B and E are alternate
and corresponding angles, respectively, to the equal angles marked at A. The
triangle ABE is therefore isosceles, with |AB| = |AE| and, by theorem 9.5.13(a),
we have , which is what we wanted to prove.
 FIGURE 9.30. Diagram for Example 9.5.7.

The statement of theorem 9.5.13(a) can be expressed in a slightly different

way: if we add 1 to both sides of the equation (refer to figure 9.29) and
add the fractions on both sides, then which is equivalent to
This states that the ratio of the length of a side of the large triangle
ABC to the length of the side of the small triangle ADE is the same for two
different pairs of sides. We now prove that the same equality holds for the third
ratio of sides, namely the ratio
In figure 9.31, a line is drawn from E, parallel to the side AB, meeting the
side BC at the point K. By theorem 9.5.13(a), Now, because
BDEK is a parallelogram, |BK| = |DE|, and so Note that triangles
ΔABC and ΔADE are similar.

FIGURE 9.31. ΔABC is similar to ΔADE.

We have, therefore, proved the following theorem.

THEOREM 9.5.14.
(a) If two triangles are similar, then their sides are in proportion.
(b) (Converse) If the sides of two triangles are in proportion, then they
are similar triangles.
 Whenever we state that two triangles are similar, we label the vertices in the
order in which corresponding angles are equal. For instance, we write ΔEFG |||
ΔPGR to mean that the angle at E equals the angle at P, the angle at F equals the
angle at Q, and the angle at G equals the angle at R. Theorem 9.5.14(a) states
that the corresponding sides EF and PQ, EG and PR, and FG and QR are in the
same proportion, that is, we can write a set of equations as we did above:

When we write these ratios, any pair of letters we choose from “EFG” is
exactly matched with a pair of letters from “PQR.” With this in mind, any pair of
correct ratios can be written down automatically. For example, we can write
.

We now present a third proof of the Pythagorean Theorem, which involves

similar triangles.

EXAMPLE 9.5.8. In figure 9.32, a line is drawn through vertex C of a right

triangle parallel to the side AB, and the line segments AD and BE are
perpendicular to the parallel lines. Two pairs of alternate angles are marked
equal. This construction creates two triangles, ADC and CEB, both similar to
ΔBCA. It follows that . If we set l = CD, m = |CE|, a =
|AC|, b = |BC|, and c = |AB|, then the preceding ratios can be expressed as
respectively. Because c = l + m, it follows that c2 = a2 + b2.

FIGURE 9.32. A proof of the Pythagorean Theorem.

 Here is another property of right angles, involving similar triangles, that is
useful to remember.

THEOREM 9.5.15. The perpendicular drawn from the vertex of a right angle of a
right triangle to the hypotenuse divides the triangle into two triangles that are
similar to each other and similar to the original triangle.
The proof of theorem 9.5.15 is example 9.4.3.
A proof of the final theorem of this section and its converse was published
by the Italian Mathematian Giovanni Ceva in 1678. (We will not provide the
proof here.) It is not known whether he knew about a proof dating back to the
eleventh century, by an Arabic ruler of Spain.

THEOREM 9.5.16.
(a) If D, E, and F are three points on the sides of a triangle ABC, such
that D is on the side opposite A, E is on the side opposite B, and F
is on the side opposite C, and such that AD, BE, and CF are
concurrent, then (Ceva’s Theorem).

(b) (Converse) If D, E, and F are three points on the sides of a triangle

ABC, such that D is on the side opposite A, E is on the side
opposite B, and F is on the side opposite C, and such that
then AD, BE, and CF are concurrent.

REMARK 9.5.2. Theorem 9.5.12(c) is a special case of theorem 9.5.16(b),

because, if |AF| = |FB| and |BD| = |DC| (i.e., CF and AD are medians), then it
follows that |CE| = |EA| (i.e., BE is a median).

9.6 ELEMENTARY THEOREMS RELATING TO CIRCLES

Most of the elementary theorems relating to circles that we present here
(theorems about subtended angles, theorems about cyclic quadrilaterals, and
theorems about tangent lines) are proved in book 3 of the Elements. This section
also contains a fourth proof of the Pythagorean Theorem. The theorems are
restated in the Appendix for ease of reference.

9.6.1 Chords and Subtended Angles

THEOREM 9.6.1.
(a) The line segment joining the center of a circle to the midpoint of a
chord is perpendicular to the chord.
(b) (Converse) The perpendicular drawn from the center of a circle to
a chord bisects the chord.
(c) (Corollary) The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through
the center of the circle.

Theorem 9.6.1(a) states that a line through the center of a circle that bisects a
chord is perpendicular to the chord. The reason is that, if the end points of the
chord are joined to the center of the circle, then two congruent triangles are
formed and the equal angles at the midpoint of the chord lie on a straight line
and are therefore both equal to right angles. (Draw a diagram!)
Theorem 9.6.1(b), the converse theorem, can be proven in the same way, and
theorem 9.6.1(c) can be proved by contradiction: if the perpendicular bisector of
a chord does not pass through the center of the circle, then another line passing
through the center of the circle is also a perpendicular bisector of the chord and,
by theorem 9.6.1(a) and (b), it is obviously not possible for two such lines to
exist.

REMARK 9.6.1. It is a consequence of theorem 9.6.1(c) that, if two circles

intersect one another, then the line joining the centers of the circles is a
perpendicular bisector of the common chord joining the points at which the
circles intersect, as shown in figure 9.33.

FIGURE 9.33. Circles with a common chord.

THEOREM 9.6.2. The angle that an arc of a circle subtends at the center of the
circle is twice the angle it subtends at any point of the circle.
For the proof of theorem 9.6.2, refer to the two diagrams in figure 9.34. The
arc AC subtends the angle AÔC at the center of the circle and the angle on
the circumference of the circle. (By the arc AC, we mean the minor arc AC in the
first diagram and the major arc AC in the second diagram.) We need to prove
that in each case. The technique of the proof is to construct the
dotted lines, as shown in each diagram, that create the angles marked s and t at
B, and the angles marked α and β at O. Note that ΔAOB and ΔCOB are isosceles
triangles, in each case. By theorem 9.5.5(a), α = s + s = 2s and β = t + t = 2t.
Thus, AÔC = α + β = 2s + 2t = 2(s + t) = 2A C, in each case.

FIGURE 9.34. The Proof of theorem 9.6.2.

It is not always easy to see when theorem 9.6.2 can be applied, and so care
should be taken to apply it correctly.

EXAMPLE 9.6.1. In figure 9.35, RS is a diameter of a circle centered at A. A

second circle centered at B cuts at the points R and S on the circumference of the
first circle. The line BA joining the centers of the circles is extended to a point C
on the circumference of the second circle and the radii RB and SB of the second
circle are drawn. R and S are joined to C. If what is What is
Determine the magnitudes of the other angles in the diagram.
 FIGURE 9.35. Diagram for example 9.5.8.

THEOREM 9.6.3.
(a) The diameter of a circle subtends a right angle at the
circumference. (Thales’ Theorem.)
(b) (Converse) If the angle subtended by an arc of a circle at a point of
the circle is a right angle, then the arc is a semicircle.
(c) (Converse) If the hypotenuse of a right triangle is taken as the
diameter of a circle, then the circle passes through the vertex
containing the right angle.

Theorem 9.6.3(a) can be proved using theorem 9.6.2, with the help of figure
9.36, in which AC is a diameter subtending a point B at a point on the
circumference. It is clear that α and β add up to 90° (because 2α and 2β add up to
180°). This means that is a right angle.

FIGURE 9.36. The proof of Thales’ Theorem.

Theorem 9.6.3(b) can be proved by contradiction: if the arc is not a

semicircle, it is possible to subtend an angle at the center of the circle equal to
180°, by theorem 9.6.2, but this angle would not lie on a straight line.
Theorem 9.6.3(c) can also be proved by contradiction. If the vertex of the
right triangle did not lie on the circumference of the circle with hypotenuse as
diameter, then it would be possible to extend or shorten (depending on whether
the vertex is inside or outside the circle, respectively) one side of the right
triangle to the circumference of the circle in order to create another right triangle
and then a contradiction would be obtained, by theorem 9.5.5(b). (Draw a
diagram!)

EXAMPLE 9.6.2. Suppose a triangle ABC has a circumscribed circle centered at O

(the circum-center of the triangle) and AD is a diameter of the circle, as shown in
figure 9.37. If B and C are joined to D and altitudes BE and CF are drawn
intersecting at H (the ortho-center of the triangle), then BHCD is a
parallelogram. This can be deduced from theorem 9.6.3(a) because the diameter
AD subtends the right angle and, because is also a right angle, CF and
BD are parallel (part (iii) of theorem 9.5.3(b)). Similarly, DC and BE are
parallel.

FIGURE 9.37. Diagram for example 9.6.2.

THEOREM 9.6.4.
(a) Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
(b) (Converse) If a line segment joining two points subtends equal
 angles at two other points on the same side of the line segment,
then these four points are concyclic.
(c) (Corollary) The angles subtended by arcs of equal length in a given
circle are equal.
(d) (Corollary) The angles subtended by arcs of equal length in two
different circles with equal radii are equal.

The statement of theorem 9.6.4(a) is illustrated in figure 9.38. All the angles
marked with an arc are subtended by the arc AB, and they all lie on the same side
of the chord joining A to B (the dotted line); that is, they are all in the same
segment. These angles are equal, by theorem 9.6.2, because they are all half the
magnitude of the angle subtended by the arc AB at the center of the circle (not
shown in the diagram). The proof of the converse statement and corollaries is
left as an exercise.

FIGURE 9.38. Angles in the same segment.

EXAMPLE 9.6.3. In figure 9.39, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral with diagonals AC

and BD. The two angles subtended by the arc joining A to B are equal, by
theorem 9.6.4(a). There are three other pairs of equal angles at the vertices of the
cyclic quadrilateral. (Make sure you can find them!)
 FIGURE 9.39. Angles in a cyclic quadrilateral.

EXAMPLE 9.6.4. In figure 9.40, a circle with center O passes through the points Q
and R, and another circle passes through the points O, Q, and R. Thus, QR is a
chord common to the two circles. A chord OS of the second circle intersects QR
at P. The radii OQ and OR are drawn, and Q is joined to S. The angles at R and S
are equal (angles in the same segment), and these are also equal to ,
because ΔROQ is isosceles. Also, note that ΔOQS ||| ΔOPQ. Hence
Another way to write this equation is |OQ|2 = |OP| · |OS|. If the radius of the
circle centered at O is r, then we have proved that |OP| · |OS| = r2.

FIGURE 9.40. Diagram for example 9.6.4.

Theorem 9.6.4(b) (which can easily be proved by contradiction) is the first of

several conditions that determine when four points are concyclic (which is the
same as saying that the four points determine the vertices of a cyclic
quadrilateral). Some other conditions are theorems 9.6.5(b), 9.6.6(b), and
9.6.7(b).
9.6.2 Cyclic Quadrilaterals
THEOREM 9.6.5.
(a) The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
(b) (Converse) If one pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral are
supplementary, then the quadrilateral is a cyclic quadrilateral.
The proof of theorem 9.6.5(a) is an application of theorem 9.6.2: refer to
figure 9.41, in which the major arc QS subtends Ô1 (which is equal to ) and
the minor arc QS subtends Ô2 (which is equal to ). Because Ô1 and Ô2 add
up to 360°, it follows that that is, the opposite angles R and P
of the cyclic quadrilateral PQRS are supplementary. Similarly, the opposite
angles Q and S are supplementary.

FIGURE 9.41. The proof of theorem 9.6.5(a).

THEOREM 9.6.6.
(a) An exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior
opposite angle.
(b) (Converse) If an exterior angle of a quadrilateral is equal to the
interior opposite angle, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
Theorem 9.6.6(a) follows immediately from theorem 9.6.5(a): figure 9.42
shows one side QP of a cyclic quadrilateral PQRS extended in the direction of T
to form an exterior angle Because the angles are
supplementary and the angles are supplementary, it follows that
are equal, as marked. Try to draw another seven possible exterior
angles in the diagram and mark the interior angles to which they are equal.
 FIGURE 9.42. The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral.

EXAMPLE 9.6.5. In a triangle ABC, let D, E, and F be any points on the sides
opposite A, B, and C, respectively. Prove that the circle through the points A, E,
and F, the points B, D, and F, and points C, D, and E, intersect at the same point.
Answer: Figure 9.43 shows the first two circles intersecting at a point M. By
theorem 9.6.6(a), the cyclic quadrilateral AFME has an exterior angle at F equal
to the interior angle at E and, similarly, the cyclic quadrilateral BDMF has an
exterior angle at D equal to the interior angle at F. Therefore, the quadrilateral
CEMD has an exterior angle at E that is equal to the interior angle at D and so,
by theorem 9.6.6(b), we can conclude that CEMD is also a cyclic quadrilateral;
that is, the circle through the points C, E, and D also passes through M.

FIGURE 9.43. Diagram for example 9.6.5.

The next theorem is named after Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy), an

Astronomer, Geometer, and Mathematician, who lived in the city of Alexandria
(Egypt) in the second century AD.

THEOREM 9.6.7.
(a) The sum of the products of the lengths of the two pairs of opposite
sides of a cyclic quadrilateral equals the products of the lengths of
its diagonals (Ptolemy’s Theorem).
(b) (Converse) If the sum of the products of the lengths of the two pairs
of opposite sides of a quadrilateral equals the products of its
diagonals, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
Ptolemy’s Theorem (theorem 9.6.7(a)) can be proved using similar triangles
with the help of figure 9.44. We need to prove that |PQ| · |SR| + |QR| · |PS| = |PR|
· |QS|. A useful trick is to insert a line segment QA, so that as
marked in the diagram. By theorem 9.6.4(a), ΔSPQ ||| ΔRAQ, and so or
|QR| · |PS| = |AR| · |QS|. Similarly, by theorem 9.6.4(a), ΔPQA ||| ΔSQR, and so
or |PQ| · |SR| = |PA| · |SQ|. If we add these two pairs of equations, then

|QR| · |PS| + |PQ| · |SR| = (|AR| + |PA|) · |QS| = |PR| · |QS|.

FIGURE 9.44. A proof of Ptolemy’s Theorem.

REMARK 9.6.2. If Ptolemy’s Theorem is applied to a regular pentagon (inscribed

in circle), then it proves that the ratio of the length of a chord of the pentagon to
the length of a side is the golden ratio, which we define in section 9.7.

9.6.3 Tangent Lines and Secant Lines

THEOREM 9.6.8.
(a) A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point of
contact.
(b) (Converse) A line drawn perpendicular to a radius at the point
where the radius meets the circle is a tangent to the circle.

FIGURE 9.45. Proof of theorem 9.6.8(a).

Theorem 9.6.8(a) can be proved with the help of figure 9.45, in which a line l
is tangent to a circle at the point A. If we suppose that the radius OA is not
perpendicular to l, then, by exercise 9.3, OA is not the shortest distance from O
to A and so there is some other point B on l such that |OB| is the shortest distance
from O to l (and OB is perpendicular to l). This results in a contradiction,
because any point on l besides the point A is a point outside the circle (recall that
a line that is tangent to a circle touches the circle at a single point only) and so
the distance from O to that point is greater than the radius of the circle.
Therefore, it must be the case that A is the point on l that is closest to O and OA
must be perpendicular to l. The proof of theorem 9.6.8(b) is left as an exercise.

EXAMPLE 9.6.6. In figure 9.46, the centers of two touching circles are labeled O
and P, and the touching point is labeled A. The common tangent line is
constructed, and the centers O and P are joined to A. By theorem 9.6.8(a), the
four angles at A are right angles, and so the line segments OA and PA join to
form a straight line. In other words, we have proved that the line joining the
centers of two touching circles passes through the touching point.
 FIGURE 9.46. Touching circles.

EXAMPLE 9.6.7. Two intersecting circles are said to be orthogonal to each other if
the tangent lines to the respective circles at the intersecting points are
perpendicular to one another, as shown in figure 9.47. It follows from theorem
9.6.8(a) that the tangent line to either of the circles extends through the center of
the other circle, as illustrated. Note that the quadrilateral OAPB is a kite. It is
also a cyclic quadrilateral, by theorem 9.6.5(b).

FIGURE 9.47. Circles intersecting orthogonally.

THEOREM 9.6.9.
(a) The angle between a tangent to a circle and a chord drawn from the
point of contact is equal to an angle in the alternate segment of the
circle.
(b) (Converse) If an angle between a chord of a circle and a line
through the end of that chord is equal to an angle in the alternate
 segment, then the line is a tangent to the circle.
The statement of theorem 9.6.9(a) needs to be understood very well. The
theorem applies to an angle formed between a tangent line and a chord at the
point of contact of the tangent line with the circle, and the theorem states that
this angle is equal to any angle subtended by the chord in the alternate segment;
that is, the segment of the chord that is not on the same side of the chord as the
specified angle between the chord and the tangent line. This is illustrated in the
first diagram in figure 9.48. The angle between the tangent line PQ and the
chord AB is ∠PÂB, and the angle in the alternate segment is AĈB.
The proof of this statement is demonstrated in the second diagram in figure
9.48, in which a diameter is drawn from A to D, and AD subtends a right angle at
B (theorem 9.6.3(a)). Thus, are complementary angles. By
theorem 9.6.8(a), DA is perpendicular to PQ, and so are also
complementary angles. Therefore, are equal, as marked. Now, by
theorem 9.6.4(a), ADB and ACB are equal, as marked, and so we conclude that
.

FIGURE 9.48. Proof of theorem 9.6.9(a).

THEOREM 9.6.10.
(a) If a point P is outside a circle and two secant lines from P pass
through the circle at A and D, and B and C, respectively, then | AP
| · | DP | = | BP | · | CP | (the theorem of intersecting secants).
(b) (b) (Corollary) The tangent to a circle from an external point is the
mean proportional (geometric mean) of the lengths of the segments
of any secant from the external point.
 (c) If A, B, C, and D are distinct points on the circumference of a circle
such that chords AD and BC, extended, intersect at a point P, then
| AP | · | DP | = | BP | · | CP | (the theorem of intersecting chords).
The proofs of theorem 9.6.10(a) and (c) are exercises using similar triangles
(write the proofs yourself!). The statement of theorem 9.6.10(b) is the limiting
case of theorem 9.6.10(a) when the points B and C, for example, get closer and
closer as the secant line PC containing these points cuts the circle more and
more finely, that is, PC becomes a tangent line and B and C coincide. In this
limit, the equation | AP | · | DP |=| BP | · | CP | becomes the equation | AP | · | DP
|=| CP |2, or (that is, |CP| is the mean proportional or
geometric mean of |AP| and |DP|).
Our fourth proof of the Pythagorean Theorem is an application of theorem
9.6.10(b).

EXAMPLE 9.6.8. Figure 9.49 shows a right triangle ABC in which the sides AC
and BC are the diameters of two circles. If P is a point on AB such that CP is
perpendicular to AB, then, by theorem 9.6.3(c), both circles pass through P. We
denote |BC|, |AC|, |BP|, and |AP| by a, b, x, and y, respectively, and we let c = x +
y. By theorem 9.6.10(b), a2 = x · c and b2 = y · c. If we add these equations, then
a2 + b2 = x · c + y · c = (x + y) · c = c · c = c2.

FIGURE 9.49. A proof of the Pythagorean Theorem.

9.7 EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

There is a natural and meaningful interplay between geometry and algebra. We
will demonstrate this by means of an example in which the Golden Ratio is
constructed geometrically, and another example in which certain classical means
are shown to be related geometrically.
In the third example of this section, we will build on examples 9.5.4 and
9.6.2 to prove the interesting fact that the circum-center, ortho-center, and
centroid of any triangle are collinear (i.e., they always lie on a straight line).
The fourth example is a demonstration of a compass and straightedge
construction of a tangent line to two given circles. The method and proof of this
construction make use of many of the theorems of this chapter.
We end this section with another proof of Ptolemys’s Theorem (theorem
9.6.7(a)).

EXAMPLE 9.7.1. The Golden Ratio, usually designated ϕ, is the positive number
whose square is one more than itself, that is, ϕ2 = ϕ + 1. The positive solution of
this equation is If a line segment AB is cut into two segments AC and
CB, with AC being longer than CB, so that that is, the proportion of the
longer segment to AB is the same as the proportion of the shorter segment to the
longer segment, then it is called a golden cut of AB. If the length of CB is 1 unit,
that is, |CB| = 1, then |AC| = ϕ.
We now prove that a golden cut can be constructed using a 3-4-5 triangle
(recall that this is a right triangle with side-lengths equal to 3, 4, and 5). In figure
9.50, |BC| = 3, |AC| = 4, and |AB| = 5 in ΔABC. The line bisecting the angle at B
passes through a point O that lies on AC. The point D is the intersection of a
perpendicular to AB through O. Thus, ΔODB is congruent to ΔOCB (by ∠∠s),
and so OD and OC are radii of a circle centered at O. This circle meets the
bisector of B at the points labeled S and T. Furthermore, because |OC| = |OD| and
ΔADO ||| ΔACB, we have However, |AO| + |OC| = 4 and this
implies, together with the previous equation, that Now, by
theorem 9.6.10(a) (the theorem of intersecting secants), |BT| · |BS| = |BC|2. This
in turn implies that |BT| (3 + |BT|) = 9. If we solve this equation, then the positive
solution is It is now easy to verify that the circle intersects the line
segment BS in the golden cut at the point T (i.e., ).

FIGURE 9.50. The Golden Cut.

EXAMPLE 9.7.2. If a and b form a pair of positive numbers, then the classical
means are
• the arithmetic mean

• the geometric mean

• the quadratic mean

• the harmonic mean

FIGURE 9.51. The classical means.

 A, G, H and Q relate to each other geometrically as demonstrated in figure
9.51, where each mean is the length of a line segment. Because the diameter of
the semicircle is a + b, the radius of the semicircle is the arithmetic mean A of a
and b.
In the right triangle with s + H as hypotenuse, we can state the Pythagorean
Theorem as This simplifies to the equation 4G2 + (a − b)2 =
(a + b)2, which further simplifies to
Next, it can be verified by means of the steps in table 9.4 that H is the
harmonic mean of a and b.
The proof that Q is the quadratic mean of a and b is exercise 9.32.
TABLE 9.4. The harmonic mean

Statement Reason
H · s = t2 Consequence of theorem 9.5.15
H · s + H2 = t2 + H2 = G2 Pythagorean Theorem
H · (s + H) = G2
H · A = G2 s + H and A are radii (i.e., A = S + H)

EXAMPLE 9.7.3. We will prove that the circum-center (O), centroid (P), and
ortho-center (H) of ΔABC in figure 9.52 are collinear. A part of the diagram is a
reconstruction of figure 9.37. It was proved in example 9.5.4 that BHCD is a
parallelogram, so, if we include the diagonal HD of this parallelogram,
intersecting the diagonal BC at F, then, as in figure 9.22, the line segment AF is
a median of ΔABC and a median of ΔADH. Furthermore, the line segment OH is
another median of ΔADH. Because medians trisect one another (theorem
9.5.12(c)), the intersection point P of OH and AF is one-third of the distance
from F to A. This means that P is also the centroid of ΔABC. Thus, the circum-
center, centroid, and ortho-center of ΔABC are collinear.
 FIGURE 9.52. The circum-center, centroid, and ortho-center are collinear.

EXAMPLE 9.7.4. Compass and straightedge constructions often lead to interesting

and useful insights. In this example, we demonstrate that it is possible to use a
compass and a straightedge to construct a common tangent line to two circles.
There are several cases that can be considered and we will consider only the
case demonstrated in figure 9.53, in which the two circles (with centers B and C)
are separated from each other (i.e., do not intersect each other), and the common
tangent line is the line segment AD. A compass and a straightedge can be used to
construct the perpendicular bisector of the line segment EF. The point labeled O,
which is the midpoint of segment BC can also be obtained using a compass and a
straightedge. The circle (not shown) centered at O with diameter BC intersects
the perpendicular bisector of EF at G. A circle with center at G and radius GE
passes through the points A, F, and D, as shown. We prove now that the line AD
is a common tangent line to the two given circles:
 FIGURE 9.53. Constructing a common tangent to two circles.

First, draw lines AJ and DJ passing through B and F, respectively, and also
construct the other line segments shown in figure 9.53. The angles marked at B
with tick marks are equal because triangles GAB and GEB are congruent (sss).
Similarly, the angles marked at C with tick marks are equal because triangles
CFG and CDG are congruent (sss). As a consequence, triangles CFH and CDH
are also congruent, and so the angles at H are right angles. Another right angle is
BĜC (by Thales’ Theorem and the construction of G).
This implies that GB || DJ, which means that the two pairs of complementary
angles at B and F and B and J are equal. The angles marked at D and F are also
equal, and this proves that AJ || DC (the alternate angles at J and D are equal).
Consequently, the pair of conterior angles BÂD and C A are supplementary.
Furthermore, because ΔGEF is isosceles, and so, by the congruence
of triangles identified above, We conclude that the angles marked at
A and D are also equal (because GAD is an isosceles triangle) and, therefore,
This means that and are both right angles. Our
conclusion that AD is a common tangent line to the two given circles now
follows from theorem 9.6.8(b).

A problem that can be solved using geometric methods could also be

solvable using trigonometric and/or algebraic methods. A good example is the
following alternative proof of Ptolemy’s Theorem (theorem 9.6.7(a)):
Proof: A cyclic quadrilateral is shown in figure 9.54. We need to prove that
xy = ac + bd. To this end, we begin with the cosine rule (formula (4.20)) to
obtain two expressions for x2:

x2 = a2 + b2 −2ab cos(θ) and x2 = c2 + d2 −2cd cos(π − θ)

We can solve for cosθ in each of these equations (using the identity cos(π −
θ)= − cos(θ)), and equate the resulting expressions:

Now we can solve for x2 and, by means of a clever regrouping of terms,

arrive at an expression that is close to what we are looking for:

By analogous reasoning (refer to the second diagram)

When formula (9.1) is multiplied by formula (9.2) the factors in the

denominators cancel with factors in the numerators, and the result is

x2 y2 = (ac + bd)2.

The proof is complete when we take the square root on each side.
 FIGURE 9.54. A proof of Ptolemy’s theorem.

EXERCISES

9.1. Prove that, in any triangle, the angle opposite the greater side is greater
than the other two angles. (Proposition 18, book 1, of The Elements.)
(Hint: Construct an isosceles triangle with a vertex on the greater side and
use theorem 9.5.5(a).)
9.2. Prove that, in any triangle, the side opposite the greater angle is longer
than the other two sides.
(Proposition 19, book 1, of The Elements.)
9.3. Prove that the line segment from a point to a line that is perpendicular to
the line is the shortest line segment from that point to the line.
(Hint: This follows from exercise 9.1 and theorem 9.5.5(c).)
9.4. Prove that in any triangle the sum of any two sides is greater than the
remaining one.
(Proposition 20, book 1, of the elements). (Hint: Use the property stated in
exercise 9.2 to prove that |AB| + |AC| > |BC| in figure 9.55.)
 FIGURE 9.55. Diagram for exercise 9.4.

9.5. A circle with radius r is drawn tangent to each of a pair of intersecting

lines, as shown in figure 9.56.
(a) Verify that this circle is centered on the dotted line that bisects the
angle between the intersecting lines.
(Hint: Use theorem 9.6.8(a).)
(b) A second, larger circle (not shown), with radius R, is also tangent to
each of the intersecting lines, and its center is a distance t from the
smaller circle. Prove that R < t + r.
(Hint: draw appropriate triangles and use the properties stated in
exercises 9.2 and 9.4.)

FIGURE 9.56. Diagram for exercise 9.5.

9.6. Demonstrate that the perpendicular bisector of a given line segment can be
constructed using a compass and a straightedge.
9.7. Demonstrate that the angular bisector of a given angle can be constructed
using a compass and a straightedge.
9.8. Prove theorem 9.5.12(a).
9.9. Prove first that any two angle-bisectors both pass through the in-center of
the triangle; then prove that the three angle-bisectors are concurrent.
9.10. Prove theorem 9.5.12(b).
9.11. Figure 9.57 shows a triangle RUV with a point Q on the side RU such that
|QV| = |UV|. A line PQ is drawn parallel to VU from a point P on RV, and
extended to a point T so that |QT| = |QV|. The point V is joined to T, and a
line SQ is drawn parallel to VT from another point S on RV. Prove that SQ
is perpendicular to RU.
(Hint: Find congruent triangles.)

FIGURE 9.57. Diagram for exercise 9.11.

9.12. Prove theorem 9.5.7(b).

9.13. Figure 9.58 shows an equilateral triangle ABC. The arcs AB, BC, and CA
are arcs of circles centered at C, A, and B, respectively. The line segments
PQ, QR, and RP are tangent to the arcs AB, BC, and CA, respectively, and
parallel to the sides AB, BC, and CA of triangle ABC, respectively, so that
an equilateral triangle PQR contains the equilateral triangle ABC. If the
length of each side of triangle ABC is 1, prove that the length of each side
of triangle PQR is
 FIGURE 9.58. Diagram for exercise 9.13.

9.14. Prove theorem 9.5.9(b), (d), (f), and (g).

9.15. In a right triangle, with right angle at C, the midpoint P of side AB is
joined to C. Prove that |AP| = |CP|.
(Hint: Use theorem 9.5.9(e) and (h).)
9.16. Prove theorem 9.5.11(c).
(Hint: The proof requires the construction of a parallelogram. Use theorem
9.5.9(f) and (g).)
9.17. Redraw the diagrams showing the in-center, circum-center, centroid, and
ortho-center for an obtuse instead of acute triangle.
9.18. Prove theorem 9.5.13(b).
9.19. Prove theorem 9.5.14(b).
9.20. Demonstrate how you would use a compass and straightedge to draw the
circle passing through any three (noncollinear) points in the plane.
9.21. Prove theorems 9.6.4(b), 9.6.5(b), and 9.6.6(b).
9.22. In figure 9.59, the pairs of opposite sides AD and BC, and AB and DC, of a
cyclic quadrilateral ABCD are extended to meet at P and Q, respectively.
The lines bisecting the angles at P and Q intersect the cyclic quadrilateral
at points L and J and K and M, respectively. Prove that JKLM is a
rhombus.
(Hint: mark equal angles and look for congruent triangles.)
 FIGURE 9.59. Diagram for exercise 9.22.

9.23. A trapezoid is called an isosceles trapezoid if a pair of base angles (i.e.,

the angles on one of the parallel sides) is equal. Prove that a trapezoid is a
cyclic quadrilateral if and only if it is an isosceles trapezoid.
(Hint: This is a consequence of theorem 9.6.5(a) and (b).)
9.24. Prove theorems 9.6.8(b) and 9.6.9(b).
9.25. When two touching semicircles are centered on the diameter of a larger
semicircle so that they are also touching the larger semicircle, then the
plane region between the semicircles, as shaded in figure 9.60, is called an
arbelos. In figure 9.60, the diameter of the larger semicircle is AC and the
diameters of the two smaller semicircles are AD and CD. The two smaller
semicircles touch each other at D and a line from D to a point B of the
larger semicircle is a tangent to the two smaller semicircles at D. The
circle with diameter BD is labeled S. Prove the following:
(a) The area enclosed by the circle S is equal to the area of the arbelos.
(b) If E and F are the intersection points of S with the two smaller
semicircles, then the line segments AB and CB pass through E and F,
respectively, as shown in the diagram.
(c) The line segment through the points E and F is a common tangent
line to the two smaller semicircles.
(Hint: (a) By calculation, the area of the arbelos is πrs and the area
 enclosed by S is also πrs. (b) Join D to E and D to F and use Thales’
Theorem. (c) Look for parallel lines (theorem 9.6.9(a) and (b) are
helpful).)

FIGURE 9.60. An arbelos.

9.26. In figure 9.61, the common tangent lines to two intersecting circles pass
through the points S and T and U and V, respectively. The points S and U
are joined by a line, and the points T and V are joined by a line. Prove that
these two lines are parallel.
(Hint: it will help to extend the tangent lines to a point where they meet
and, from there, construct one other line.)

FIGURE 9.61. Diagram for exercise 9.26

9.27. Describe how you would construct a common tangent line to two
intersecting circles (as shown in figure 9.61).
(Hint: this can be done by means of a method that is exactly analogous to
the method that was used to construct the common tangent line for two
separated (i.e., nonintersecting) circles in section 9.7.)
9.28. Figure 9.62 shows a circle with radius r and center O. A point P is a point
inside the circle and OP is perpendicular to a chord RT. OP is produced to
meet a tangent line from T at Q. Prove that |OP| · |OQ| = |OT|2 = r2 = r2.
(This means that Q is the inverse of P with respect to the circle.)
(Hint: Find similar triangles in the diagram.)

FIGURE 9.62. Diagram for exercise 9.28.

9.29. This exercise demonstrates a second construction of the inverse point Q of

a point P inside a circle. Figure 9.63 shows a circle with center O and
diameter ST perpendicular to OP. TP is produced to a point R on the
circle, and the chord SR is produced to a point Q on the line extending
through P from O. Prove that |OP| · |OQ| = |OT|2.

FIGURE 9.63. Diagram for exercise 9.29.

9.30. This exercise demonstrates a third construction of the inverse point Q of a

point P inside a circle. Figure 9.64 shows a circle with center O and radius
OT perpendicular to OP. A circle with diameter OT meets TP at R, and in
this smaller circle, a chord SR is drawn parallel to OT. TS produced meets
 OP produced at Q. Prove that |OP| · |OQ| = |OT|2.
(Hint: Construct a common tangent line to the circle at T.)

FIGURE 9.64. Diagram for exercise 9.30.

9.31. If Q, A, G, and H are the quadratic, arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic

means of two positive numbers a and b, respectively, prove that Q > A > G
> H. Make use of figure 9.51. Also prove that Q in figure 9.51 is the
quadratic mean of a and b.
9.32. Prove theorem 9.6.10(a).
(Hint: Join A to B and C to D. Use theorem 9.6.6(a) to find similar
triangles.)
9.33. Prove theorem 9.6.10(c).
9.34. If P, Q, R, and S are four distinct points such that the line segments QP
and RS both extend to a point O, and OP · OQ = OS · OR, prove that the
points P, Q, R, and S are concyclic.
(Hint: What happens if the circle through P and Q and S does not pass
through R?)
9.35. Two circles are orthogonal to each other if and only if a pair of radii of the
two circles, drawn to either of the intersection points of the two circles, are
orthogonal to each other. (This means each of these radii will be a tangent
to the other circle.) Let O be a circle, P a point inside O, and l a secant line
passing through P. Use a compass and ruler to construct a circle A
orthogonal to O such that l is tangent line to A at P.
(Hint: Construct the point S (shown in figure 9.40) as explained in
example 9.6.4. Theorem 9.6.10(b) will be helpful.)
9.36. Prove theorem 9.6.10(b).
9.37. In figure 9.65, the distance between O and G is 10 units and the distance
between G and E is 2 units. Solve for x, that is, find the distance between
E and C.
(Hint: Apply Ceva’s Theorem to triangles REO and RCO in order to
express x in terms of the magnitudes |RP|, |PE|, |RT|, and |TC|, and then
apply the Sine Rule (formula (4.19) to ΔOTC, ΔOPE, and ΔPRT.)

FIGURE 9.65. Diagram for exercise 9.37.

9.38. In figure 9.66, PR is the diameter of a circle with center O, Q is another

point on the circle such that QÔP = α is an acute angle, and QS is a chord
perpendicular to PR, with T on PR. Prove that tan
 FIGURE 9.66. Diagram for exercise 9.38.

9.39. In figure 9.67, prove that

FIGURE 9.67. Diagram for exercise 9.39.

9.40. In figure 9.68, O is the center of the circle, |QR| = 2 and ΔPRS has an
angle of magnitude x at R and an angle of magnitude 2x at S. Prove that r
= csc (3x), where r is the radius of the circle.

FIGURE 9.68. Diagram for exercise 9.40.

CHAPTER APPENDIX: GEOMETRY THEOREMS

Theorem
(a) If two straight lines intersect, then the sum of any pair of
9.5.1 adjacent angles is 180°.
(b) (Converse) If the sum of any pair of adjacent angles is 180°,
then their noncommon sides lie on the same line.
Theorem
9.5.2 If two lines intersect, then the vertically opposite angles are
 equal.
Theorem (a) angles are equal to one another.
9.5.3 (ii) If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then pairs of
alternate angles are equal to one another.
(iii) If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then pairs of
cointerior angles are supplementary.
(b) (i) If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then pairs of
corresponding
(i) (Converse) If two lines are intersected by a transversal
such that a pair of corresponding angles are equal, then the
two lines are parallel.
(ii) (Converse) If two lines are intersected by a transversal
such that a pair of alternate angles are equal, then the two
lines are parallel.
(iii) (Converse) If two lines are intersected by a transversal
such that a pair of cointerior angles are supplementary, then
the two lines are parallel.
Theorem Lines that are parallel to the same line are parallel to each other.
9.5.4
Theorem (a) The exterior angle of a triangle is greater than either of the
9.5.5 interior opposite angles.
(b) The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the
interior opposite angles (ext. ∠ of Δ).
(c) The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°.
Theorem (a) If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are
9.5.6 respectively equal to two sides and the included angle of
another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent (s∠s).
(b) If two angles and a side of one triangle are respectively equal
to two angles and the corresponding side of another triangle,
then the triangles are congruent (∠∠s).
(c) If three sides of one triangle are equal to three sides of
another triangle, then the triangles are congruent (sss).
(d) If, in two right-angled triangles, the hypotenuse and one side
of the one are respectively equal to the hypotenuse and one
side of the other, then the triangles are congruent (⊥hs).
Theorem (a) The angles opposite the equal sides of an isosceles triangle
9.5.7
 are equal.
(b) (Converse) If two angles of a triangle are equal, then the
sides opposite them are equal.
Theorem (a) The square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is
9.5.8 equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
(Pythagorean Theorem.)
(b) (Converse) If the square of one side of a triangle is equal to
the sum of the squares of the other two sides, then the angle
opposite the first side is a right angle.
Theorem (a) The opposite sides of a parallelogram have the same length.
9.5.9 (b) (Converse) If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral have the
same length, it is a parallelogram.
(c) The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
(d) (Converse) If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are equal,
then it is a parallelogram.
(e) The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
(f) (Converse) If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each
other, then it is a parallelogram.
(g) If one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are both
parallel and have the same length, it is a parallelogram.
(h) The diagonals of a rectangle have the same length.
(i) The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles
and bisect the angles of the rhombus.
Theorem (a) The area of a parallelogram is bisected by each diagonal.
9.5.10 (b) A parallelogram and a rectangle on the same base and
between the same parallels have equal areas.
(c) The area of a triangle is equal to one-half the area of a
parallelogram on the same base and between the same
parallels.
Theorem (a) If three or more parallel lines cut off equal line segments on
9.5.11 one transversal, then they cut off equal line segments on any
transversal.
(b) If a line drawn parallel to the base of a triangle bisects one of
the sides of the triangle, then it bisects the third side of the
triangle.
(c) The line segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a
 triangle is parallel to the third side, and equal to half the third
side (the midpoint theorem).
Theorem (a) The internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle are
9.5.12 concurrent, and the point of concurrence is the in-center of
the triangle.
(b) The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are
concurrent, and the point of concurrence is the circum-center
of the triangle.
(c) The medians of a triangle are concurrent and the point of
concurrence, the centroid of the triangle, is one third of the
distance from the opposite side to the vertex along any
median.
(d) The altitudes of a triangle are concurrent, and the point of
concurrence is the ortho-center of the triangle.
Theorem (a) A straight line parallel to one side of a triangle divides the
9.5.13 other two sides proportionally.
(b) (Converse) If a line cuts two sides of a triangle so as to divide
them in the same ratio, then that line is parallel to the third
side.
Theorem (a) If two triangles are similar, then their sides are in proportion.
9.5.14 (b) (Converse) If the sides of two triangles are in proportion, then
they are similar triangles.
Theorem The perpendicular drawn from the vertex of a right angle of a
9.5.15 right-angled triangle to the hypotenuse, divides the triangle into
two triangles that are similar to each other and to the original
triangle.
Theorem (a) If D, E, and F are three points on the sides of a triangle ABC,
9.5.16 such that D is on the side opposite A, E is on the side
opposite B, and F is on the side opposite C, and such that AD,
BE, and CF are concurrent, then (Ceva’s
Theorem.)
(b) (Converse) If D, E, and F are three points on the sides of a
triangle ABC, such that D is on the side opposite A, E is on
the side opposite B, and F is on the side opposite C, and such
that then AD, BE, and CF are concurrent.
Theorem (a) The line segment joining the center of a circle to the midpoint
9.6.1 of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
(b) (Converse) The perpendicular drawn from the center of a
circle to a chord bisects the chord.
(c) (Corollary) The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes
through the center of the circle.
Theorem The angle that an arc of a circle subtends at the center of the circle
9.6.2 is twice the angle it subtends at any point of the circle.
Theorem (a) The diameter of a circle subtends a right angle at the
9.6.3 circumference. (Thales’ Theorem.)
(b) (Converse) If the angle subtended by a chord at a point of the
circle is a right angle, then the chord is a diameter.
(c) (Converse) If the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is
taken as the diameter of a circle, then the circle passes
through the vertex containing the right angle.
Theorem (a) Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
9.6.4 (b) (Converse) If a line segment joining two points subtends
equal angles at two other points on the same side of the line
segment, then these four points are concyclic.
(c) (Corollary) The angles subtended by arcs of equal length in a
given circle, are equal.
(d) (Corollary) The angles subtended by arcs of equal length in
two different circles with equal radii, are equal.
Theorem (a) The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are
9.6.5 supplementary.
(b) (Converse) If one pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral
are supplementary, then the quadrilateral is a cyclic
quadrilateral.
Theorem (a) An exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the
9.6.6 interior opposite angle.
(b) (Converse) If an exterior angle of a quadrilateral is equal to
the interior opposite angle, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
Theorem (a) The sum of the products of the lengths of the two pairs of
9.6.7 opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral equals the products of
the lengths of its diagonals. (Ptolemy’s Theorem.)
(b) (Converse) If the sum of the products of the lengths of the
 two pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral equals the
products of its diagonals, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
Theorem (a) A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point
9.6.8 of contact.
(b) (Converse) A line drawn perpendicular to a radius at the
point where the radius meets the circle, is a tangent to the
circle (line ⊥ radius).
Theorem (a) The angle between a tangent to a circle and a chord drawn
9.6.9 from the point of contact is equal to an angle in the alternate
segment of the circle.
(b) (Converse) If an angle between a chord of a circle and a line
through the end of that chord is equal to an angle in the
alternate segment, that line is a tangent to the circle.
Theorem (a) If a point P is outside a circle and two secant lines from P
9.6.10 pass through the circle at A and D, and B and C, respectively,
then |AP| · |DP| = |BP| · |CP|. (The theorem of intersecting
secants.)
(b) (Corollary) The tangent to a circle from an external point is
the mean proportional (geometric mean) of the lengths of the
segments of any secant from the external point.
(c) If A, B, C, and D are distinct points on the circumference of a
circle such that chords AD and BC, extended, intersect at a
point P, then |AP| · |DP| = |BP| · |CP|. (The theorem of
intersecting chords.)
 CHAPTER 10

SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Spherical trigonometry is used for computing angles and distances in terrestrial
navigation and celestial astronomy. For the purposes of terrestrial navigation, we
regard the Earth as a sphere (a perfectly round ball), although, correctly
speaking, the shape of the Earth is approximately a geoid, not a sphere.
An early pioneer of spherical trigonometry was Mohammed ibn Mûsâ al-
Khowârizmî in the ninth century AD. The sine rule that is basic to spherical
trigonometry was discovered by another Arabic Astronomer and Mathematician
Abu al-Wafa al-Buzjani (tenth century AD). The development of spherical
trigonometry continued in the Islamic Iberian Peninsula (Spain) in the eleventh
century and in Iran in the thirteenth century.
The objective of this chapter is to derive formulas for solving triangles on the
sphere, as demonstrated in sections 10.4 to 10.6. By traingles on the sphere, we
mean triangles formed by arcs of great circles, that is, a path between two points
on a sphere that takes the shortest distance.
All the terminology that is needed for doing geometry and trigonometry on
the sphere is introduced in section 10.2. The properties of vectors in space that
are introduced in section 10.3 lay the groundwork for proving the sine and
cosine rules in section 10.4 for triangles on the sphere.
In this chapter, we will investigate some relationships between objects (e.g.,
spheres, planes, and lines) in three-dimensional space. It is possible to give a
formal and mathematical description of three-dimensional space using a three-
dimensional coordinate system, that is, an extension of the Euclidean plane by
means of a third axis; however, for our purposes, it will be satisfactory to regard
the objects as “objects in space.”
While this is primarily a chapter on spherical trigonometry, there is also a
development of spherical geometry. Spherical geometry is an example of a non-
Euclidean geometry. Some of the differences between Euclidean geometry and
spherical non-Euclidean geometry will be commented on.
The notation used in chapter 9 relating to angles, lines, and triangles will be
used here too.

10.2 PLANES AND SPHERES

10.2.1 Planes in Space
In section 10.2.2 the angles between curves on a sphere are defined in terms
of angles between planes intersecting the sphere. Therefore, it is appropriate to
begin with some remarks about planes in space.
A basic fact is that two planes that are not parallel to each other intersect in a
straight line, which is contained in each of the planes. If three distinct (i.e.,
different) planes pass through a unique point in space (called a vertex), then the
three lines created by the (pairwise) intersecting planes form the boundaries of
three triangular faces of a pyramid, as shown in figure 10.1. The base of the
pyramid can be taken to be any other triangle formed by a fourth plane that
intersects the three planes and does not pass through the vertex V. Each of the
three triangular faces has an angle at V called a face angle (of the pyramid). Our
first theorem is a statement regarding the relative sizes of the three face angles of
a pyramid.

THEOREM 10.2.1. The sum of any two face angles of a pyramid is greater than
the third face angle.

PROOF. We only need to prove that the sum of the two smaller face angles is
greater than the largest face angle. In the first diagram in figure 10.1, we suppose
that is greater than both of and This means that a line can be
drawn in the face AVC from V toward the base of the pyramid to a point D so
that and |VD| = |VB|. In the second diagram in figure 10.1, the base
of the pyramid is adjusted so that the line AC passes through D.
 FIGURE 10.1. Three planes intersecting in a vertex.

In the triangle ABC forming the base of the pyramid,

but we see that ΔAVD ≡ ΔAVB (sas), and so |AB| = |AD|. By formula (10.1), this
allows us to conclude that |BC|>|DC|, and it follows from this that
(why?). Now we can add to both sides of the last inequality to obtain
Therefore, (because
). This is equivalent to which is what we had to
prove.

10.2.2 Spheres
DEFINITION 10.2.1. A sphere is the collection of all points (or surface) in space
that are a specified distance from a given point (called the center of the sphere).

FIGURE 10.2. A plane intersecting a sphere.

If a plane intersects a sphere, the intersection is always a circle in the sphere

(as shown in figure 10.2). Conversely, any circle in the sphere is contained in a
plane intersecting the sphere.

DEFINITION 10.2.2. If a plane that intersects the sphere passes through the center
of the sphere, the intersection is called a great circle; if not, it is called a small
circle.

EXAMPLE 10.2.1. The equator and meridians on the Earth (regarded as a sphere)
are great circles.

DEFINITION 10.2.3. A hemisphere is either of two halves of a sphere obtained

when any plane passes through the center of the sphere.

DEFINITION 10.2.4. The poles of a great circle are the two ends of the diameter of
the sphere that is perpendicular to the plane containing the great circle (see
figure 10.3).
Any two points that are the end points of a diameter of the sphere can be
referred to as antipodal points. Thus, the poles of a great circle are antipodal
points.

EXAMPLE 10.2.2. The North Pole and the South Pole are poles of the equator (the
line connecting the North Pole to the South Pole through the center of the Earth
is perpendicular to the plane of the equator).

FIGURE 10.3. The poles of a great circle.

REMARK 10.2.1. Because the relationship of the equator to the poles of the Earth
is familiar to us, it will be useful in the continuation of this chapter to refer to the
great circle in a plane perpendicular to the diameter of the sphere joining two
specified antipodal points, as the “equator,” and to refer to the arcs of great
circles joining them, as “meridians”.
An important geometrical fact about the sphere is that there is a unique great
circle passing through any two given points on the sphere and that the shortest
distance between any specified pair of points is the length of the shorter arc of
the great circle passing through the two points. For this reason, we think of great
circles on the sphere as the analogues of straight lines in the plane.

DEFINITION 10.2.5. A tangent plane to a sphere is a plane that touches the sphere
at only one point, and a tangent line to a sphere is a line (contained in a tangent
plane) that touches the sphere at only one point (see figure 10.4).

FIGURE 10.4. A tangent plane and a tangent line.

Note that for any specified point p on a sphere, there is a unique tangent
plane denoted as Tp that is tangent to the sphere and passes through p. All
tangent lines to the sphere passing through p are contained in Tp.

DEFINITION 10.2.6. A tangent line to a circle on the sphere is a line that is

tangent to the sphere and also contained in the plane that contains the circle
(see figure 10.5).
 FIGURE 10.5. A tangent line to a circle on the sphere.

If two distinct circles on a sphere intersect (at one or two points), then the
angle between the circles at an intersection point is defined to be the smallest
angle formed between the two tangent lines to the circles at the point of
intersection. If there are two intersection points, then the angle will be the same
at each point, and so we can talk about the angle between the circles. This is
shown in figure 10.6, in which the angle, labeled θ, is measured in the tangent
plane that contains the tangent lines. If two circles meet at one point then the
circles are touching and they have a common tangent line at the touching point,
which means the angle between them is zero.

FIGURE 10.6. An angle between two tangent lines.

The following fact is not hard to verify geometrically (think about the
definition of a great circle):

REMARK 10.2.2. Any two distinct great circles intersect at two antipodal points,
called vertices, on the sphere.
Therefore, we have the following definition:

DEFINITION 10.2.7. The angle between any two distinct great circles (i.e., the
angle at each vertex) is referred to as a spherical angle.

REMARK 10.2.3. Any two distinct great circles on a sphere divide the sphere into
four regions, separated by four meridians, and each region is called a lune.

REMARK 10.2.4. In order to simplify the statements of the basic formulas in

spherical trigonometry, we will assume, for the remainder of this chapter, that
the sphere is a unit sphere, which means that all points are a unit distance from
the center of the sphere. A consequence of this is that all great circles on the
sphere are unit circles (i.e., circles with unit radius) that are centered at the center
of the sphere.
REMARK 10.2.5. Because the radian measure of an angle is defined as the length
of the arc of the unit circle corresponding to the angle (see definition 4.2.1), we
can identify the length of an arc of a great circle with the angle subtended by the
arc at the center of the sphere. This identification can be made in radians or in
degrees.
In figure 10.7, the length of an arc of a great circle is 30° (π/6 radians).

FIGURE 10.7. Measuring an angle.

We have the following useful interpretation of the radian measure of a

spherical angle.

REMARK 10.2.6. The radian measure of the spherical angle formed by any two
distinct great circles is the radian measure of the angle subtended at the center of
the sphere by the smaller arc of the equator crossing the great circles. (That is,
the equator with respect to the vertices, as explained in remark 10.2.1).

FIGURE 10.8. A spherical angle.

It is helpful to imagine the spine of an opened book aligned along the

diameter joining the vertices and the opened pages of the book aligned with the
planes containing the great circles, then the spherical angle is the angle between
the opened pages in a plane that is perpendicular to the spine of the book.
 Examine figure 10.8, in which the radian measure of the angle DÔE (the
radian measure of the spherical angle) is precisely the length of the arc of the
equator from E to D (labeled l).

10.2.3 Spherical Triangles

DEFINITION 10.2.8. A spherical triangle is a triangle on the sphere bounded by
three arcs of great circles.
In figure 10.8, the arcs AE, AD, and ED are the circular arc boundaries of the
spherical triangle AED with vertices at A, E, and D.
We need to think a little bit about the geometry of spherical triangles,
because the construction of spherical triangles is more complicated than the
construction of triangles in the plane. If three distinct lines in the plane are not
concurrent (i.e., do not all pass through the same point) and no two lines are
parallel to each other, then they determine a single triangle. On the sphere,
however, any three distinct great circles that do not all pass through the same
pair of vertices determine a number of spherical triangles. For example, figure
10.9 shows three distinct great circles on a sphere. Can you count the number of
spherical triangles?

FIGURE 10.9. Spherical triangles on a sphere.

We can simplify this complicated situation by designating as proper

spherical triangles, those spherical triangles that can fit on a hemisphere (that is,
they do not wrap too much around the sphere). It is clear that there are eight
proper spherical triangles in figure 10.9 because any two distinct great circles
divide a sphere into four lunes, which are each smaller than a hemisphere, and
the third great circle divides each lune into two proper spherical triangles.
 Henceforth, we will assume that all spherical triangles are, in fact, proper
spherical triangles, but we should not forget that we are restricting the definition
of a spherical triangle.
The theorems below state some important facts about spherical triangles. The
angle at each vertex of a spherical triangle is the spherical angle (as in definition
10.2.7). We typically label the vertices of a spherical triangle as A, B, and C, and
the sides opposite these vertices as a, b, and c. We also refer to the angle at a
vertex and the length of a side by means of their label. For instance, theorem
10.2.2 states that for any spherical triangle a + b < c < b, and b + c < a.

THEOREM 10.2.2. The length of any side of a spherical triangle is less than the
sum of the lengths of the other two sides.

PROOF. The three distinct planes containing the three sides of the spherical
triangle form a vertex at the center of the sphere. The length of each side is
exactly a face angle at the center of the sphere, and so the result follows from
theorem 10.2.1.

THEOREM 10.2.3.
(a) The length of any side of a spherical triangle is less than 180° (π).
(b) The sum of the lengths of the sides of a spherical triangle is less
than 360° (2π).

PROOF. Both of these properties follow from the fact that a spherical triangle is
contained within a hemisphere. In particular, (a) states that any side of a
spherical triangle is less than half of a great circle (this is obvious) and (b) states
that the perimeter of a proper spherical triangle is less than the perimeter of a
hemisphere.
In more detail, to see why (b) is true, consider figure 10.10, in which the two
sides a and b of a spherical triangle ABC extend to two meridians intersecting at
the pair of vertices C and C*, and the spherical triangle ABC is contained in the
lune between these meridians. The third side c of the spherical triangle ABC
divides the lune into two spherical triangles. The sides of the second spherical
triangle are a*, b*, and c. By theorem 10.2.2, c < a* + b*, therefore a + b + c < a
+ b + a* + b*, which can be restated as a + b + c < (a + a*) + (b + b*). Because
each of a + a* and b + b* is a meridian with length π, we can conclude that a + b
+ c < 2π.

FIGURE 10.10. A lune.

Here is one property that planar triangles and spherical triangles have in
common. (We do not provide the proof.)

THEOREM 10.2.4. Let the lengths of the sides and the spherical angles of a
spherical triangle be labeled as a, b, c and A, B, C, respectively. Then, the order
of magnitudes of the sides is the same as the order of magnitudes of the angles,
that is, if a < b < c, then A < B < C (and conversely).
We now introduce the notion of a polar spherical triangle, which is very
useful for proving theorems about spherical triangles.

DEFINITION 10.2.9. If we regard the three vertices of a given spherical triangle

ABC as the poles for three great circles, then arcs of these great circles form a
second, unique triangle, called the polar spherical triangle A′ B′ C′ of the first,
in which the arc A′ B′ is contained in the equator of C, the arc A′ C′ is contained
in the equator of B, and the arc B′ C′ is contained in the equator of A;
furthermore, A and A′ are in the same hemisphere determined by the great
circle passing through B and C, B and B′ are in the same hemisphere
determined by the great circle passing through A and C, and C and C′ are in the
same hemisphere determined by the great circle passing through A and B.
Figure 10.11 is an illustration of a spherical triangle ABC and its polar
spherical triangle A′B′C′.
Here is a basic theorem relating to polar spherical triangles:

THEOREM 10.2.5. If A′B′C′ is the polar spherical triangle of a spherical triangle

ABC, then ABC is the polar spherical triangle of the spherical triangle A′B′C′.
 FIGURE 10.11. Mutually polar spherical triangles.

PROOF. In figure 10.11, O is the center of the sphere. The line AO is

perpendicular to the plane through O containing the arc B′C′ and, therefore,
perpendicular to the line C′O. Similarly, the line BO is perpendicular to the plane
through O containing the arc A′C′ and, therefore, also perpendicular to the line
C′O. This means that C′O is perpendicular to the plane through O containing the
arc AB, from which we conclude that C′ is a pole for the arc AB. Similarly, B′
and A′ are poles for the arcs AC and BC, respectively. Therefore, ABC is the
polar spherical triangle of spherical triangle A′B′C′.

We can describe ABC and A′B′C′ as mutually polar spherical triangles. The
statement of the next theorem relating to mutually polar spherical triangles might
be confusing at first, but the proof of the theorem will make it clear.

THEOREM 10.2.6. In two mutually polar spherical triangles, an angle of one is

the supplement of the side opposite the corresponding angle of the other.
 FIGURE 10.12. Mutually polar spherical triangles.

PROOF. Figure 10.12 is a modification of figure 10.11, in which the arc BC has
been extended to meet the equator of B at the point P. Similarly, the arc BA
meets the equator of B at the point Q. By the definition of a spherical angle, the
magnitude of the angle B is the same as the length of the (shorter) arc from P to
Q. Now because BP is contained in the equator for A′, and BQ is contained in the
equator for C′, we can conclude that A′P = 90° and C′Q = 90°. Therefore,

B = PQ = PA′ + A′Q = 90° + (90° − A′C′) = 180° − A′C′.

Similarly, A = 180° − B′C′ and C = 180° − A′B′. This proves the theorem.
It is worthwhile to make a list of all the relationships contained in the
statement of theorem 10.2.6. If we denote by a′, b′, c′ the arcs of spherical
triangle A′B′C′ opposite the vertices A′, B′, C′, respectively, then

We are ready now to prove a theorem that exhibits another way in which the
geometry of spherical triangles is drastically different from the geometry of
planar triangles.

THEOREM 10.2.7.
(a) Every angle in a spherical triangle is less than 180° (π).
(b) The sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is less than 540° (3π).
(c) The sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is greater than 180°
(π).

PROOF. (a) We have already proved that any side of a spherical triangle is less
than 180°. Therefore, the length of a side subtracted from 180° is also less than
180°. If we look at the first column of equations above, this means that A, B, and
C are each less than 180°. (b) By adding A, B, and C in the first column of
equations above, we find that A + B + C = 540° − (a′ + b′ + c′), and so the right-
hand side of this equation is less than 540°. (c) Furthermore, by theorem
10.2.3(b) above, a′ + b′ + c′ < 360°. Therefore,

A + B + C = 540° − (a′ + b′ + c′) > 540° − 360° = 180°.

The amount by which the sum of angles of a spherical triangle exceeds 180°
is known as the spherical excess of the spherical triangle. It is usually denoted as
E, that is

E = (A + B + C) − 180°.
The following theorem states something surprising about the spherical
excess.

THEOREM 10.2.8. On the unit sphere, the spherical excess of a spherical triangle
is equal to the area of the spherical triangle (Girard’s Theorem).

PROOF. Figure 10.13 shows a spherical triangle with vertices at A, B, and C

formed by two great circles meeting at C and a third great circle (the boundary
of the hemisphere) passing through A and B. The hemisphere is divided into four
regions and their areas are labeled u, v, w, and x.
We will make use of the following fact: if the angle between two great
circles is denoted by α, then the area of each of the smaller two lunes between
the great circles is equal to (Recall that the surface area of the unit
sphere is 4π.) Applied to figure 10.13, this means that

where Â, , and Ĉ are the angles at the vertices of the spherical triangle. If we
add the three equations above, we obtain

However, we know that u + v + w + x + 2π (the area of a hemisphere).

Therefore,
or

which is what we had to prove.

FIGURE 10.13. A proof of Girard’s Theorem.

Theorem 10.2.8 is named after Albert Girard, a French-born mathematician who

lived from 1595 to 1632.

10.3 VECTORS IN SPACE

Vectors in the Cartesian plane were introduced in chapter 2 and studied further
in chapter 4. Here, we look at vectors in space and define an operation called the
cross product of two vectors. The properties of the cross product that we
discover in this section will make it possible for us to prove some important
formulas relating to spherical triangles in section 10.4.
 FIGURE 10.14. Two vectors spanning the Cartesian plane.

Before proceeding, it is important to know that any two nonparallel vectors

in the Cartesian plane span the Cartesian plane. This means that any other vector
in the Cartesian plane can be expressed as a sum of appropriate scalar multiples
of each of the given vectors.
To illustrate, suppose that the two (nonparallel) vectors are
and is some other arbitrary vector. It is easy
to demonstrate, as shown in figure 10.14, that if is stretched in the opposite
direction (i.e., multiplied by a suitable negative scalar α) and is shortened in
the opposite direction (i.e., multiplied by another suitable negative scalar β), then
they add up to the vector . In so doing, the vectors α and β span a
parallelogram with as a diagonal vector and we say that the vector is
expressed as a linear combination of vectors and .
In the same way that two nonparallel vectors in the Cartesian plane span the
Cartesian plane, any two nonparallel vectors in space span a plane in space, as
shown in figure 10.15.
The angle between two vectors in space can be determined in the plane
spanned by the vectors. By convention, when we refer to the angle between two
vectors, we always mean the smaller of the two angles; thus, the angle between
two vectors can be 0° (when the vectors point in the same direction), an acute
angle (as shown in the first diagram in figure 10.15), 90° (when the vectors are
orthogonal), an obtuse angle (as shown in the second diagram in figure 10.15),
or 180° (when the vectors point in opposite directions).
 FIGURE 10.15. The angle between two vectors.

10.3.1 The Cross Product of Two Vectors

Recall that the dot product applied to two vectors produces a scalar (a real
number). The cross product (notation: × ) of two vectors and , however, is
a new vector so we have to specify its direction and magnitude.
First, × is perpendicular (orthogonal) to both of the given vectors and
(which means it is also perpendicular to the plane spanned by and ), so there
are two possible directions for × , each the opposite of the other (as shown in
figure 10.16). The appropriate direction is chosen according to a convention
called the right-hand rule: if the fingers of the right-hand curl through the
(smaller) angle from to , then × points in the direction of the thumb.

FIGURE 10.16. The right-hand rule.

Second, the magnitude of × is calculated by means of the formula

where θ is the angle between vectors and (note that 0 ≤ θ ≤ π). (This
resembles the formula for the dot product given in formula (4.22).) The factor | |
sin(θ) is the magnitude of the perpendicular projection of onto , which is the
length labeled h in figure 10.17.

FIGURE 10.17. The perpendicular projection of a vector.

REMARK 10.3.1. Unlike the dot product, the order of the vectors in the cross
product does matter; in fact (if the fingers of the right-hand curl
from to instead of from to , then the thumb points in the opposite
direction). This is shown in figure 10.16.

REMARK 10.3.2. Vectors are parallel if and only if their cross product is the zero
vector. (In particular, the cross product of a vector with itself is the zero vector.)
The reason for this is that two vectors are parallel if and only if the angle
between them is zero or π, and in either case the sine ratio of this angle is zero,
and so, by formula (10.2), the magnitude of the cross product is zero.

REMARK 10.3.3. It is important to remember that a dot product of two vectors is

always a scalar (a real number), whereas the cross product is always a vector
(which can be the zero vector).
If the magnitude of a vector is equal to 1, that is, it has a length of one unit,
then it is called a unit vector.

REMARK 10.3.4. If two unit vectors are perpendicular to each other, then their
cross product is again a unit vector. This follows from formula (10.2): if the
angle θ between the unit vectors and is a right angle, that is, then
REMARK 10.3.5 If is perpendicular to , then the direction of × can be found
by rotating an angle 90° around an axis containing the vector , according to
the right hand rule.
In table 10.1 are some properties of the cross product. Note that resemblance
to properties of the dot product in table 2.3.
TABLE 10.1. Properties of the cross product

The first property has already been explained. The proof of the second
property is left as an exercise. The third and fourth properties express the
distributive law for the cross product. They are difficult to prove using geometric
methods, so their proofs will not be given here.
Recall that the sum of two vectors and can be expressed geometrically as
the completion of a parallelogram. Because
and the factor in parenthesis is the magnitude of the perpendicular projection of
onto , we ascertain the following.

REMARK 10.3.6. The magnitude of the cross product of two vectors is the area of
the parallelogram spanned by the vectors.

10.3.2 Parallelepipeds and Cross Product Identities

In the same way that two nonparallel vectors span a parallelogram in a plane,
three vectors span a parallelepiped (pronounced “parallelpiped”) in space so
long as the three vectors are not coplanar (that is, they are not all contained in
the same plane). A parallelepiped has six faces, each of which is a parallelogram
spanned by two of the vectors.
 FIGURE 10.18. A parallelepiped.

1n figure 10.18, a parallelepiped is spanned by vectors , , and . The

parallelogram sparined by and can be taken as the base of the parallelepiped
(shade 1 in figure 10.18), and so × is perpendicular to the base. The
magnitude of the projection of onto × (denoted h in the diagram) is the
height of the parallelepiped. Therefore, the volume of th p rallelepiped, which is
defined as the area of the base times the height, can be expressed as h | × |.
According to the geometric interpretation of the dot product (see section 4.14.2),
an expression for h is Consequently, we can state the following:

REMARK 10.3.7. The volume of a parallelepiped spanned by three non-coplanar

vectors , and , is |( × ) · w |.

In fact, either of the permutations |( × ) · υ | and |( × ) · u | is also the

volume of the parallelepiped (in each case a different parallelogram is taken as
the base of the parallelepiped). Keep in mind that a volume is a positive number
so we have taken the absolute value of the dot product in each case. By means of
a more careful analysis (which we will not do here), it is possible to prove the
scalar triple product identity:

Because a cross product of vectors is also a vector, it is possible to form

cross products of cross products, for example,
and so on. We might need to simplify an
expression like so it is helpful to think about what this means
geometrically. We know that × is a vector that is perpendicular to the plane
spanned by vectors and . But this means that any vector that is perpendicular
to × , particularly the cross product of with × , would be contained in this
plane.
Therefore, as explained in the beginning of this section, we can write
as a linear combination of the vectors and , that is,
for some scalars c and d.
Mathematicians like to encapsulate their results as lemmas. These are usually
stepping stones to more important results and are usually technical in nature. We
will find the values of c and d above in the special case that and are unit
vectors (vectors with unit length) and express the result in the form of a lemma:

LEMMA 10.3.1. If and are unit vectors, that is, then

PROOF. As explained above, we can write

where c and d are unknown scalars. We will find c and d as follows: because
is perpendicular to , we have and then, by taking the
dot product with on both sides of formula (10.6):

Therefore and so we can write the following sequence of

equations:

Note that the scalar triple product identity (formula (10.4)) was used to
obtain the third equation. Now, we can solve for d:
 If θ is the angle between and , then this simplifies to

and this completes the proof of the lemma.

Here is another formula that can be used to find the volume of a

parallelepiped in the case that the spanning vectors are unit vectors:

LEMMA 10.3.2. If , , and are unit vectors, then is the volume

of the parallelepiped spanned by , , and . Furthermore

PROOF. The vector is perpendicular to both of the vectors

Stated differently, is perpendicular to a plane spanned by
According to the definition of a cross product, this means that is
parallel to , that is

for some scalar value α. If we take the dot product with on both sides of this
equation, then

Now read the following set of equations carefully. (The scalar triple product
identity is used to go from the first to the second line, and lemma 10.3.1 is used
to go from the second to the third line. The remaining steps use properties of the
dot and cross products.)
 According to formula (10.7), this proves that

which is the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by , , and . Similarly, the

volume of the parallellpiped is equal to the other two cross product formulas.

We will use lemma 10.3.2 to prove the basic identities relating the sides and
angles of a spherical triangle in section 10.4. Before proceeding to do so we need
to make some comments about normal vectors and the angle between two
planes.

10.3.2 The Angle Between Two Planes

Any plane in space has two unit normal vectors (pointing in opposite
directions) associated with it. A unit normal vector to a plane is a unit vector that
is perpendicular to the plane, and it can be obtained by taking the cross product
of any two nonparallel unit vectors contained in the plane and dividing the
vector so obtained by its own length (or the negative of its own length depending
on the choice of direction of the unit normal vector).
A useful property of unit normal vectors is that we can compute the angle
between two planes as the angle between the two appropriate unit normal
vectors. The direction of the unit normal vectors needs to be chosen depending
whether the smaller angle or its supplement is chosen as the angle between the
planes, if the planes are not perpendicular to each other. (Convince yourself that
this is true by drawing a cross-sectional diagram of two intersecting planes.)
In figure 10.19, two planes intersect in a line L md a vector is contained in
L. The angle between the planes is the angle between the vectors
which are on the same side of L in each of the planes, and both are perpendicular
to . According to remark 10.3.5, the angle between will be the
same as the angle between
Now, if is any vector contained in the same plane as 0 and points to the
same side of L as 0 and, if is any vector contained in the same plane as 0
and points to the same side of L as 0, then, according to the right-hand ruie, ×
will point in the same direction as wiil point in the same
direction as This tells us that the angle between the normal vectors
and × will be the same as the angle between the normal vectors
which is the angle between the planes.

FIGURE 10.19. The direction of a normal vector.

Our conclusion from this discussion can be summarized as follows:

REMARK 10.3.8. If a vector is common to two intersecting, noncoinciding, planes

and the cross products of this vector are taken with two vectors (in each of the
planes) that point to the same side of the intersection line of the planes as the
vectors that determine the angle between the planes, then the angle between the
normal vectors obtained in this way is the same as the angle between the planes.

10.4 SOLVING SPHERICAL TRIANGLES

As in planar trigonometry, there are laws for solving spherical triangles. The first
of these laws is called the sine rule (for spherical triangles). We will state it and
then use the methods of vector geometry from section 10.3 to prove it. After
that, we will state and prove the cosine rule for sides and state the cosine rule for
angles.
THEOREM 10.4.1. The sine rule: For a spherical triangle with spherical angles A,
B, and C and arc lengths a, b, and c,

PROOF. Shown in figure 10.20 is a spherical triangle with vertices labeled A, B, C

and the corresponding opposite sides labeled a, b, c, respectively. Also shown
are unit vectors from the origin O of the unit sphere to the vertices A, B, and C,
which are labeled , , and , respectively, that is,
respectively.

FIGURE 10.20. The proof of the sine rule.

The spherical angle A (the angle between the tangent vectors at A in figure
10.20) is the angle between the plane containing the vectors and and the arc
c, and the plane containing the vectors and and the arc b. Because
are a pair of normal vectors to these planes, the angle between
them is, by remark 10.3.8, equal to the spherical angle A (the vectors and
point to the same side of as the tangent vectors, which are perpendicular to )
and so, by the definition of the cross product,

Solving for sin(A) gives

Another inference we can make from figure 10.20 is that the angle a is the
angle between vectors and . Thus

By dividing the last two equations, we obtain

The corresponding formulas for the spherical angles at B and C are

The denominator on the right-hand side is the same in each case and, by
lemma 10.3.2, the numerators are the same in each case. This proves the sine
rule for spherical triangles.

THEOREM 10.4.2. The cosine rule for sides:

PROOF. Refer again to figure 10.20. As given in the proof of the sine rule for
spherical triangles, the angle between vectors is the angle A.
Therefore, according to the definition of the dot product,

If we apply the scalar triple product identity (formula (10.4)) to the

numerator of this fraction, then
 By lemma 10.3.1, this can be expressed as

This can be taken one step further by distributing the dot product with .
This yields

where the second equality follows from the fact that a is ihe angle between and
, b is the angle between and , and c is the angle between and . The terms
in the equation above can be rearranged to give the first statement of the cosine
rule for sides. The second and third statements of the cosine rule for sides can be
proved similarly.

The cosine rule for angles, stated next, can be proved by substituting the
appropriate relationships from theorem 10.2.6 into the cosine rule for sides
(theorem 10.4.2). This is left as an exercise.

THEOREM 10.4.3. The cosine rule for angles:

EXAMPLE 10.4.1. Find the side b in a spherical triangle if a = 76°, c = 58°, and B
= 117°.
Answer: Use the cosine rule for sides to solve for b:
10.5 SOLVING RIGHT SPHERICAL TRIANGLES (I)

If one of the angles of a spherical triangle is a right angle, then it is called a right
spherical triangle.
If the position of the right angle and two other elements of a right spherical
triangle are given; for example, two sides or an angle and a side, then “solving
the triangle,” as in planar trigonometry, means to find the other three parts. In
spherical trigonometry, the solution need not be unique (there can be more than
one triangle). In planar trigonometry, the solution is always unique (only one
possible triangle).
The formulas for solving a right spherical triangle will be derived from
definitions of the planar trigonometric ratios by means of the creation of
ordinary right triangles inside the sphere, having the same angles as the right
spherical triangle. Precisely, how to do this will be explained next. Recall that
the notation “⊥” is used to mean that one line segment is perpendicular to
another line segment.

FIGURE 10.21. Right triangles with common vertex at A.

Figure 10.21 shows a unit sphere and a spherical triangle ACB with a right
angle at C. Furthermore, the plane AOC is perpendicular to the plane BOC,
AN⊥OB, and AM⊥OC. The points M and N are joined to create the triangle
MON. It is also true that the triangle MNO has a right angle at N. This can be
verified by an application of the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem (theorem
9.5.8(b)):
 We can now conclude that MN and AN are parallel to the tangent vectors that
form the spherical angle at B and, therefore, the spherical angle at B is equal to
.
In triangle AOM, the angle at O is equal to b; therefore,

In triangle AON, the angle at O is equal to c; therefore

In triangle MON, the angle at O is equal to a; therefore (using formula

(10.12)),

and so
 FIGURE 10.22. Right triangles with common vertex at B.

In figure 10.22, BP⊥OA, BQ⊥OC, and the points P and Q are joined to
create triangle BPQ. Triangle OPQ has a right angle at P. (This can also be
proved by applying the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem.)
We can conclude now that the spherical angle at A is equal to
(definition of a spherical angle). We can also write down trigonometric ratios of
the angles a, b, and c:
In triangle BOQ, the angle at O is equal to a; therefore,

In triangle BOP, the angle at O is equal to c; therefore,

In triangle POQ, the angle at O is equal to b; therefore (using formula

(10.18)),
and so

We now derive ten identities for right spherical triangles. These are all the
identities needed for solving right spherical triangles.
From figure 10.21, we derive the following identities (using formulas (10.11)
and (10.13) in the first case and formulas (10.11) and (10.16) in the second
case).

From these two equations, we obtain

and

Using triangle BPQ in figure 10.22, we derive the following identities (using
formulas (10.17) and (10.19) in the first case and formulas (10.17) and (10.22) in
the second case).

From these two equations, we obtain

and

From the third equation of the cosine rule for sides (theorem 10.4.2) applied
to the spherical triangle ABC (with C = 90°), we derive the identity

By replacing the left-hand side of formula (10.26) with the right-hand side of
formula (10.23) and then eliminating the factor c sin according to formula
(10.25), we obtain

By replacing the left-hand side of formula (10.24) with the right-hand side of
formula (10.25) and then eliminating the factor c sin according to formula
(10.23), we obtain

By using formula (10.23) to replace the factor B sin, and formula (10.27) to
replace the factor a cos on the right-hand side of formula (10.28), we obtain

By using formula (10.25) to replace the factor A sin, and formula (10.27) to
replace the factor b cos on the right-hand side of formula (10.29), we obtain

and finally, by using formula (10.28) to replace the factor a cos, and formula
(10.29) to replace the factor b cos on the right-hand side of formula (10.27), we
obtain

This situation of having 10 different equations, that is, formulas (10.23)–

(10.32), for solving right spherical triangles is different from the situation in
planar trigonometry where essentially three equations are enough to solve any
right triangle. (Can you write down three such equations? You may assume that
an equation such as makes it possible to solve for θ if a and c are known.)

10.6 SOLVING RIGHT SPHERICAL TRIANGLES (II)


10.6.1 Rules for Quadrants
Some useful facts regarding right spherical triangles can be gleaned from
formulas (10.23) to (10.32). They are expressed in the form of three rules below.
We will refer to an angle that is not a right angle or a straight angle as an
oblique angle.

LEMMA 10.6.1. Rule 1 for quadrants: In a right spherical triangle, an oblique

angle and the side opposite are in the same quadrant (i.e., either the first or the
second quadrant).

PROOF. Consider formula (10.29) from section 10.5, which states: cosB = sinA
cosb. Because sin A > 0 (any angle in a spherical triangle is less than 180°), cosB
and cosb have the same sign, so B and b are in the same quadrant (the first
quadrant if cos B and cos b are both positive, and the second quadrant if cosB
and cosb are both negative).

LEMMA 10.6.2. Rule 2 for quadrants: When the hypotenuse (c) of a right
spherical triangle is less than 90°, then the other two arcs are in the same
quadrant; if the hypotenuse is greater than 90°, then the other two arcs are in
different quadrants.

PROOF. Consider equation formula (10.27) from section 10.5, which states that
cosc = cosacosb. If 0° < c < 90° (i.e., cosc is positive), then either (i) cosa or
cosb are both positive and, consequently, a and b are both in the first quadrant,
or (ii) cosa or cosb are both negative and, consequently, a and b are both in the
second quadrant. On the other hand, if 90° < c < 180° (that is, cosc is negative),
then either (i) cosa is positive and cosb is negative or (ii) cosa is negative and
cosb is positive—in either case, we see that a and b are in different quadrants.

LEMMA 10.6.3. Rule 3 for quadrants: When two given parts of a right spherical
triangle are a side and its opposite angle, and they are not equal, then there are
always two solutions (i.e., two triangles). If they are equal, then there is only one
solution (i.e., one triangle).
 FIGURE 10.23. A lune intersected by a great circle.

PROOF. Consider the lune AA* (in figure 10.23) that is intersected by the arc BC
of a great circle (not necessarily the equator) perpendicular to one side of the
lune (i.e., with a right angle at C). In the resulting spherical triangles ABC and
A*BC, the angles A and A*, being vertices of the lune, are equal. The arc a is
opposite A* in the triangle A*BC and opposite A* in the triangle A*BC. We
observe that unless BC divides the lune exactly in half (in which case a = A = A*
and the triangles ABC and A*BC are identical), the two spherical triangles ABC
and A*BC are different triangles with the side a in common and equal angles at
A and A*.
Thus, when an angle and the side opposite are given, and they are not equal,
then there are always two possible right spherical triangles, together forming a
lune.

EXAMPLE 10.6.1. Given a = 46° and A = 59°, solve the right spherical triangle.
Answer: By rule 3 for quadrants (lemma 10.6.3), there are two solutions (two
triangles). We apply formulas (10.25), (10.28), and (10.26), that is

sin c = sin a csc A sin B = sec a cos A sin b = tan a cot A

and then calculate the first solution: c = 57.056°, B = 47.853°, and b =
38.478°. (Here a and b are in the same quadrant by rule 2 for quadrants (lemma
10.6.2) and b and B are in the same quadrant by rule 1 for quadrants (lemma
10.6.1).) The second solution is c = 122.94, B = 132.15°, and b = 141.523. (Here,
a and b are in different quadrants, by rule 2 for quadrants (lemma 10.6.2), and b
and B are in the same quadrant, by rule 1 for quadrants (lemma 10.6.1).) As an
exercise, check these answers using formula (10.23), that is, sin b = sin c sin B.
EXAMPLE 10.6.2. Given c = 109° and B = 27°, solve the right spherical triangle.
Answer: We use rule 2 for quadrants (lemma 10.6.2) and formulas (10.23),
(10.31), and (10.32), that is

sin b = sin c sin B tan a = tan ccos B cot A = cos c tan B

and then calculate the solution: b = 25.420°, a = 111.13°, and A = 99.419°.

(Here, b and B are in the same quadrant by rule 1 (lemma 10.6.1), a and b are in
different quadrants, by rule 2 (lemma 10.6.2), and a and A are in the same
quadrant, by rule 1 (lemma 10.6.1).) This answer can be checked using formula
(10.26), that is, sin b = tan a cot A.

10.6.2 Napier’s Rules

Napier’s Rules describe a method for easily finding the equations needed to
solve a right spherical triangle by means of a simple diagram, so that it is not
necessary to search through the list of ten equations derived in section 10.5 to
find the correct equations.
We make use of the following notation: Let A denote 90°−A (i.e., A is the
complement of A), B denote 90°−B (i.e., B is the complement of B), and c denote
90°−c (i.e., c is the complement of c). (Recall from definition 9.3.5 that two
angles are complementary if they add up to 90°.) We write the parts a, B, c, A, b,
in a “pie” diagram (Napier’s pentagon) as shown in figure 10.24: Two or three
consecutive parts in Napier’s pentagon are called adjacent; for example, A, b, a
and B, c, A are adjacent, whereas B, c, b are not adjacent.
 FIGURE 10.24. Napier’s pentagon.

There are two rules (Napier’s Rules) for writing down equations from
Napier’s pentagon:

LEMMA 10.6.4. Napier’s Rules (I): If three parts of Napier’s pentagon are not
adjacent, then the sine of the separate part is the product of the cosines of the
opposite parts.

EXAMPLE 10.6.3. sinc = cosa cosb

LEMMA 10.6.5. Napier’s Rules (II): If three parts of Napier’s pentagon are
adjacent, then the sine of the middle part is the product of the tangents of the two
adjacent parts.

EXAMPLE 10.6.4. sinB = tamatanc

An equation for determining the missing part of any right spherical triangle
(given any two parts) can now be determined using Napier’s Rules.

EXAMPLE 10.6.5. Using the data in example 10.6.2, that is, c = 109° and B = 27°,
find b, a, and A using Napier’s Rules.
Answer: To determine b, note that B and c are opposite b in Napier’s
pentagon. Therefore, we apply rule 1 (lemma 10.6.4):

and so b = 25.420°, as in example 10.6.2. To determine a, we note that a, B, c

are adjacent and B is the middle part; therefore, by rule 2 (lemma 10.6.5),

sinB = tanatanc

which is equivalent to
and so a = 111.13°, as in example 10.6.2.
To continue, use Napier’s Rules to obtain cot A = cos c tan B, in order to
solve for A.

EXERCISES

10.1. If a spherical triangle has vertices A, B, and C, use the statements of
theorems 10.2.2, 10.2.6, and 10.2.7 to prove that −π < A + B − C < π.
(Similarly, we have -π < B + C − A <π and −< A + C − B < −.)
10.2. Use the statement and method of proof of lemma 10.3.1 to prove the
following more general identity for vector products, called the vector
triple product.

(Hint: Let and set Calculate in

order to solve for c and d. (Verify that lemma 10.3.1 still applies if | | ≠
1.))
10.3. Prove the cosine rule for angles (theorem 10.4.3).
10.4. The purpose of this exercise is to prove the following half angle identity
for spherical triangles:

To prove this identity, start from the identity which can be

 derived from the half angle identities for sine and cosine (formulas (4.17) and
(4.18)) and then use a reformulation of the cosine rule for angles (theorem
10.4.3) to replace cos c by After simplifying the expression, make
use of the addition identities and identities for sums and differences of cosine
ratios in planar trigonometry. Notice that the factors cos(S − A), cos(S − B), and
coa(S − C) are each positive because of the property proved in exercise 10.1, and
−cos(S) is positive by theorem 10.2.7(b) and (c).
10.5. Write out neatly the derivations of formulas (10.28)–(10.32).
10.6. Show that if a spherical triangle has two right angles, then the sides
opposite the right angles are each 90° and the third side equals the third
angle.
(Hint: Assume B = C = 90° and use formulas (10.23), (10.28) and
(10.32).)
10.7. If a spherical triangle is identical to its polar triangle, what can you say
about the spherical triangle?
10.8. In a spherical triangle ABC,
(a) given B = 65°, b = 47°, C = 79°, find c using the sine rule.
(b) given a = 118°, c = 68°, B = 65°, find b using the cosine rule for
sides.
10.9. Derive the following form of the cosine rule for angles.

(Hint: To derive the first formula in formula (10.34), replace “sin(B)” with
“ ” in the first equation in formula (10.10) and then use algebraic
methods to solve for cos(B).)
10.10. Derive the following form of the cosine rule for sides:
 (Hint: rewrite the formulas from the previous exercise in terms of the
corresponding polar triangle.)

10.11. Use the sine rule, the cosine rules and the reformulations of the cosine
rules in exercises 10.9 and 10.10 to to solve the following spherical
triangles with the information given. The solutions should satisfy the
statements of theorems 10.2.2, 10.2.3, 10.2.7, and especially theorem
10.2.4. In some cases there can be two solutions (two triangles) and in
some cases there can be no solution. The number of solutions is indicated
in parentheses because we have not presented enough theory in this
chapter to determine from the given information how many solutions there
should be.
(a) a = 135°, b = 45°, c = 120° (one solution)
(b) A = 145°, B = 120°, C = 150° (one solution)
(c) c = 84°, A = B = 82° (one solution)
(d) a = 76°, A = B = 50° (one solution)
(e) a = 36°, c = 84°, B = 22° (one solution)
(f) b = 49°, B = 141°, C = 42° (no solution)
(g) a = 81°, b = 68°, B = 56° (two solutions)
(h) b = 132°, B = 128°, C = 55° (two solutions)
10.12. Given C = 90°, A = 35°, c = 114°, make use of rule 1 for quadrants
(lemma 10.6.1) to find a, and then make use of rule 2 for quadrants
(lemma 10.6.2) to find b.
10.13. Solve (if possible) each of the following right spherical triangles (with C =
90°) with the given information by selecting from the ten identities
 derived in section 10.5.
(a) a = 49°, b = 61°
(b) A = 62°, c = 71°
(c) A = 125°, B = 108°
(d) b = 139°, c = 112°
(e) a = 73°, c = 112°
(f) A = 63°, B = 20°
(g) a = 90°, c = 90°
10.14. Use Napier’s rules (lemmas 10.6.4 and 10.6.5) to solve the triangles in
exercise 10.13.
APPENDIX A: ANSWERS TO
SELECTED EXERCISES

CHAPTER 1 SELECTED ANSWERS

2. (a)

5. (a) (b, c]
(b)
(c) [b, d)
(d)
(e) {b}
8. (a) 133
(b)
(c) 2x2 + 11x −6
(d)
(e) 2

11. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
 (e)

(f)

(g)

14. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)
(i)

16. (a) 0.07

(b)
(c) 0.077
(d)
(e) 0.125
(f)
(g) 0.625
(h)
(i)
(j)
 (k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)
(q)
22. (a) prime (b)
(c) composite 232
(d)
(e) composite 13·14
(f)
(g) composite 32·3803·3607

25. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

28. (a)
(b)
(c)
 (d)
(e) −2(xy)3
(f)
(g)

CHAPTER 2 SELECTED ANSWERS

6. (a)

(b)

(c)

10. (a)

(b)
(c) y = −6x − 1

13.

16. (a) 1
(b)
(c)

19. (a)

22. (a) (x−2)2 + y2 = 5

(b)

(c)

30. (a) 2, 2
 (b)
(c) 4, −1

CHAPTER 3 SELECTED ANSWERS

1. (a) 10
(b)
(c) no solution
(d)

(e)

4. (a) (x + 1)2 −1
(b)

(c)

7. (a) −6x3 + 3x2 − 10x + 5

(b)
(c) 1 − 16x4
(d)
(e) 1 − 4x2
(f)
(g) 1−8x + 24x2 − 32x2 + 16x4
(h)
(i) 64−192x + 240x2 − 160x3 + 60x4 − 12x5 + x6
11. −18
19. (a) 2(x + 2)(7x −1) (b)
 (c) −6(11x+5)(2x−1)

21. (a) −4(x − 1)2

(b)
(c) (6u − 19υ)(6u + 19υ)
(d)
(e) 3(9t − 2)(9t + 2)
23. (a) −1, 2
(b)

(c)

29. (a) 2x2 + 4xy (b)

(c) x = 2, y = 3

33. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

39. (a) 4x2 − 4x + 10

(b)
(c) x3 + 3x2 + 52x + 50
 42. (x + 2i)(x − 2i)(x + i)(x − i) 46.

CHAPTER 4 SELECTED ANSWERS

1. (a) 315°
(b)
(c) 282.857°
(d)
(e) 57.296°
3. (a) second quadrant 6. (a) 2
(b)

(c)

(d)
(e)
(f)

(g)

19. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

22. 20.415 meters 27. 4.226 meters 37.

CHAPTER 5 SELECTED ANSWERS
8. (a) {x ∈ R|x ≠ −3}
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e) {u ∈ R|u ≥ 0, u ≠ 4}
(f)
(g) {r ∈ R|r ≤ 3 or r ≥ 11}
17. (a) 49
(b)
(c) 6
(d)
(e) 2

35. (a) the domain is {x ∈ R|x > 1}

(b) the domain is {x ∈ R|x > 1}

(c) the domain is {x ∈ R|x ≥ 2}

51. (a) 53 = 125

(b)
(c)
(d)

(e)

54. (a) 8
(b)
 (c) −1
(d)
(e) −1
(f)
(g) −3

56. (a)

(b)

(c)

64. (a) x (b)

(c)
(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

CHAPTER 6 SELECTED ANSWERS

1. (a)

(b)

(c)

4. (a)
 (b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

7. (a)

(b)

(c)

13. (a) x = 6
16. (a) −1
(b)

(c)

(d)
(e)
(f)
(g) υ ≤ 1, υ ≥ 3
19. (a) 9
(b)
(c) 7
(d)
(e) 1, 4
(f)
(g) −1, 2
(h)
 (i) 2
(j)
(k)

22. (a)

(b)
(c)

(d)

(e)

23. (a)

(b)
(c) 0.581 + 2nπ, 2.561 + 2nπ

27. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

30. (a)

(b)
 (c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

33. (a)

(b)
(c) (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, −3) ∪ (−1, ∞)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

36. (a) [1, ∞)∪{0}

(b)

(c)

42. (a) x2 + y2 = 4

(b)

(c)

(d) [0, 7]
(e) [−3, 5]
CHAPTER 7 SELECTED ANSWERS
4. (a) 0
(b) 1
(c) 1
(d) 0
10. (a) 1
(b)
(c) 0
(d)
(e) 0
(f)
(g) 0

13. (a)

16.

20.

25. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
(e) 108
 (f)
(g) 0
(h)
(i) −2

35. (a)

(b)
(c) 1
(d)

(e)

(f)
(g) 2

CHAPTER 8 SELECTED ANSWERS

2. (a) 2
(b)
(c) 6
(d)
(e)

5. (a)

13. (a) −2x−1

(b)

(c)

(d)
 (e)

16. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

20. (a)

(b)

(c)

24. (a)

28. −2.67, −0.58 and 3.25

33. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

37. 300 by 600

43. inches bent into a circle, and inches bent into a

 square 48. (a) 10x (b)
(c) −π sin(πx)
(d)
(e) 2(x + π)
51. (a) 2304
(b)
(c) −π
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g) 0
(h)

(i)

(j)
(k) 0

53. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)
 (g)

57. (a) −sin(t), cos(t)

(b)
(c) −2πsin(2πt), 3π cos(3πt)
(d)
(e) 2, 2t
(f)
(g) 2, 3
(h)

(i)

60. (a) 2uexp(u2) (b)

(c) (sin(u)+cos(u))eusin(u)
(d)

(e)

63. (a) ln(6)6w

(b)
3 2
(c) 3ln(2)w22w + 2 ln(3)w3w
(d)
(e) ln(2)2sin(w) cos(w) − ln(3)3cos(w) sin(w) (f)

(g)

66. (a)
 (b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

(k)

CHAPTER 10 SELECTED ANSWERS

11. (a) A = 125.26°, B = 54.74°, C = 90°

(b)
(c) a = 153.09°, b = 43.10°, c = 156.77°
(d)
(e) C = 85.23°, a = b = 81.21°
(f)
(g) A = 62.02°, c = 123.45°, C = 131.75° or A = 117.98°, c = 24.92°, C
= 22.13° (check that in each case) 13. (a) c =
71.45°, B = 67.30°, A = 52.75°
(b) a = 56.60°, b = 53.74°, B = 58.52°
INDEX

A
Absolute value function, 134
Addition identities, 107–109
Algebra
inequalities
simplifying inequalities, 189
solving, 189–195
two-variable, 195–197
operations
addition and subtraction, 5–6
division, 6–7
multiplication, 6
recurring decimals and irrational numbers, 7
partial fractions
formula, 186
method of, 185
rational exponents, 172–174
rational expressions
adding and subtracting, 170–171
multiplying and dividing, 170
solving equations
quadratic equation, 175
trigonometric equation, 179–181
Angles, 297
cartesian plane, 90–92
double-angle identities, 109
half-angle identities, 110
negative, 96, 97
unit circle, 95, 96
Arabic numerals, 2
Astroid, 133

B
Binary operation, 5
Binomial factors, 8

 C
Calculus
basic applications of
differential approximation formula, 264
Fermat’s theorem, 265
Pythagorean formula, 266
rectangular sheet, 266
tangent line, 264
time–displacement function, 263
exponential functions
derivatives of, 275–278
power rule, proof of, 280–281
formula for e, 274–275
logarithmic functions
derivatives of, 278–280
power rule, proof of, 280–281
vector-valued functions, 271–272
Cancellation equations, 150
Cartesian plane, 195
angles in, 90–92
circles, 35–36
conic sections
basic form, 36
doubling cube, problem of, 38
ellipse, 37
hyperbola, 37
parabola, 37
coordinate system, 28
linear equations and straight lines
graph of, 29–30
horizontal and vertical lines, 34–35
line, 30–32
parallel and perpendicular lines, 33
perpendicular bisector, equation of, 35
statistical analysis, 32–33
vector algebra
addition and scalar multiplication of, 40–42
dot product of, 43–45
properties of, 39
standard basis vectors, 43
subtraction of, 42–43
triangle inequality and parallelogram law, 45
Cayley product, 73
Chain rule, 268
composition of
graphs, 269
lines, 268
Leibniz notation, 270
Circles, 35–36
Codomain, 129
Cofunction identities, 98
Completing the square, 55
Complex numbers, 57
Congruent triangles, 307, 308
Coordinate pair, 28
Corollary, 301
Cosecant graphs, 104
Cosine graphs, 99–101
scaling and shifting of, 101–102
Cosine rule, 115, 359, 360
application of, 116, 117
Cotangent graph, 103
Counting numbers, 3
Cube root function, 248

D
Decimal notation
conversion, 15
decimal representation of
fractions, 12–13
irrational numbers, 14
rounding off decimals, 15–16
scientific notation and precision, 14
Decimal number system, 2
Derivative
definition of, 248–250
formula for, 246–248
functions,
Leibniz notation, 253–254
natural numbers, power rule for, 252–253
sum, product, and quotient rules, 254–257
graphs tangential
tangent line, 245–246
x-axis, 244–245
rational exponents, power rule for, 260–261
trigonometric functions, 261–262
Differential calculus. See Calculus
Discriminant, 58
Division
complex numbers, 75
polynomials, 61–63
Double-angle identities, 109

E
Elementary theorems, geometry
circles
 circles
chords and subtended angles, 317–321
cyclic quadrilaterals, 321–323
tangent lines and secant lines, 324–326
lines and polygons
angles, 305–306
parallelograms and parallel lines, 310–313
triangles, 307–309
Euclidean geometry
basic problem solving, 301–303
elementary theorems. See Elementary theorems, geometry elements, 295–297
examples and applications, 326–331
terminology
angles, 297
circles, 299–300
line, 298
polygon, 299

F
Face angle, 344
Factor theorem, 64
Fermat’s theorem, 265
Floor function, 217
Fractional exponents, 134–135
Fractions
number line, 3
improper, 13
LCD, 18
decimal representation of, 12–13
Function, 129
absolute value, 134
definition of, 129
exponent
fractional, 134–135
graphs of, 135–136
irrational, 135
graphs of equations, 133
inverse, 149
increasing and decreasing functions, 154–155
inverse of a point, 149
logarithms, 150–153
one-to-one functions, 153–154
trigonometric functions, 155–157
machine analogy of, 130
operations
algebra of, 141–142
compositions of, 142–143
piecewise defined function, 139–140
rational, 137–138
 root, 138–139
sine function, 133
symmetry of, 140–141
transformations of
reflections across axes, 144
vertical and horizontal scaling, 144
vertical and horizontal shifts, 143–144
types of, 131
vector-valued functions
circle, 146
definition, 145
directed curve/trajectory, 145, 146, 148
line, 146–148
vertical line test, 133–134

G
Girard’s theorem, 351, 352
Group theory, 84

H
Half-angle identities, 110
Horizontal line test, 153
Hypotenuse, 94

I
Incidence theorems, 304
Inequalities
polynomials, 189, 191, 194
simplifying inequalities, 189
two-variable, 195–197
Inscribe, 301
Intermediate value theorem (IVT), 223–225
Intersect, 300
Interval, 4–5
Inverse tangent function, 155
Inverse trigonometric functions, 155–157, 281–282
Irrational exponents, 135

L
Laws for exponents, 18–19
Laws of algebra
decimal notation. see Decimal notation
fractions and inequalities, 3
interval, 4–5
laws for exponents, 18–19
 laws of division, 10–12
natural numbers, 8–9
LCD, 18
prime decomposition of, 16–17
prime factors of, 17
small prime numbers, testing, 17
numbers
counters, 2
entities, 3
line, 2
quantifiers, 2
sets of, 3–4
symbols, 3
radicals, 19–20
real number
absolute value of, 5
foil, 8
Laws of division, 10–12
Limit
computation of
piecewise-defined functions, 219–220
simplification, 220–222
continuity
applications of, 223–225
continuous functions, 218
definition of, 216
discontinuity, 216–217
interval, 217–218
function, 211–215
horizontal asymptotes
oscillations approaching, 226
rational function, 228, 229
rational functions, vertical asymptotes of, 231–232
rules for, 235–236
squeeze theorem, 233–235
Linear factor, 64
Logarithmic function, 150
Logarithmic scale, 153
Logistic differential equation, 277
Logistic graph, 278
Lowest common denominator (LCD), 18, 170
Lune, 347

M
Matrices
complex numbers, 74–75
2 × 2 matrices, 71–74
Method of exhaustion, 208
Mid-point theorem, 313

N
Napier’s pentagon, 365
Napier’s rules, 365–366
Natural logarithm, 151
Natural numbers, 8–9
LCD, 18
prime decomposition of, 16–17
prime factors of, 17
small prime numbers, testing, 17
Negative number, 2
Newton’s method, 257
Newton–Raphson method, 259
Numbers
algebraic system, 3
counters, 2
entities, 3
line, 2
quantifiers, 2
sets of, 3
symbols, 3

P
Parallel/perpendicular lines, 33–34
Parallelogram law, 45
Parametric equations, 147
Partial fractions, 183
formula, 186
method of, 185
Pascal’s triangle, 60
PEMDAS, 9, 10
π-Periodic, 97
2π-Periodicity, 97
Piecewise-defined function, 139–140, 211, 213, 214
Polar spherical triangle, 349, 350
Polygon, 299
Polynomials
addition and subtraction of, 59
definition, 58
graphs of, 79–80
long division of, 61–63
multiplication of, 59
Pascal’s triangle, 60
products of, 60
quadratic polynomials, properties of. see Quadratic polynomials remainder theorem and factor theorem,
63, 64
roots of
 roots of
factorization theorems, 76–77
integer and rational roots of, 77–79
Prime numbers, 6
Principle of least squares, 32
Product rule, 254
Ptolemy’s theorem, 323
Pythagorean identities, 104–105
Pythagorean theorem, 309, 316

Q
Quadratic equations, 54
completing the square, 55, 56
complex numbers, 57
quadratic formula, 58
Quadratic formula, 58
Quadratic polynomials
factorizing, 67–71
graphs of, 65
nature of roots, 66–67
properties of, 65
Quotient rule, 254

R
Radicals, 19–20
Rational functions, 137–138
Rational numbers
addition/subtraction, 5
division, 7
multiplication of, 6
Real number, 5
Rectangular coordinate system, 27
Reduced cubic equation, 80
Regression line, 32
Relation
definition of, 128
function, 129
properties, 128
type of, 129
Remainder theorem, 63, 64
Rhind papyrus, 53
Right spherical triangle, 360

S
Sawtooth function, 217
Schwarz inequality, 44
Scientific notation, 14
Secant graphs, 104
Secant line, 249, 250
Sequences, 209–211
Sets of numbers, 3–4
Shear deformation, 311
Sine graphs, 99–101
scaling and shifting of, 101–102
Sine rule, 113, 358
cases for, 113, 114
Slope, 30
Solving cubic equations, 80–82
Solving linear equations, 52–53
Solving quadratic equations, 54
completing the square, 55, 56
complex numbers, 57
quadratic formula, 58
Solving quartic equations, 82–84
Solving quintic equations, 84
Solving triangles
area formula and sine rule, 112–115
cosine rule, 115–117
right triangles, 111–112
Spherical excess, 351
Spherical trigonometry
planes and spheres
great circle, 345
in space, 343–344
small circle, 345
spherical triangles, 348–352
tangent lines, 346
solving right spherical triangles (I), 360–363
solving right spherical triangles (II)
Napier’s rules, 365–366
quadrants, rules for, 363–365
solving spherical triangles, 358–360
vectors in space
parallelepipeds and cross product identities, 355–357
two vectors, cross product of, 353–355
Spiral lines, 127
Square, 9
solving quadratic equations, 55, 56
Squeeze theorem, 233–235
Sum rule, 254
System of inequalities, 196

T
Tangent graph, 103
Tangent line, 246, 250
 circles, 324–326
problems
Newton’s method, 259
quadratic equation, 258
Time–displacement function, 262
Transversal, 298
Triangle inequality, 45
Trigonometry
addition identities, 107–109
graphs
cosecant and secant, 104
sine and cosine, 99–102
sine curve, generation of, 98–99
tangent and cotangent, 103
identities, 120–121
ratios
application of, 112
ASTC, 93
cofunction identities, 98
reciprocal, 97
signs and cosine of, 92, 94
special cases of, 94, 95
solving trigonometric equations, 106
vectors
components of, 117–119
dot product, geometric interpretation of, 119–120

U
Unit vector, 354

V
Vector algebra
addition and scalar multiplication of, 40–42
dot product of
define, 43
properties of, 44
Schwarz inequality, 45
properties of, 39
standard basis vectors, 43
subtraction of, 42–43
triangle inequality and parallelogram law, 45
Vector-valued functions
circle, 146
definition, 145
directed curve/trajectory, 145, 146, 148
line, 146–148
Vertical asymptote, 103
Vertical line test, 133–134
Vertically opposite angles, 298
Vertices, 297

Z
Zero matrix, 72