Respiratory System

ORGANS UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

FUNCTIONS
 Oversees gas exchange between the blood
and external environment
 Exchange of gases takes place within the NASAL CAVITY ANATOMY
lungs in the alveoli
 Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface.
 Passageways to the lungs purify, warm,
and humidify the incoming air.  The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa:
o Moistens air
o Entraps incoming foreign particles
NOSE  Lateral walls have projections called conchae:
 The only externally visible part of the o Increases surface area
respiratory system o Increases air turbulence within the nasal cavity
 Air enters the nose through the external  The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity by the palate
nares (nostrils) o Anterior hard palate (bone)
 The interior of the nose consists of a nasal o Posterior soft palate (muscle)
cavity divided by a nasal septum.
PARANASAL SINUSES o Palatine tonsils: in the oropharynx
o Lingual tonsils: at the base of the tongue
 Cavities within the bones surrounding the nasal cavity:
o Frontal bone
o Sphenoid bone LARYNX (VOICE BOX)
o Ethmoid bone
 Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap
o Maxillary bone
of elastic cartilage (epiglottis)
FUNCTIONS  Routes air and food into proper channels
 Plays a role in speech
 lighten the skull
 act as resonance chambers for speech STRUCTURES
 produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity
 Thyroid cartilage
o Largest hyaline cartilage; protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s
PHARYNX (THROAT) apple)
 Epiglottis
 Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
o Superior opening of larynx; routes food to the larynx and
 3 regions:
air toward the trachea
o Nasopharynx: superior region behind nasal
 Vocal cords (vocal folds)
cavity
o Vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)
o Oropharynx: middle region behind mouth
 Glottis: opening between vocal cords
o Laryngopharynx: inferior region attached to
larynx
 The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are common TRACHEA (WINDPIPE)
passageways for air and food.  Connects larynx with bronchi
STRUCTURES  Lined with ciliated mucosa: beat continuously in the opposite
direction of incoming air
 Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx. o Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away
 Tonsils: from lungs
o Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids): in the  Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage
nasopharynx.
PRIMARY BRONCHI RESPIRATORY TREE DIVISIONS
 Formed by the division of trachea  Primary bronchi
 Enters the lungs at the hilus (medial depression)  Secondary “
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter, straighter than left.  Tertiary “
 Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches.  Bronchiole
 Terminal bronchiole
LUNGS
BRONCHIOLES
 Occupy most of thoracic cavity
 Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)  Smallest branches of the bronchi
o Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion)  All but the smallest branches have reinforcing cartilages
 Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures:  Terminal bronchioles end in alveoli
o Left lung: 2 lobes
o Right lung: 3 lobes RESPIRATORY ZONE
 Structures:
o Respiratory bronchiole
o Alveolar duct
o Alveolar sac
o Alveoli
 Site of gas exchange

ALVEOLI
COVERINGS
 Structures:
 Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface o Alveolar duct
 Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity o “ sac
 Pleura fluid fills the area between layers of pleura to o Alveolus
allow gliding.  Gas exchange takes place within the alveoli in the
respiratory membrane
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE (AIR-BLOOD BARRIER) FROG RESPIRATION
 Thin squamous epithelial layer lining alveolar walls  Mechanisms
 Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli
1. Gills: eggs are laid into ponds/lakes, and upon hatching, the
GAS EXCHANGE tadpole uses internal and external gills in order to respire within
their aquatic environment. The gills filter oxygen from the water
 Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion and dispose of respiratory waste products.
o Oxygen enters blood
o Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli 2. Lungs: use lungs to respire, bringing air through their nares and
mouth, into the trachea and then to the lungs for gas exchange
EVENTS OF RESPIRATION and uptake of oxygen.

 Pulmonary ventilation: moving air in and out of the lungs  Frogs lack the diaphragm which is used to create a pressure
 External respiration: gas exchange between pulmonary gradient to draw air into the lungs (negative pressure
blood and alveoli breathing)
 Respiratory gas transport: transport of oxygen and carbon  Frogs use positive pressure breathing and must actively
dioxide via the bloodstream push air into their lungs
 Internal respiration: gas exchange between blood and 3. Cutaneous respiration: frog’s skin is thin and highly vascular to
tissue cells in systemic capillaries. allow for gas exchange
 Frogs must live in moist environments, and secrete mucous
MECHANICS OF BREATHING (PULMONARY
from their skin to avoid desiccation
VENTILATION)  Allows for the frog to remain almost completely submerged
 Completely a mechanical process under water for long periods of time
 Depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity 4. Bucco-pharyngeal membrane
 Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the
flow of gases to equalize pressure.  Frogs can also have gas exchange across the thin, highly
vascular Bucco-pharyngeal membrane
 Occur while the frog is not submerged in water, as it requires
opening of the mouth.
HUMANS MECHANICS OF BREATHING (PULMONARY RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
VENTILATION)
 Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air with
 Two phases each breath (tidal volume; TV)
o Inspiration: flow of air into the lungs
 Many factors affect respiratory capacity:
o Expiration: air leaving the lungs
o Body mass
INSPIRATION o Sex
 Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract o Age
 The size of thoracic cavity increases o Physical condition
 External air is pulled into the lungs due to an increase in  Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
intrapulmonary volume. o Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over
EXPIRATION the tidal volume
o Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml
 Largely a passive process which depends on natural lung
elasticity
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
 As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs o Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
 Forced expiration can occur mostly by contracting o Approximately 1200 ml
intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage.  Residual volume (RV)
o Air remaining in lung after expiration
PRESSURE DIFFERENCES IN THORACIC CAVITY o About 1200 ml
 Vital capacity (VC)
 Normal pressure within the pleural space is always o The total amount of exchange air
negative (intrapleural pressure) o Vital capacity = TV + IRV +ERV
 Differences in lung and pleural space pressures keep  Inspiratory capacity (IC): the maximum volume of
lungs from collapsing air that can be inspired after reaching the end of a
normal, quiet expiration; TV + IRV
  Functional residual capacity (FRC): the volume  Carbon dioxide movement out of the blood
remaining in the lungs after a normal, passive o Blood returning from tissues has higher
exhalation; ERV + RV concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the alveoli
o Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide
 Dead space volume (150 ml) vs Functional volume
 Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich and carbon dioxide-
(350 ml) poor
o Air that remains in conducing zone and never
reaches alveoli GAS TRANSPORT IN BLOOD
 Means of oxygen transport in the blood:
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES & CAPACITIES AS o Inside RBC attached to hemoglobin (as
MEASURED BY A SPIROMETER oxyhemoglobin [HbO2[)
o A small amount is carried dissolved in the plasma
 Means of carbon dioxide transport in the blood:
o Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion
(HCO3-)
o A small amount is carried inside RBC on hemoglobin,
but at different binding sites than those of oxygen

INTERNAL RESPIRATION
 Exchange of gases b/w blood and body cells
 An opposite reaction to what occurs in the lungs
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION o Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to blood
o Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue
 Oxygen movement into the blood
o The alveoli always has more oxygen than the blood
o Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower
concentration
o Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION, GAS TRANSPORT, &  The pons appears to smooth out respiratory rate
INTERNAL RESPIRATION SUMMARY  Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12-15 respirations per
minute
 Hypernea is increased respiratory rate often due to
heightened oxygen needs

NEURAL REGULATION OF RESPIRATION