UNIT

Using and
Citing Sources
Part 1 Evaluating sources

Part 2 Integrating source information

Part 3 Citing sources

Part 4 Using reporting verbs and phrases

 Par t

1 Evaluating sources
Primary, secondary, and tertiary sources

Information from sources is necessary in academic writing to support the

writer's ideas and arguments. Sources can be grouped into three basic types:
primary, secondary, and tertiary. Each type can provide important information
to the essay writer when researching and writing essays.

A primary source is where information (e.g., statistics, research results)

originally comes from. Some of the more common primary sources cited in
academic essays are:
• A scholarly / professional journal - Journal articles are usually written
by experts in a field and are reviewed by other experts before being
published.
• A government organization - Government organizations usually have the
resources and expertise to provide official information (e.g., data on the
population, crime, the economy)
• A reputable organization - Well-known and respected organizations (e.g.,
UNESCO, WHO, DECO, the World Bank) often have resources and expertise
that allow them to provide reliable information.
• A university - Universities publish information by knowledgeable
professionals with expertise in their fields.
• An expert- Experts in fields make comments through speeches, interviews,
editorials, or books.

In an academic essay, try to use the primary source of information, especially

for facts, statistics, and research results .

.•

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 Unit 3 • Part 1

A secondary source reports or interprets information from primary sources,

such as articles in magazines and newspapers, or postings on a website.
For example, look at the following excerpt from an article published in a
newspaper:

'Many people are worried. tliat tlie aging population is causing roads to become
more danqerous. Statistics from tlie Department of Transportation sliow tliat
of tlie over 5, 000 traffic accidents fast year wliicli resulted in at [east one death,
near[ya quarter were caused Gydrivers 65 or older, tlie liigliest of any age group
cateqorized: 'ITiis lias prompted' tlie state government to consider adoptini;
stricter requlations for tlie Iicensinq of eWer[y drivers.

The newspaper is a secondary source that is reporting statistics on traffic

accidents, but the primary source of these statistics is the "Department of
Transportation. "

Secondary sources can be useful in academic writing, especially when another

person's interpretation of information from a primary source is required.

NOTE: A newspaper or magazine can be considered a primary source in some

instances (e.g., an interview with a witness to an event, a commentary from
an expert on a particular topic, or a past issue of a newspaper or magazine
for historical research.)

A tertiary source is a collection of information from primary and secondary

sources which often offers a condensed description of a topic. Examples of
tertiary sources are encyclopedias, guidebooks, indices, and textbooks.

Tertiary sources are not usually accepted as appropriate sources in academic

writing because much of their information comes from primary or secondary
sources. However, they can be useful because they provide background
information on topics, and they do provide a reference list of primary and
secondary sources on the topic to help essay writers begin their research.

Exercise 1 Read the model essay on tourism in Antarctica on page 53. Find the
sources used in the essay, and decide which are primary and which are
secondary.

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 Determining credibility

All sources need to be evaluated to determine how useful their information

can be in an essay.The following aspects of each source need to be evaluated.

1. Author (person or organization)

• Who is the author of the information?

• What expertise or reputation does this author have?

2. Publisher

• Who published the information?

NOTES: 1. Even if the author of the information is unknown, a respected

publisher probably means the information is credible.
2. For internet sources, the publisher is normally the server where
the information is stored, so this does not ensure that the
information is reliable.

3. Purpose

• Who was the information written for?

• Is the author making an argument, making a criticism, or just stating facts
on a topic?
• What is the author's motivation - why was the information written?

4. Accuracy

• Is there credible evidence to support the ideas presented in the

information?
• Does the information lean only towards one viewpoint or does it consider
multiple viewpoints?
• Are there other sources used in the information, and are they identified
in-text or in a list of references?
• For internet sources, are there hyperlinks to other sources?

5. Context

• When was the source originally published?

• Has it been revised or updated - is the information still relevant to the
topic?
• Were any significant events happening in society when the source was
written? Could those events have influenced the source in some way?
• Does the source seem unique in its position on the topic compared to
other sources?
• Is the writing style and tone similar to or different from other sources?

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 Par t
Integrating source
2 information

Section 1 Paraphrasing, summarizing, and quoting

There are three methods to integrate source information: paraphrases,

summaries, and quotations.

• Paraphrases - specific details of source information are written in the

writer's own words and style.

• Summaries - the main idea of source information is written in the writer's

own words and style in significantly fewer words than the original source.

• Quotations - source information is written using the exact words as the

original source and placed inside quotation marks.

NOTE: Paraphrases, summaries, and quotations are the first steps in avoiding
plagiarism: copying of other people's words and ideas and using them as
your own. This is viewed as stealing and could have serious consequences.
By rewriting source information in paraphrases and summaries, essay writers
avoid copying others' words; in using quotations, essay writers indicate
that words were copied, and that they belong to someone else. Combining
these three techniques with citation (see Part 3) is necessary anytime outside
sources are used in an essay.

Choosing to paraphrase or summarize

Paraphrase or summarize when the source information is useful, but its

exact wording is not important. The choice to paraphrase or summarize also
depends on the amount of detail required from the source:
• If useful source information is up to about 50 words, then paraphrase.
Paraphrasing longer passages is ineffective because it moves the focus of
the essay from the writer's ideas to other people's ideas.
• If useful source information is over 50 words, and only the main ideas are
useful, then summarize.

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 Shared language

Before writing a paraphrase or summary, identify shared language in the

source. Shared language is words and phrases that cannot be effectively
expressed in another way. When paraphrasing and summarizing, shared
language does not need to be reworded because it is not unique to the
original writer or source, and is necessary to maintain meaning.

Many words and phrases can be shared language. A few examples are:
• Proper nouns
the Olympics, the United Nations, Mount Kinabalu, Alexander the Great
• Common nouns
lion, banana, election, culture, hydrogen
• Dates and figures
1972,25%,37 mil/ion
• Specialized language / terminologies
public opinion, gross national product, chemical reaction

NOTE: Some shared language can have their word forms changed but
maintain the meaning of the original. The word "election" could be changed
to "elected," depending on how the writer rewrites the information. For
example:

She won the election because of her business career.

Her background in business is why she was elected.

Exercise 1 Underline the shared language in the following passage.

Spanish conquistadors discovered potatoes in Peru in the sixteenth century.

They were soon introduced to Europe where they became the staple food in
many regions. Some historians believe that the potato, a highly reliable and
nutritious crop, eliminated a major source of civil unrest: famine. This led to
healthier and increased populations, which in turn resulted in much more
stable governments and economies. With this stability, a number of European
countries were able to increase their power and eventually project it around
the world between 1700 and 1950. In short, the potato was instrumental in
helping create the great European empires.

Section 2 Writing paraphrases and summaries

1. Six steps to writing a paraphrase

1. Read the passage several times until you understand its meaning fully.
2. On a separate piece of paper, note down the ideas from the passage in
the order they appea red in the orig ina I and underl ine the shared lang uage.
3. Avoiding the first idea from the source, choose one of the other ideas to
start the paraphrase.
4. Without looking at the original text, use your notes to write the paraphrase.

78
 Unit 3 • Part 2

5. Keep the shared language, but change the wording of the original using
different:
• words (a thesaurus will help).
• word forms (a dictionary will help).
• grammatical structure.
• word order.
However, do not:
• change the verb tense of the original.
• change meaning or add ideas not in the original.
• use more than three words in a row from the original text without
quotation marks. (Using more than three words in a row without
quoting is considered plagiarism.)
6. Check the paraphrase against the original passage to ensure:
• the same meaning is conveyed.
• the paraphrase is not plagiarized.
Revise the paraphrase if necessary.

Example:
1. Read the original:
"Increases in the cost of air travel have had a negative effect on
tourism in destinations such as Hawaii, which are significant distances
from other countries. "

2. Note down ideas in the order they appeared in the original and underline
shared language:
Increases cost air travel/negative effect / tourism in destinations
Hawaii / significant distances from other countries.

3. Choose a different idea from the first to begin t:.:..h:..::e:..Jp!:.-a::..:r_::a:=.;_:c....=.::....:::..:

Increases cost air travel/negative effect

(jjiiiiJP significant distances from other countries.

4. Write the paraphrase using your notes:

The tourist industry in places like Hawaii, which is fairly remote from
other countries, has been adversely affected by rises in airfare.

5. Keep the shared language, but change the wording of the original. Note
in the paraphrase: "destinations" changed to "places," "significant
distances" changed to "fairly remote," and "have a negative effect"
changed to "adversely affected." The tense of the paraphrase is the same
as the original.

6. Check the paraphrase against the original passage to ensure the same
meaning is conveyed and the paraphrase is not plagiarized.

2. Five steps to writing a summary

1. Read the information to be summarized several times until you understand
its meaning fully.

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 2. On a separate piece of paper, note down the main points of the original
source and underline the shared language. To help identify the main
points:
• In longer texts, pay attention to the introductory and concluding
paragraphs, chapter or paragraph headings, and topic and concluding
sentences in paragraphs - they often help in identifying main ideas.
• In longer sources of information, write a few key words for each
paragraph summarizing the content.
• In the original text:
- Words and phrases like in summary, in short, basically, and in other
words can be useful.
- Information following phrases like for example ... , such as ... , for
instance ... is normally not a main point, so it should not be used in a
summary.
- Quotes in the original source are also used to support the writer's
main point, so they should not be used in the summary.
3. Without looking at the original, write the summary using only your notes.
Use any necessary shared language.
4. Check the summary against the original passage to ensure the main idea
is conveyed and the summary is not plagiarized (see paraphrase, step 5).
5. Revise the summary if necessary. The summary should be much shorter
than the original - often only one or two sentences in length.

Example:
1. Read the original.

The 1984 Olympics in LosAngeles demonstrated the considerable political

value of sporting events during the Cold War. The 1984 Games took place
against a backdrop of the key political issues of the time. The 1980 Moscow
Olympics had been boycotted by the USA and many of its client states, in
protest over the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. The Soviet Union
and 16 other countries boycotted the 1984 Olympics, although intense U.S.
diplomacy ensured China and Romania sent teams (Hill, 1999). The Games
still attracted 6,802 competitors from 140 countries, competing across 221
different events (Toohey & Veal, 2000). This political opportunity was seized
upon by the 1984 organizers. The noted French political economist Jean-
August Sevigny (2001) wrote, "The tit-for-tat boycotts made the LA Olympics
a perfect opportunity to upstage the Soviet enemy and display all that was
good - and better - about the USA" (p. 12). For the first time, official large-scale
commercial Olympic sponsorship was allowed, major corporate funding was
accepted for the building of certain facilities, and exclusive TV broadcast rights
were secured by the highest bidders. Rampant commercialism undoubtedly,
but the 1984 Olympics registered a healthy $223 million profit (Davis, 2012).
And with the organizers promoting the L.A. Olympics as a patriotic display of
Americanism, the 1984 Games served as an ideal showcase for the vibrancy of
U.S.consumer society in the context of the ongoing Cold War.

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 Unit 3 • Part 2

2. On a separate piece of paper, write down the main points of the original
source and underline any shared language:
1984 OlYmpics Los Angeles, political value, Cold War / 1980 Moscow
OlYmpics boycotted by USA / Soviet invasion Afghanistan / Soviets and
others boycotted 1984 L.A. / opportunity to upstage Soviet, display good/
better about USA / First time - commercial sponsorship, corporate funding,
TV broadcast highest bidder =
commercialism / $223 million profit patriotic
display Americanism, vibrancy U.S. consumer

3. Without looking at the original, write the summary using only your notes.
Use any necessary shared language:
Despite the Soviet Union and some of its allies boycotting the 1984
Olympics in Los Angeles in response to the U.S.'s boycott four years earlier
of the Moscow Olympics over the Soviet's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979,
the L.A. Olympics were politically successful in making the Soviets jealous
of the U.S.'s commercial power which was displayed through commercial
sponsorships, corporate funding, and TV broadcast rights bidding. As a
result, the animosity between the two countries intensified.
Cut - not part
of main idea ~. Check the summary against the original passage to ensure the main
idea is conveyed and the summary is not plagiarized.
, Despite the Soviet Union and some of its allies boycotting the 1984
Inaccurate ~ Olympics in Los Angeles in response to the U.S.'s boycott four years ea;"/ier
of the ,\1oscow' Olympics olter the Soviet's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979,
the L.A. Olympics were politically successful in fflaking the Soviets jealous
Cut - details
of the U.S.'s commercial power which was displayed through cOfflmercial
too minute
---- -~ sponsorships, corporate funding, and TV broadcast rights bidding. As a
..•
+ too close
result, the anifflosity betvteen the two countries intensified.
to plagiarism
(same words
and word
t
Inaccurate
order)

5. Revise the summary if necessary. The summary should be much shorter

than the original - often only one or two sentences in length:
Despite a boycott from the Soviet Union and some allies, the 1984 Los
Angeles Olympics were a political success in the midst of the Cold War as
the U.S. could show the power of commercialism and the advantages of
being American.

Exercise 2 Read the following passage. The underlined parts in the original source
information have been plagiarized in the paraphrase and summary. Find
and underline the plagiarized parts in the paraphrase and summary.

Original source information

"The modern concept of democracy is the result of an evolution begun by the
ancient Greeks. For the Greeks, however, democracy was a right exercised only
by the elite -landowning men, a fraction of the population. Non-landowning
men, and women were normally excluded from any political involvement and
were disenfranchised. Yet this condition was not believed to be a restriction
on freedom, but rather a reflection of society's values. Those of wealth and
status were expected to hold the reigns of power, as it was their inherited
right and responsibility to attend to the affairs of state."

8
 Plagiarized paraphrase
Contemporary society's idea of democracy began in ancient times with the
Greeks. However, for the Greeks democracy was a right exercised only by
a fraction of the population - landowning men. This elite prohibited men
without property and women from voting or having any kind of political.
involvement. However, this situation was a reflection of society's values and
not believed to be a restriction on freedom. To the ancient Greeks, the elite
had the responsibility to wield power over all society because they possessed
wealth and position, and this gave them an inherited right and responsibility
to control the government.

Plagiarized summary
As a reflection of society's values, the ancient Greeks believed that only those
of wealth and status were expected to govern.

Exercise 3 Below are an acceptable paraphrase and summary of the original passage
from Exercise 3. In each, find and underline the rewording of the
plagiarized parts.

Acceptable paraphrase
To the ancient Greeks, democracy meant that those possessing high social rank
- a minute percentage of society - had the duty to lead the state. Yet, rather
than seeing this arrangement as a limitation of freedom, those excluded from
political involvement, such as women and men without property, accepted it
as an extension of the natural social order. Therefore, though contemporary
democracy has evolved from ancient times, in its very early form, only the
elite (normally landowning men) governed the entire state.

Acceptable summary
The ancient Greeks believed that only men occupying society's highest class
had the right and duty to govern in a democracy.

Exercise 4 Choose the best paraphrase of the original text.

Original passage
"Although white rice accounts for 35-80% of the caloric intake for 3.3 billion
Asians, it has several problems, such as a lack of adequate nutrition, which
makes Asians' body size relatively small; and also a lack of taste, which leads
to a high consumption of sodium in many of the foods eaten with rice."

Paraphrases
a. The over 3 billion Asians whose calories mostly come from white rice
should change their diet because white rice is nutritionally deficient,
making them smaller than other races, and also tasteless, causing people
to add more sodium to the other foods they eat with rice.

b. Nutritional deficiency and tastelessness are two aspects of white rice

which make it a less than ideal food for those whose calories are heavily
dependent on it, which includes other 3 billion Asians, who have small
bodies and consume a lot of sodium as a result.

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 Unit 3 • Part 2

c. Although rice supplies 35-80% of the calories eaten by 3.3 billion Asians,
it makes Asians weaker because of the lack of nutrition" and high sodium
in other foods."

Exercise 5 Paraphrase the following passages on a separate piece of paper.

1. Because it is portable and inexpensive, ultrasound equipment is used in

some traditional societies to identify the sex of the fetus, and abort
unwanted girls.

2. Over-population, pollution, climate change, poor sanitation, and rising

sea levels are contributing to a scarcity of fresh water. Over the long-
term, this scarcity could become a crisis for the world, causing wars as
billions of people will compete over accessto vital fresh water supplies in
the future.

3. Alan Turing is widely seen as the "Father of Computing." While studying

at Cambridge, Turing introduced the concept of the algorithm, the idea
at the heart of modern computing. In 1950, Turing also proposed the idea
of artificial intelligence: the ability for machines to think.

4. In 2011, Africa became the largest cellular phone market after Asia. With
600 million users, the size and quality of Africa's cellular network is
developing rapidly to meet the growing demand of users.

5. The fact that certain blood types are more vulnerable to particular kinds
of diseases is proven, but there has never been any credible research that
links blood types to certain personality traits.

Exercise 6 Choose the best summary of the original text.

Original passage
Some educators maintain that choosing a major is the most crucial decision
for students entering college, whereas others argue it is not especially
important. Paul Harrington, Neeta Fogg, and Thomas Harrington argue in
College Majors Handbook that as the world becomes more competitive,
those students with a clear career path on entering college have an obvious
advantage over those who do not. Those who want to pursue high-paying
careers such as medicine or engineering ought to focus on their career goal
as early as possible. It is a mistake for students to start college with the aim
of working out what they want to do for the rest of their lives, the authors
argue. However, Donald Asher in his book, How to Get a Job with Any Major,
disagrees. The choice of major often does not limit a student's career options.
Although there are certain majors that clearly prepare students for particular
careers, most students ultimately pursue careers unrelated to their chosen
major. Asher believes that students can best spend their time in university
finding their true interests because, on average, people switch careers, often
to something completely unrelated, three to five times in their working lives.

83
 a. Some educationalists contend that deciding on a major is the most
critical decision students face when entering college, whereas others
argue that the most important thing for students to discover in university
is their true interests, because many establish careers not related to the
major they studied in college.

b. Students who spend their college time working out what to do in the
future are at a disadvantage in an increasingly competitive world
compared with those who are motivated to set career goals and choose a
major to achieve them.

c. Educators disagree over the importance of choosing a major: some believe

it is crucial in giving students an advantage in an increasingly competitive
world, while others argue that as people usually end up in careers
unrelated to their college major and change careers several times, having
a major is not especially important.

Exercise 7 Summarize the following passages on a separate piece of paper.

1. In their theory about the nature and origin of crime, Travis Hirshi and
Michael Gottfredson dismiss the older notion of "indirect control," the
"psychological presence" parents possessed in the minds oftheir children,
to explain the inherent barriers to deviancy. Instead, the centrality of
"self-control" in explaining the propensity to commit or refrain from
crime is advanced. The authors maintain that this accounts for all factors
- whether age, culture, sex, or circumstances - in determining whether
someone commits a crime or not. A child develops self-control through
direct parenting, when the parent closely monitors the child's behavior
and punishes deviancy when it occurs. Without it, lack of self-control
develops naturally. People who develop low self-control in childhood
are more likely to act on an urge to break laws, should the opportunity
exist. Crucially, an individual's tendency to commit crime is shaped by his/
her lack of self-control, not the ease and availability of opportunities to
engage in crime. Further, low self-control promotes an outlook on life
as a "permanent present" in which immediate gratification is central. To
such people, crime supplies immediate risks, thrills, and rewards.

2. The electric guitar became important to other music genres, although in

no other genre did it take on the significance it did in rock and roll. The
ability of the electric guitar to distort, alter, and sustain notes was picked
up by country, blues, and jazz musicians. Yet it was not until rock and
roll emerged from the 1950s that the electric guitar gained widespread
appeal. Rock and roll devotees marveled at the range of sounds and
volumes the electric guitar could produce and saw its huge potential,
both musically and within the broader counter-culture of the decades
after World War II. The image of the rock and roller with his leather jacket
and slicked-back hair was never complete without him holding an electric
guitar. Curiously, despite its current place within the' mainstream music
culture, the electric guitar was initially treated with great skepticism by
traditional audiences and instrument makers in the music world. How
wrong they were! The electric guitar has come to embody a musical
genre, a generation, a set of values, and even a way of life.

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 Unit 3 • Part 2

3. What is becoming clearer is the disjuncture between advancing technology

and our ability to manage its wider repercussions. Social networking
services (SNS) like Facebook and Linkedln increasingly dominate people's
time online. Data shows that 66% of the 80% of Americans who use
the internet use social networking services; and of the 95% of teenagers
in the U.S. on the internet, 80% of them use SNS. Social networks have
started to supplement, even replace, face-to-face relationships. For
many of Facebook's 901 million monthly worldwide users, the role of
SNS in friendship goes beyond simply getting in touch and keeping in
touch. Social networking online involves a level of public display and
self-promotion entirely new to the majority of people. SNS leaves the
nuances of emotion unexplored or unarticulated, and the gradual process
of getting to know someone - the true beauty of friendship - are fast-
tracked, as everything, quite literally, is on their SNS profile.

Using quotations

In general, quoting a source can be useful when the information is:

• from a respected authority on the topic.
• written in a particularly powerful or memorable way.
• from a primary source.
• mostly shared language which cannot be effectively rewritten.

Do not rely on quotations as the main method to include source information

in an essay. Overusing quotations makes it seem like the essay is just repeating
someone else's words and ideas. In general, essay writers should express ideas
using their own words whenever possible. Therefore, quotations are best
used strategically to help emphasize information.
Howa quotation is introduced is also important. The introduction should:
• indicate the quote's significance.
• prepare the reader for the sudden change in writing style.

Example:
Thesis:
Although colonization in general is seen as cross-cultural bullying, colonization
by the West has brought about changes that have shaped the state of society
in certain parts of the world.

Body paragraph excerpt:

... colonization by the British Empire often resulted in the mistreatment
of the indigenous population. "In India, colonialism of course was seen as
dehumanizing. Being suppressed and discriminated against in your own land
is beyond humiliating" (Joshi, 45).

In the excerpt above, the sentence before the first quotation mentions the
mistreatment of the indigenous population. Therefore, the reader may expect
evidence following this statement to show how indigenous populations
were mistreated. However, the quotation is about feelings associated with
mistreatment - dehumanizing and humiliating - which is a sudden change
for the reader.

85
 The quotation should be introduced more effectively to better prepare the
reader:

Colonization by the British Empire often resulted in the mistreatment of the

indigenous population. SanjaY Joshi, a researcher at the Mumbai Language
Institute, emphasized the sentiment felt by many who were colonized: "In
India, colonialism of course was seen as dehumanizing. Being suppressed and
discriminated against in your own land is beyond humiliating" (45).

The introduction prepared readers for the quote by indicating the content -
the sentiment felt.

Note also how source details are mentioned in the introducing sentence
to show that the source is an Indian person, which gives authority to his
description of the feelings of Indian people.

Integrating quotations

Below are some techniques to integrate quotations into essays.Note:

• the punctuation used to introduce the quotations.
• where the quotation marks begin and end.
• if the quotation begins with a capital letter.
(The citation in parentheses after the quote is covered in Part 3).

1. Briefly introduce the quotation with a phrase.

• Place a comma after the phrase that introduces the quotation.
• Begin the quote with a capital letter.

Example:

Although the United Nations is firmly committed to creating a world

society built on peace and harmony, it has never been naive about how peace
might have to be achieved. The very first lines of Chapter 1 in The Charter
of the United Nations clearly statG maintain international peace
and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the
prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of
acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace" (United ations, 1945, p.
3). These principles of removing threats and stopping aggressive acts suggest
that violence may be a necessary means to achieve the goal of a peaceful and
secure world.

86
 Unit 3 • Part 2

2. Introduce the quotation with a complete sentence that states its

significance to the essay'sthesis.
• Place a colon at the end of the complete sentences that introduces
the quotation.
• Begin the quote with a capital letter.

Example:

Although the United ations is firmly committed to creating a world

society built on peace and harmony, it has never been naive about how peace
might have to be achieved. The very first lines of Chapter 1 in The Charter of
the United Nations clearly state that violence may sometimes be necessary
to achieve a higher idea~maintain international peace and security,
and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and
removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression
or other breaches of the peace" (United Nations, 1945, p. 3). These principles
of removing threats and stopping aggressive acts leave open the option of
military force to maintain a peaceful and secure world.

3. Blend the quotation directly into the essay writer's sentence.

• No punctuation is necessary if the quotation is blended into a
sentence using a word such as that.
• Begin the quote with a lowercase letter.

Example:

The very first lines of Chapter 1 in The Charter of the United Nations
clearly state~maintain international peace and security, and to that
end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of
threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other
breaches of the peace" (United Nations, 1945, p. 3).

4. Place the introductory phrase inside the quote.

• Use commas to separate the quote from the introductory phrase.

Example:

''To maintain international peace and sec~are the first words of

Chapter 1 in The Charter of the United Nations, but the text immediately
continue~to that end: to take effective collective measures for the
prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts
of aggression or other breaches of the peace" (United Nations, 1945, p. 3).

87
 5. If a quotation is more than about 40 words, do not use quotation marks.
• End the sentence before the quote with a colon, start the quotation
on the next line, and indent it.
• Restart the paragraph on a new line after the quotation:

Example:

Although the United ations is firmly committed to creating a world society

built on peace and harmony, it has never been naive about how peace might
have to be achieved. The very first lines of Chapter 1 in The Charter of the
United Nations clearly staG

Indent To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take
effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to
the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches
of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with
the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement
of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the
peace (United ations, 1945, p. 3).

Restart
These principles of removing threats and stopping aggressive acts leave open
paragraph
the option of military force to maintain a peaceful and secure world.

Exercise 8 Correct the errors with the use of quotations in the following passages.
Rewrite the passages if necessary.

1. "In China, India, Indonesia and Korea, American, British, Dutch and
French Imperialism, based on the concept of the supremacy of Europeans
over Asians, has been completely and perfectly exploded. In Malaya
and Indo-China British and French imperialisms are being shaken to
their foundations by powerful and revolutionary national liberation
movements." In his 1953 speech "No Easy Road to Freedom," Nelson
Mandela referred to successful movements around the world to inspire
similar change in Africa.

2. In Civilization and Its Discontents, Freud (1930) asserted that "The liberty
of the individual is no gift of civilization. It was greatest before there
was any civilization," but admitted: "though then, it is true, it had for
the most part no value, since the individual was scarcely in a position to
defend it." (p. 42).

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Par t

3 Citing sources

Citation components and integration

The source of every paraphrase, summary, and quotation must be identified

in the essay. This is called citation (or referencing). Citation is necessary to:
• indicate the origin of ideas.
• allow readers to find the original source.
• avoid plagiarism.

NOTE: If source information is included in an essay without citation, it is

plagiarism.

Citation has two equally important components:

• a References list on a separate page at the end of the essay, which
alphabetically lists all the sources used in the essay.
• in-text (or parenthetical) citation used in the essay paragraphs.

All citation examples in this textbook follow the American Psychological

Association (APA) style.

1. References

Every source used in an essay must appear in the References list. APA requires
that each source be entered on the list in a certain way depending on the
type of source, such as a book, a journal article, a newspaper article, or
information from the internet. Refer to official APA resources for complete
style rules and guidelines.

In general, two things are required for in-text citation:

• whatever information is written first for a source on the References list
(usually the name of the author).
• the year the source was published.

For example, this is a journal article entry on a References list:

Giordano, P. (2012). The trendy Asian tigers. Fashion Business Quarterly
Review, 12(2), 25-29.
When information from this source appears in the essay, Giordano (the first
piece of information listed) and 2012 (the publication year of the source)
must appear in the essay to make in-text citation.

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 2. In-text citation

There are three patterns of in-text citation.

Pattern 1:

information from the source + (last name of author, + year published

in parentheses) + final punctuation

Example:
The fashion industry continues to enjoy growing profits due to the Asian
consumers' love affair with brand name goods. The Japanese market alone
constitutes over a third of total worldwide sales of Vuitton, Prada, and Gucci
products, and the increasing demand for high-end fashion in China and South
Korea is expected to account for almost 50% of the projected growth in the
industry over the next decade (Giordano, 2012).

In Pattern 1, both the author's name and publication year (Giordano, 2012)
indicate that the information before the parenthesis came from a source. If
the reader wished to check the source, he or she could refer to the References
page, find the author's last name, and find the complete information for the
source.

Using this pattern suggests:

• the source details are basic or uncontroversial facts.
• the information is more useful to the reader than the author's name and
year of publication.

Pattern 2:

author's name in sentence text + (year published in parentheses) +

information from the source

Example:
The fashion industry continues to enjoy growing profits due to the Asian
consumers' love affair with brand name goods. Giordano (2012) reports that
the Japanese market alone constitutes over a third of total worldwide sales
of Vuitton, Prada, and Gucci products, and the increasing demand for high-
end fashion in China and South Korea is expected to account for almost 50%
of the projected growth in the industry over the next decade.

In Pattern 2, the author's name is integrated into the text of the essay before
the source's information. Only the publication year is put in parentheses
(2012) and placed directly after the author's name.

Using this pattern:

• draws attention to the author and year of publication because these may
be important. The author may be a recognized expert in the field, or
having recent information may be significant to the topic.
• allows the essay writer to show the author's position on or attitude
towards the source information (see Part 4, Using reporting verbs and
phrases).

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 Unit 3 • Part 3

Pattern 3:

year published in sentence text + author's name in sentence text +

information from the source

In a 2012 Fashion Business Quarterly Review article, Giordano states that

the fashion industry continues to enjoy growing profits due to the Asian
consumers' love affair with brand name goods. The Japanese market alone
constitutes over a third of total worldwide sales of Vuitton, Prada, and Gucci
products, and the increasing demand for high-end fashion in China and South
Korea is expected to account for almost 50% of the projected growth in the
industry over the next decade.

In Pattern 3, both the publication year and the author's name are integrated
into the text of the essay before the source information. When this happens,
parentheses are not necessary.

Using this pattern has similar effects as Pattern 2, but in addition:

• the publication year is given greater importance.

In-text citations can be modified in several different ways depending on the

type and details of each source. See Appendix B for a list of possible ways to
modify in-text citation.

Exercise 1 look at the in-text citation of the model essay about tourism in Antarctica
on pages 53-59 and number them 1 to 21:

• Match each in-text citation to its entry in the References list and write
the number next to the entry.
• Then below, write the number of the in-text citation where:

1. two sources are to support one point. Explain how they appear.

2. "et al." is used. Explain why this is used.

3. "as cited in" is used. Explain why this is used.

4. "and" is changed to "&" in some sources. Explain why it changes.

5. the page number of the source information appears. Explain why it is

used.

6. The letters "a" and "b" have been added after the publication dates
in-text and on the References list. Explain why they are used.

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 Common knowledge

It is not necessary to cite source information that is considered common

knowledge. Generally, information is considered common knowledge if it is:

• accepted as universally true or factual.

• not doubted or arguable.
• unlikely to change.

For example, the following fact does not require citation:

The rules defining modern football were drawn up in England by the Football
Association in 1863.

Although the essay reader may not know about the history of football,
checking several other sources would show exactly the same information.

The following are normally regarded as common knowledge:

• Historical facts:
The Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1919.

• Geographic facts:
Portugal, Spain, Andorra, and Gibraltar comprise the Iberian Peninsula.

• Established facts:
The Indian city of Mumbai was once known as Bombay

• Basic scientific facts:

Water boils at 1000 C and freezes at 00 C under normal conditions.

The majority of researched information used in an academic essay is original

ideas, theories, interpretations, statistics, research findings, and reports.
This information is not considered common knowledge and therefore needs
citation.

NOTE: If you are unsure about whether information is common knowledge or

not, the best strategy is to use citation to avoid plagiarism.

Exercise 2 Which of the following details would have to be cited if used in an

academic essay?

1. Throughout history, thousands of animal species have become extinct.

2. Of the millions killed in war in the twentieth century, an estimated 75%

were innocent women and children.

3. The area of volcanic activity around the Pacific Ocean is commonly

referred to as the Ring of Fire.

4. From 1994 to 1998, reported natural disasters averaged 428 per year,
but from 1999 to 2003, this figure shot up by two-thirds to an average
of 707 natural disasters each year.

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 Unit 3 • Part 3

5. At an estimated 0.78 children per woman in 2012, Singapore's fertility

rate is the lowest in the world and far below the 2.1 needed to maintain
the population.

6. The six principal organizations of the United Nations are the General
Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship
Council, International Court of Justice, and Secretariat.

7. Given the tigers' current rate of population decline, many biologists

predict that it will become extinct in the wild in fifteen to twenty years.

8. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely regarded as the

oldest university in the world.

9. Despite having religious aspects like ideas on an afterlife, Confucianism

is not widely seen as a religion because it does not have core beliefs on
the nature of the human soul.

10. According to several prominent NGOs, government corruption is the

most significant obstacle to poverty relief in developing countries.

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 Par t
Using reporting verbs
4 and phrases

Reporting verbs are necessary to:

• accurately report the source author's position on or attitude towards the
information.
• help express the significance of an idea or evidence.
• critically evaluate source information.

Using reporting verbs

Below are some of the most common reporting verbs. Using reporting verbs
often follows three general grammatical patterns:

Pattern 1:

writer + reporting verb + that + subject + verb

acknowledge discover point out

agree doubt predict

appear estimate prove

argue explain recommend

assert find report

believe imply reveal

claim indicate show

conclude insist state

contend maintain suggest

demonstrate note write

determine observe

94
 Unit 3 • Part 4

Example:
Researchers have demonstrated that the food additive is harmful to children.

Pattern 1 verbs may also appear in a subordinate clause beginning with as

and followed by a comma:
Example:
As Ellis (2000) insists, the research conclusions should be viewed cautiously
due to the small number of subjects tested.

Complete the following sentences with an appropriate Pattern 1 reporting

verb.

1. Environmentalists chemicals had seeped into the water

table (Baxter, 2007).

2. As researchers _, the new procedure is environmentally

safe (Wu et aI., 2002).

3. This evidence lowering the legal drinking age creates a

greater sense of responsibility among young people and could reduce
rates of alcohol abuse. .

Pattern 2:

writer + reporting verb + somebody/something + for + noun/gerund

account criticize single out

applaud
. emphasize stress

blame praise

condemn recognize

Example:
Marx (1859) actually praised the United States for its freedom, which was
alien to Europe in the 1800s.

95
 Exercise 2 Complete the following sentences with an appropriate Pattern 2 reporting
verb.

1. Both Bernard (2003) and Kim (2005) the need for more
research before drawing any conclusions.

2. A 2001 World Bank report the Nigerian government

for its efforts to combat corruption.

3. The prime minister the media for causing public panic

over the nuclear accident.

Pattern 3:

writer + reporting verb + somebody/something + as + noun/gerund/

adjective

appraise depict perceive

assess describe portray

characterize dismiss present

class evaluate refer

classify identify regard

define interpret view

Example:
Although Friedman and Garibaldi (2005) present their data as conclusive,
they failed to account for all the inconsistencies among the test subjects.

Exercise 3 Complete the following sentences with an appropriate Pattern 3 reporting

verb.

1. Researchers gambling addicts as "being guided by

unbounded irrationality" (Huet & Unger, 2001, p. 103).

2. O'Leary (1998) the removal of banking controls in the

1980s as reckless and warned of future economic problems.

3. Chiang, Faber, and Choi (2011) the sudden change in

policy as a sign of internal turmoil within the government.

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 Unit 3 • Part 4

Pattern variations:

A) who + at + where + pattern + informations

Examples:
Researchers at The Center for Disease Control found that the virus was highly
contagious among laboratory rats (Dolan, Visnicky, Young, & Perez, 2008).

Donnie Chen (2012) at the Asian Police Alliance describes drug traffickers as
"the greatest threat to public safety" (p. 2) due to their massive arsenal of
weapons and increasing willingness to use them.

B) In a report issued by/from + source + (pattern) + information

Examples:
In a report issued by the World Bank, the subcommittee on trade viewed the
modest growth as encouraging despite being well below projections.

In a report from the University of Middle Florida, sudden increases in food

prices have caused many of those living below the 'poverty line to reduce the
number of daily meals they have from three to two.

C) A + year + source + report/study + (pattern) + information

Examples:
A 2004 Harvard study suggests that drinking coffee may indeed have health
benefits (Thomas & van Dyck).

A 2011 British Commission report criticized city officials for waiting too long
to report the increased bacteria levels in the water.

D) According to + source + (pattern) + information

Examples:
According to Li (2010), the genome test results support the substantial body
of archeological evidence that concludes rice domestication began in the
Yangtze River valley.

According to economists at the East Asia Alliance Fund, the boom in tourism
to the island does not account for the dramatic increases in food prices (Bae
& Kobayashi, 2009).
 Meaning and strength of reporting verbs

Reporting verbs have different meanings and different levels of strength. It is

important to choose a reporting verb that
• accurately matches the meaning of the source information.
• matches the strength of the source author's position or attitude.

Example:
"Despite the well-publicized delays in the final development of the operating
system, the new tablet will definitely be released on schedule." (source
information taken from a company's homepage)

The following use of reporting verbs would be ineffective:

A. The company explains that the new tablet will be released on time.
B. The company indicates that the new tablet will be released on time.

A is incorrect because the company did not explain anything. B is

inappropriate because indicates is too weak. The company used definitely
to indicate certainty in its plans, so a stronger verb would more accurately
represent this attitude.

The following use of reporting verbs would be effective:

C. The company insists that the new tablet will be released on time.
D. The company maintains that the new tablet will be released on time.

The reporting verbs insist and maintain both accurately convey the certainty
expressed in the source with will definitely be released on schedule.

Avoiding neutral reporting verbs

Many reporting verbs, such as said and stated, express a neutral position and
are appropriate when the source author is truly conveying a neutral position.
However, these reporting verbs are often overused and result in less accurate
and repetitive writing.

Example:
The Asian Police Alliance savs the rise in drug trafficking in Asia is because of
the influence of Western pop culture through movies and TV shows.

This example would be more accurate if a stronger reporting verb were used:
The Asian Police Alliance blames the rise in drug trafficking in Asia on the
influence of Western pop culture through movies and TV shows.

The verb blames reflects the police's accusatory attitude regarding Western
influence in Asia. Other reporting verbs expressing a similar attitude strongly
are accused, criticized, and condemned.

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 Unit 3 • Part 4

Exercise 4 For each sentence, replace said or stated with a verb which more
accurately reports the meaning, strength, or attitude.

1. A researcher from the South Asian Arranged Marriage Council said that
there is no basis for the belief that " love marriages" are more stable than
arranged marriages.

a) estimates b) demands c) insists

2. The school board's president stated that children be required to attend

school seven days a week.

a) recommended b) noted c) confirmed

3. A physicist from the government's military council said that radiation

levels in the area of the nuclear accident pose no immediate threat to
human health.

a) predicted b) assured c) proved

4. A report from the World Football Council states that one out of every
two children in the world plays or watches soccer.

a) estimates b) acknowledges c) argues

5. The Association of American Universities said that tuition increases over

the past decade have hurt the ability of many students to attend
university.

a) admitted b) demonstrated c) argued

6. The Union of Flight Attendants stated that any reduction in cabin

staffing will compromise safety and comfort, especially on long
international flights.

a) declared b) discovered c) warned

7. Eastern Automobile CEO Chuck Croft said that car travel will eventually
become much safer and cleaner than any other form of transportation
thanks to new technological developments.

a) predicted b) doubted c) observed

8. Animal behaviorist Sylvia Fassbender stated that pack animals such as

wolves and lions participate in bullying behavior towards those seen as
weak in their group.

a) discovered b) criticized c) ill ustrated

99
 9. In response to the environmental group's protest, Black Star Oil
Corporation says that no harm will come to wildlife if drilling is
permitted in protected wetlands.

a) anticipates b) insists c) doubts

10. Professor Faria Khan of Middle Eastern University stated that war is
counterproductive when she said, "The best way to fight terrorism is
with olive branches."

a) explained b) implied c) determined

100