AGR 303

UNDERSTANDING THE COMPUTER

Introduction
Computer is fast becoming the universal machine of the 21st century. Early computers were large in size and
too expensive to be owned by individuals. Thus, they were confined to the laboratories and few research
institutes. They could only be programmed by computer engineers. The basic applications were confined to
undertaking complex calculations in science and engineering. Today, computer is no longer confined to the
laboratory. Computers have become embedded in almost every aspect of our live. Computing is fast becoming
ubiquitous. Its application transcends science, engineering, communication, education, space science, aviation,
financial institutions, social sciences, humanities, the military, transportation, manufacturing, extractive
industries to mention but a few.

The concept of Computer

A computer is basically defined as a tool or machine used for processing data to give required information. It is
capable of:
a. taking input data through the keyboard (input unit)
b. storing the input data in a USB, CD-ROM, hard disk or other secondary medium
c. processing it at the central processing unit (CPU) and
d. giving out the result (output) on the screen or the Visual Display Unit (VDU).

Data and its Types.

Data: The term data is referred to facts about a person, object or place e.g. name, age, complexion, school,
class, height etc.
Types of Data. The most popular way of representing information is in the text form. There are combination of
letters, numerals and special character that form this text. However, Yadav (2003) pointed out that there are
several other ways in which data can be represented, namely:
a. Text. This is a collection of alphabets (both lower and upper case such as A, B, C, D to Z), numerals (0-9),
and special characters or alphanumeric such as (*, ?, ―, :, #, @, !, %, N, &,$ etc). Such data presented in
textual form may be written and read. Therefore the information in the text can be determined only after
reading and interpreting it.
b. Image. These are other form of data type. Images refer to data in the form of pictures, photographs, hand
drawings, painting.
c. Graphics and Animation. These may be a combination of text, images and sound. A very good example of
graphics and animation is Microsoft PowerPoint tools. PowerPoint comes with music, sounds and videos which
you can play during slide shows. You can also inside music, sound or video clips wherever you want it on the
slide.
d. Audio. This is in the form of sounds and voice. The audio can be in form of speech or voice of any person.
The value of the sound can be interpreted by hearing. This audio may be processed by the computer such as
mixing of sound, modifying the sound parameters like the frequency, pitch and amplitude, bass and so on.
e. Video forms. This is another important data format to hold information. Of course, it combines the sound
and stack of images which are displayed over a period of time.
f. Qualitative data: It indicates the classification and characteristics nature of things such as good, blue and so
on.
g. Quantitative data: It is expressed in terms of measurable quantities such as 45 degree, F, 100 tons
h. Numeric Type: The data types may also be an integer (+, -, ) without any fractional part or real number
which includes integers and fractions
i. Floating Point Representation: These data type consist of 3 components namely, exponent, base or radix,
mantissa
Leon and Leon (1999) pointed out that data is not useful until it is subjected to a value added process where:
 Its form is aggregated, manipulated and organized
 Its content is analyzed and evaluated
 It is placed in a proper context for a human user

This means that data is typically manipulated by activities such as calculating, comparing, sorting, classifying
and summarizing. These activities are organized, analyzed, and manipulated and converted into information for
end users

Information:
Information is referred to as processed data or a meaningful statement e.g. Net pay of workers, examination
results of students, list of successful candidates in an examination or interview etc.

Comparison of Data and Information

Data Information
Raw facts or Finished one
figures
Unstructured data Structured data
Unprocessed data Processed data
Unorganized data Organized data

Functions of Data Processing.

The functions of Data processing can be grouped into the following:

1. Data Handling. The functions of the data handling involve:

Recording. This involves fixing of representations which indicate real activities such as schools records of staff
and students, sales transaction and so on.
 Verification. After the data has been recorded, their accuracy has to be checked using verifier, or by re-
reading.
 Storage. Once the data has been recorded, it has to be stored for future use. It is important that all
organization have the need to place data in a safe place for future reference. These data can be stored in a
secondary backup systems:
a. Magnetic disk such as hard disk and floppy disk
b. Magnetic tape
c. Magnetic drum
d. Mass storage device such as cartridge
e. Optical disks such as: Zip, Flash Drive, CD-ROM
 Retrieval. Retrieval is the process of recalling data from storage for referral.
 Reporting. Reporting allows us to use the data which have been recorded, stored and retrieved. The reports
which are preceded are formatted and manipulated in specific ways which allow the contents files to
communicate specific meaning to the users.
 Inquiry. Inquiry is the data processing function which allows one to inspect or withdraw specified data from
a stored file. To inquire is to look into a file. So inquiry may be performed in order to select limited data from a
single document or to select an entire document for viewing.
 Communication. Data is used only at the location of its physical storage. Data must often be transferred
from one location to another. That is between one people to another in order to share resources.
2. Data Manipulation. The functions of data manipulation involve the changing of data. The listings in this
grouping specify the manner in which data can be altered or used to create additional data. Data manipulation
consists of sorting, classification, selection, calculation, summarization and updating as follows:
 Sorting. Sorting is the act of arranging data in ascending or descending sequence. You can arrange your
documents such as students and staff lists in any order.
 Classification. Classification is the separation of data with similar characteristics into unique categories.
This separation into groups allows one to reduce the complexity of dealing with data.
 Selection. The data processing function which allows one to extract specific types of data from a file is
called selection. Selection like classification makes it easier to use large volumes of data.
 Calculation. The calculation is the most familiar of the data manipulation functions.
 Summarization. Summarization involves reviewing large amounts of data and reducing that data to a
relatively small quantity of representative facts or figures. Summarizing is usually accomplished by
accumulating numeric values, and then displaying the accumulated sums.
 Updating. The last of the data manipulating functions in our list is updating. Updating is the process by
which a body of data is changed to reflect current status. Data is collected and stored in order to provide
information concerning a given physical reality.
 Merging. This operation of combining two or more ordered (stored) sets of data to form another single
ordered set.

Approach to Data Processing

The approach to data processing involves the following steps:
a. Editing – To determine the relevance of data is a crucial step in a data processing. Once the data has been
accumulated from the different sources, the relevance of the data is been tested-out then. All the inappropriate
data is taken out and only the relevant information is been kept.
b. Coding – All the needed information would be in a random order. Therefore, it needs to be aligned into a
particular system so that it is unproblematic to comprehend it. This method other than Coding, is also called as
‗netting' or ‗bucketing' which necessitates certain codes
c. Data Entry – Data is entered into the software that does the eventual cross tabulation. After the decision has
been made on a code, edited data is than entered into the software.
d. Validation – Validation is the second phase of ‗cleaning' in which thorough quality-check is been done.
Data is double-checked so as to ensure that the process has been done infallibly.
e. Tabulation – Final step is the production of the end product which is tabulated in a systematic format so that
thorough analysis can be done.

Methods of Data Processing

The following are the three major methods that have been widely used for data processing over the years
namely: (a) manual method (b) mechanical method (c) computer.
A. Manual Method. The manual method of data processing involves the use of chalk, wall, pen, pencil and the
like. These devices, machines or tools facilitate human efforts in recording, classifying, manipulating, sorting
and presenting data or information. The manual data processing operations entail considerable manual efforts.
Thus, manual method is cumbersome, tiresome, boring, frustrating and time consuming. Furthermore, the
processing of data by the manual method is likely to be affected by human errors. When there are errors, then
the reliability, accuracy, neatness, tidiness, and validity of the data would be in doubt. The manual method does
not allow for the processing of large volume of data on a regular and timely basis.
B. Mechanical Method. The mechanical method of data processing involves the use of machines such as
typewriter, machines and adding machines. These machines facilitate human efforts in recording, classifying,
manipulating, sorting and presenting data or information. The mechanical operations are basically routine in
nature. There is virtually no creative thinking. The mechanical operations are noisy, hazardous, error prone and
untidy. The mechanical method does not allow for the processing of large volume of data continuously and
timely.
C. Computer Method. The computer method of carrying out data processing has the following major features:
a. Data can be steadily and continuously processed
b. The operations are practically not noisy
c. There is a store where data and instructions can be stored temporarily and permanently.
d. Errors can be corrected easily and neatly instantly using built-in thesaurus, spelling and grammar software.
e. Output reports are usually very neat, decent and can be produced in various forms such as adding charts,
graphs, diagrams, pictures, video etc.
f. Accuracy and reliability of data are highly enhanced.
g. The speed of processing is usually high
h. Data and information can be imported and exported
i. You can use the shortcut keyboard to make your tasks easier, faster and more productive
j. You can use the Find and Replace and selection menu to search for information quickly
k. You can use the sorting menu to sort your data and information in ascending and descending order

Advantages of computers
Base on the characteristics of computer mentioned above, computer has made a very vital impact on society. It
has changed the way of life. The use of computer technology has affected every field of life. People are using
computers to perform different tasks quickly and easily. The use of computers makes different task easier.
1. It also saves time and effort and reduces the overall cost to complete a particular task.
2. Many organizations are using computers for keeping the records of their customers. Banks are using
computers for maintaining accounts and managing financial transactions. The banks are also providing the
facility of online banking. The customers can check their account balance from the Internet. They can also
make financial transaction online without necessarily going to the bank. The transactions are handled easily and
quickly with computerized systems.
3. People are using computers for paying their bills,
4. managing their home budgets or simply having some break and watching a movie, listening to songs or
playing computer games.
5. Online services like skype or social media websites are used for communication and information sharing
purposes. Computer can be used as a great educational tool.
6. Students can have access to all sort of information on the Internet for their assignments and projects. Some
great websites like Wikipedia, Khan‘s Academy, Code Academy, Byte-Notes provides free resources for
students & professionals.
7. Moreover, the computer is being used in every field of life such as medical, business, industry, airline,
education, agriculture and weather forecasting, yet it has its challenges.

Disadvantages of computer
Every advantage has its challenges. The use of computer has also created some problems in society as follows:
a. Unemployment. Different tasks are performed automatically by using computers. It reduces the need of
people and increases unemployment in society.
b. Wastage of time and energy. Many people use computers without positive purpose. They play games and
chat for a long period of time. It causes wastage of time and energy. Young generation is now spending more
time on the social media websites like Facebook, Twitter etc or texting their friends all night through smart
phones which is bad for both studies and their health. And it also has adverse effects on the social life.
c. Data Security. The data stored on a computer can be accessed by unauthorized persons through networks. It
has created serious problems for the data security.
d. Computer Crimes. People use the computer for negative activities. They hack the credit card numbers of the
people and misuse them or they can steal important data from big organizations. Fraudsters crack people bank
accounts numbers and make away with millions of monies such as: Naira, Dollars, Pounds, Euros and other
national and international currency.
e. Privacy violation. The computers are used for storing personal data of the people. The privacy of a person
can be violated if the personal and confidential records are not protected properly
f. Health risks. The improper and prolonged use of computer can results in injuries or disorders of hands,
wrists, elbows, eyes, necks and back. The users can avoid health risks by using the computer in proper position.
Parts of the solution are for computer users to take regular breaks while using the computer for longer period of
time. It is also recommended for computers users to take a couple of minutes break after 30 minutes of
computer usage.
g. Impact on Environment. The computer manufacturing processes and computer waste are polluting the
environment. The wasted parts of computer can release dangerous toxic materials. Green computer is a method
to reduce the electricity consumed and environmental waste generated when using a computer. It includes
recycling and regulating manufacturing processes. The used computers must be donated or disposed off
properly.

Characteristics of a Computer.
The following are some of the characteristics of computer
1. Speed: The computer can manipulate large data at incredible speed and response time can be very fast.
2. Accuracy: Its accuracy is very high and its consistency can be relied upon. Errors committed in computing
are mostly due to human rather than technological weakness. There are in-built errors detecting schemes in the
computer.
3. Storage: It has both internal and external storage facilities for holding data and instructions. This capacity
varies from one machine to the other. Memories are built up in K(Kilo) modules where K = 1024 memory
locations.
4. Automatic: Once a program is in the computer‘s memory, it can run automatically each time it is opened.
The individual has little or no instruction to give again.
6. Reliability: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer human traits of tiredness and lack of concentration.
It will perform the last job with the same speed and accuracy as the first job every time even if ten million jobs
are involved.
7. Flexibility: It can perform any type of task once it can be reduced to logical steps. Modern computers can be
used to perform a variety of functions like on-line processing, multi-programming, real time processing etc.

The Computer System

The computer system is made up of the computer system, the user and the environment in which the computer
is operated.
The Computer System. The computer system is made up of the hardware and the software.
The Hardware. The computer hardware comprises the input unit, the processing unit and the output unit. The
input unit comprises those media through which data is fed into the computer. Examples include the keyboard,
mouse, joystick, trackball, scanner etc. The processing unit is made up of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU),
the control unit and the main memory. The main memory also known as the primary memory is made up of the
Read Only Memory (ROM) and the Random Access Memory (RAM).The output unit is made up of those
media through which data, instructions for processing the data (program), and the result of the processing
operation are displayed for the user to see. Examples of output unit are the monitor (Visual Display Unit) and
the printer.

Software. Computer software is the series of instructions that enable the computer to perform a task or group of
tasks. A program is made up of group of instructions to perform a task. Series of programs linked together
make up software. Computer programs could be categorized into system software, utility software, and
application programs.
Computer Users. Computer users are the different categories of personnel that operates the computer. We have
expert users and casual users. The expert users could be further categorized into computer engineers, computer
programmers and computer operators.

The Computer Environment. The computing environment ranges from the building housing the other
elements of the computing system namely; the computer and the users, the furniture, auxiliary devices such as
the voltage, stabilizer, the Uninterruptible Power Supply System (UPS), the fans, the air conditioners etc.

The Computer Hardware. The following are the component of the computer hardware, namely: hardware,
input, CPU and the output as indicated in Fig2.2 below: PLS DRAW IT

GENERATION OF COMPUTER

Introduction
The evolution of digital computing is often divided into generations. Each generation is characterized by
dramatic improvements over the previous generation in the technology used to build computers, the internal
organization of computer systems, and programming languages. Although not usually associated with computer
generations, there has been a steady improvement in algorithms, including algorithms used in computational
science. The following history has been organized using these widely recognized generations as mile posts. The
six generations of computer in terms of technological development over time; computers have been broadly
classified into six generations. The lines of distinction between each generation are not exact, and some overlap
in technologies exists. Although these designations are open to some controversy, as a general description of
types of technology in use, the terms first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh generation are
sometimes useful in providing a general perspective of some of the advancements in computing technology.
1. First Generation: Approximately 1946-1958
2. Characteristics: vacuum tubes
3. Second Generation: Approximately 1959-1964
4. Characteristics: transistors
5. Third Generation: Approximately 1965-1970
6. Characteristics: integrated circuits
7. Fourth Generation: Approx. 1971-1989
8. Characteristics: large scale integration
9. Fifth Generation: 1990-1994
10. Characteristics: very large integration
11. Sixth Generation: 1995-present
12. Characteristics: Super large integration
13. Seventh Generation: 1996-date
14. Characteristics: dual processor

- First Generation Computer (1946-1958, Vacuum Tube).

The introduction of the UNIVAC-1 in 1951 marked the beginning of the first generation (Nagpal, 2010). This is
called a machine language or low-level language because the programs were written in machine code. They use
binary numbers (1s and 0s) representing 0n and 0ff as their instructions. The computers that fall into the group
of the first generation computers are Electronic Numerical Integrator Automatic Computer (ENIAC), Electronic
Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC), Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer Calculator
(EDSAC), Mark1, Datamatics etc. These computers used vacuum tubes or valves which worked on the
principle of thermionic emission.
The computers that used vacuum tubes are known as first generation computers. The major software
development that occurred with the first generation computers was the development of high-level programming
language like FORTRAN (Formula TRANslation). The system of processing information was of batch
processing type. That is batch of data was processed together. Example of the first generation computer as
obtained fromwww.techiwarehouse.com/engine/.../Generations-of-Compute (2004) is as indicated in Figure
5:
Harvard Mark I (electromechanical); Whirlwind; ENIAC; EDSAC; UNIVAC I, UNIVAC II, UNIVAC 1101;
RCA BIZMAC; NCR CRC 102A, NCR CRC 102D; Honeywell Datamatic 1000; Burroughs E101, Burroughs
220; IBM models 604, 650 (drum memory), 701, 702, 704, 705, 709.
Some of the general features/characteristics of this generation include:
Electronic circuitry used vacuum tubes
Punched cards were used for feeding of information
Punched cards and paper were used for getting results
Vacuum tubes were used as the software.
Magnetic tapes were used for external storage
They were oriented towards batch processing
Human operators had to set switches
They were using machine language and assembly languages
They were extremely slow and cumbersome compared to the present computers.
They consume a lot of electricity.
They were huge in size and not portable.
They were restricted to computing capacity.
They were expensive.
They use Magnetic drum as their primary internal-storage medium.
They use limited main-storage capacity.
They have slow input/output, punched-card.
They have low level symbolic-language programming
They have limited programming capacity.
They have short life span.
They contain a lot of heat generation and radiation just like Light bulbs do.
They were unreliable as filaments frequently burnt out.
They needed a large amount of power to run the machine.
They needed heavy air-conditioning system.
They needed an initialization time to start operations.
The typical computers at that time were UNIVAC and IBM
Advantages of the First Generation Computers
Vacuum tubes were the only electronic components available during those days.
Vacuum tube technology made possible the advent of electronic digital computers.
These computers were the fastest calculating devices of their time. They could perform computations in
milliseconds.

Disadvantages of the First Generation Computers

They were too bulky in size.
They were unreliable.
The thousands of vacuum tubes that were used emitted large amount of heat and burnt out frequently
Air conditioning required.
They were prone to frequent hardware failures.
They require constant maintenance.
They were not portable.
The manual assembly of individual components into functioning units was required.
The commercial production was difficult and costly.
There were limited commercial uses.

Second Generation Computers (1959-1964, Transistors).

This second generation computer started from 1959 to 1964. This period saw several important developments at
all levels of computer system design with transistor introduced in 1959 which replaced the vacuum tube. The
transistors as indicated in Figure 6. was invented by Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1948, formed the basis for
this generation of computers.
The use of Transistors makes the computers much faster, more reliable and more versatile than the first
generation computers. They range from the basic circuits to the programming language used to write scientific
applications. This generation computer used transistors, magnetic-core storage, magnetic tapes and magnetic
disks instead of the vacuum tube. The transistors used solid material like silicon. This system is also known as
Assembly language which used symbols as abbreviations. During this period, many new computer systems
were developed: Input/output control systems; Early programming languages; FORTRAN compiler; COBOL
compiler, BASIC, ALGOL compiler, PL (Programming Language). Significant computer development during
this period include: IBM-1401, Honey well-800, IBM 1620 IBM 1620, CDC 3600. Example of the second
generation computer as obtained from www.techiwarehouse.com/engine/.../Generations-of-Compute (2004) is
as indicated in Figure 6.
UNIVAC 1107, UNIVAC III; RCA 501; Philco Transact S-2000; NCR 300 series; IBM 7030 Stretch; IBM
7070, 7080, 7090, 1400 series, 1600 series; Honeywell 800, 400 series; General Electric GE 635, 645, GE 200;
Control Data Corp. CDC 1604, 3600, 160A; LARC; Burroughs B5000, 200 series.
Some of the major characteristics of the second generation computers include as indicated in Fig. 7:
The use of Electronic circuitry characterized by the use of transistors
They made use of transistors for internal storage medium as its software.
Punched cards and magnetic tapes were used for input of data
Punched cards and paper were used for output
Magnetic core storage were used for external storage
They were oriented towards far more versatile
Types of applications used concurrently by users
They used magnetic tape for external storage
Human operators handled the punched cards
They were cheaper to build than the vacuum tube.
They were faster
They consume less power.
They were more reliable.
They were smaller.
They produce less heat.
They have more storage capacity.
They were less prone to failure.
They use high level programs languages (COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, PL/I).
They were also low-level language but more reliable and with high speed.
The size was small.
The speed of operation was relatively high.
Less heat was generated.
They were Portable and robust.
They were more reliable and less prone to faults.
They had no initialization time required.
They cost less.
They require less power
The computers used were IBM 1400 series and 7000 series. Control Data 3600. General Electric 635 and
Honeywell 200.

Advantages of the Second Generation Computers

They were smaller in size as compared to first generation computers.
They were more reliable.
They were less heat generated.
They were able to reduce computational times from milliseconds to microseconds.
They were less prone to hardware failures.
They were better portability.
They were wider commercial use.

Disadvantages of the Second Generation Computers

They require Air-conditioning.

They require frequent maintenance.
They require manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit.
The commercial production was difficult and costly.

Third Generation Computers (1965-1970, Integrated Circuits).

The third Generation Computers started in 1965 and used Integrated Circuits(IC) instead of using Transistors as
indicated in Figure 8. This generation of computers included significant advances in machine hardware and
software, the computer programs designed to make the machine work. These included special operating
systems which provided capabilities for automatic proceeding from one job to the next without human
intervention and for multiprogramming, which made it possible for machine to perform several jobs
simultaneously. In other words, these transistors are compacted in such a small space called Integrated Circuit
(Semiconductor chip-a single wafer of silicon). The invention of IC reduced both the size and cost of computers
and therefore enhances their power. The IC today is called Motherboard. Those systems introduced during this
period include: Operating systems in 1960, integrated circuit in 1964, IBM 360 Series in 1964, ICL 1900 series
in 1965, Show and Baker time sharing in 1964-66, Commercial Minicomputers appeared in 1966. Others
include: Large-scale integrated circuits in 1969, Read-only memory in 1970, IBM 370 series in 1970, and Intel
4004 chip in 1971, Pocket calculators using chips in 1971. The major developments during this period are:
Integrated circuit, Small scale Integration and medium size integration technologies. The significant milestone
in the development of operating system or software are the Integrated circuit and Database Management
(DBMS), use of semiconductor memories, punch cards, magnetic tapes, disk and cache memories were used as
secondary storage devices. Some of the well known computers of this age are: IBM 360 system, System 370
series of 5700 of Burroughs and PDP-II Minicomputers of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). Some of the
computer programming languages developed were Report Program Generation (RPG), Algorithm Language
(ALGOL). Example of the third generation computer as obtained from
www.techiwarehouse.com/engine/.../Generations-of-Compute (2004) is as indicated in Figure 9: Burroughs
6700; Control Data 3300, 6600, 7600; Honeywell 200; IBM System/360, System 3, System 7 ; NCR Century
Series; RCA Spectra 70 series; UNIVAC 9000 series; General Electric GE 600 series, GE 235.

They use electronic circuitry which contained the equivalence of many transistors
 They use monitors and keyboards which were introduced for data input and output
 They use punched cards which begun losing their promiences as the input or output devices
 They use of Integrated circuits as their software.
 They use magnetic disks for their external storage
 They use sophisticated operating system capable of handling several jobs simultaneously
 They introduced the concept of computer families
 They use more high-level languages such as Report Program Generator (RPG) and PASCAL, FORTRAN
and COBOL
 They use magnetic core and solid state as the main storage device.
 They use smaller size and better performance and reliability.
 They use extensive high-level programming languages.
 They use minicomputers.
 They use remote processing and time-sharing through communication.
 They use availability of operating system programs software control I/O to perform many tasks.
 They use application software for airline reservation, market, forecasting, credit card billing.
 They use the computer for mathematics and scientific processing.
 The size of the computer was very small.
 They work at much higher speed.
 They were portable and handy.
 They were reliable and robust.
 The cost was less.
 They require less power.
 They were easy to learn.
 The typical computers used at this stage were: IBM System/360

Advantages of the Third Generation Computers

They were smaller in size as compared to previous generation computers.
They were more reliable than second-generation computers.
They had lower heat generated than second generation computers.
They were able to reduce computational times from microseconds to nanoseconds.
The maintenance cost was low because hardware failures were rare.
They were easily portable.
They were totally general purposes which were widely used for various commercial applications all over
the world.
They were less power requirement than previous generation computers.
They required manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was not required. So
human labour and cost involved at assembly stage was drastically reduced.
The commercial production was easier and cheaper.

Disadvantages of the Third Generation Computers

Air-conditioning required in many cases.
Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of IC chips.

Fourth Generation Computers (1972-1989, Microprocessors).

This generation of computers started in 1972 to 1989. The significant distinction for this generation is the
development of Large Integrated Circuit(LSI) and Large Scale Integrated Circuit (LSIC) and the invention of
microprocessor as indicated in Figure 10. Large System Intergration placed transistors into a single chip that
could do all processing of a full-scale computer. Various developments emerged as a result of millions of
transistors put into one integrated circuit chip and a single chip could do all the processing of a full-scale
computer. Major developments during this period include: Kilby, J.S. and Noyce, R. who developed the LSI in
1972. Real-time input/output control systems were developed in 1972. Microcomputers were introduced in
1973. Bill Gates developed the first high-level language for a microprocessor in 1974. Computerized games
emerged using TV screen in 1976. Large-scale databases were introduced in 1978. TV broadcasting network
emerged in 1978; VisiCalc for microcomputer emerged in 1978; First Apple computers were built in 1978;
View data system was introduced in 1979; IBM and ICL introduced Word processors in 1979. This is also
known as 4GL as well as very high-level languages. Apple II computer desktop were developed; IBM Pcs were
released in 1981 making computers accessible to many schools and homes. The Bill Gates version of BASIC
became the standard programming for personal computer. Gates and Allen founded the Microsoft Corporation.
They are one of the richest people in the world of computer specialists because of their development of
computer operation system(different versions of Windows) and different Office application software and
hardware systems. The major computers at this stage are:
Medium Scale Integration (MSI).
Large Scale Integration (LSI).
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI).

The major software developed during this period are the high-level programming languages: Query languages,
Report writers, Spreadsheet, Graphics, Computer Aided Design, ADA, C, PASCAL, Word processing
packages, Microsoft Office, Microsoft Windows, Database packages which incorporate structured Query
Languages (SQL) like ORACLE, SYBASE, INFORMIX.
Three basic characteristics that differentiate microprocessors in this generation include:
Instruction Set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many
instructions per second the processor can execute.

One of the earliest personal computers was the Altair 8800 computer kit. In 1975 you could purchase this kit
and put it together to make your own personal computer. In 1977 the Apple II was sold to the public and in
1981IBM entered the Personal Computer (PC).
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and schools and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of school
curriculum and of life as more and more everyday products and schools began to use microprocessors for the
teaching and learning. As these small computers became more powerful and available, they could be linked
together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of Graphic User Interface (GUIs), the mouse and handheld devices.
The major characteristics of this fourth generation computers include:
 They use miniaturization which complete circuits are reduced virtually into microscopic sizes
 They use large-scale integrated circuit as their software.
 Further refinement of input and output devices were developed
 They introduced microcomputers
 Magnetic disks became the primary source of external storage
 They started to use sophisticated broad special software for managing large databases
 They increased storage capacity and speed.
 They use modular design and compatibility between equipment provided by various manufacturers.
 They use greater versatility of input/output device.
 They use increased minicomputers.
 They use microprocessors and microcomputers.
 They use application software for mathematical modeling and simulation, electronic fund transfer (EFT),
Computer Aided Instruction (CAI), Computer Aided Management (CAM) and home computers.
 They use result oriented programming languages.
 They use improve productivity tools and real time sharing and control systems such as games.
 They use application software to copy and present data in different form.
 They were more reliable.
 They were powerful in mathematical calculations and data processing abilities.
 They were very fast.
 They require little power to operate.
 They were very small in size and light weight.
 They were multi-purpose capable of multi-tasking.
 They were robust and rarely prone to hardware problems.
 They were reliable in true sense.
 They were the cheapest among all generations of computers.
 They were user-friendly.
 Typical computers used at this generation were: IBM System/370, and HP3000

Advantages of the fourth Generation Computers

They were the smallest in size because of high component density.
They were very reliable.
The heat generated was negligible.
They require no air conditioning in most cases.
They were much faster in computation than previous generations.
The Hardware failure was negligible and hence minimal maintenance was required.
They were easily portable because of their small size.
They were totally for general purpose.

Disadvantage of the Fourth Generation Computers

Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of LSI chips.

3.5. Fifth Generation Computers (1990, Artificial Intelligence).

This computer generation started in 1990. Supercomputers advanced in artificial Intelligence which could
perform billions of calculations per second. The computer that think and reason caused further miniaturization
of computer hardware. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is described as a branch of Computer Science that is involved
with using computers to solve problems. The public first became aware of this disciple in 1956 when the term
was coined as the theme for a conference held at Dartmouth College. Since then, researchers have been using
the concepts from disciplines such as Linguistics, Psychology and Computer Science in an attempt to learn how
to prepare programs or construct systems that do perform task which no machine has ever automatically done
before. Figure 12 shows that the computers at this generation are smaller in sizes.
Source: museum.ipsj.or.jp › ...›Historical Computers in Japan› Other Computers
An example of AI is the use of Expert system as indicated in Figure 13 below. An expert system is software
that attempts to encode the knowledge and decision rules established by human specialists so that package users
can call on this expertise in making their own decisions. Computers will continue to be intelligence amplifiers
in an alliance with humanity. This alliance would combine the current superiority of the human brain in matters
involving creativity, judgment and intuition with the computer‘s superiority in matters requiring processing,
speed, accuracy and tireless attention to detail. It started with major innovations in computer architecture which
is the era of interaction between computer and human beings, like Parallel Processing, Intelligent Programming,
application of Artificial Intelligent, Natural language, artificial language, knowledge-based languages and
Object oriented languages. The firth generation computer makes it possible for hundreds of processors working
on different parts of a single program. They work on parallel processing. The fifth generation computer
combines both hardware and software to produce human intelligence with voice recognition, natural language
processing, language translation, speech processing, other multimedia application, video databases and optical
discs. Example of the fifth Generation computer as obtained from
www.techiwarehouse.com/engine/.../Generations-of-Compute (2004) is as indicated in Figure 10.

Some of the major characteristics include:

 They use very large scale integration (VLSI) of circuits on smaller chips as their software.
 They use artificial intelligence system that deals with knowledge base and reasoning ability- known as
knowledge information processing.
 They use expert system which is a product of artificial intelligent used in medical diagnosis, audit reviews,
insurance policy risk assessments and personal financial planning.
 They use talking and voice recognition computer to capture input verbally, speech and natural language
understanding.
 They use faster operating speeds synthesis, greater processing capacity, and virtually unlimited memory.
 They use relational databases and image processing.
 The development and use of personal computers.
 The development of personal computers has replaced typewriters.
 Electronic currency is developed and is replacing paper currency.
 The development of personal computers as part of our daily life in offices and homes.
 They use ATM to access money from banks in any part of the world

Advantages of the Fifth Generation Computers

 They are reliable,
 They work faster.
 They were portable and are available in different sizes with different features and different affordable prices
 A noninvasive probe that provides painless probing to the patient
 There is no question of probe passing beyond the junctional epithelium, as ultrasound waves detect, image,
and map the upper boundary of periodontal ligament
 Computer storage of data and printout or visuals can be used for patient education
 Guidance path is predetermined
 Provides information regarding condition of the gingival tissues

Disadvantages of the Fifth Generation Computers

 Expensive
 Operator needs to understand the images provided by the computer
 Requires a learning curve

3.6 The sixth Generation Computer (1990s, Wide Area Networking)

According to the Sixth Generation (1990s-) the sixth generation will be the explosive growth of Wide Area
Networking. The sixth-generation computing is the name used in the Japanese during their Promotion of
Research and Development on Electronics and Information Systems in Tokyo (Lawrenceville, 2007). The
Council set by the Japans Government was asked by their Ministry of Science and Technology in January 1983
to report on artificial intelligence in these terms (Chapman, 2009). Four objectives were specified for promoting
knowledge science: innovations in frontier high technologies; economic and cultural advancements;
contributions to the expansion of human potential; and establishing a foundation for creative science. The most
interesting feature of the proposed research program is based on inter-disciplinary interaction with physiology,
psychology, linguistics and logic.
This sixth generation computers paused a lot of issues and challenges to European and Americans. This Japans
development of the sixth generation computers scared a lot of European and American decision makers.
Fortunately they were not scared completely but instead decided to "counter-attack" by funding a lot of new
research in different computer fields. Some of the projects which were started as a result of this development
are the European Esprit, the British Alvey, and the American MCC. Representatives from these three initiatives
were invited to the conference to report on their own progress which has been fairly substantial. Timothy
Walker from the U.K. Information Engineering Directorate told of the varying British information technology
projects which had succeeded in getting a number of key scientists to return to the U.K. from overseas. Several
changes had been made in the projects over the years, including some name changes, such as changing "AI" to
"knowledge based systems" because of lowered expectations. On the other hand, the area of human-computer
interaction was receiving more emphasis now: At the start of the Alvey project 5 years ago, HCI might have
been seen as important but not so much was done about it, whereas now they realized that they had to make a
serious effort to ensure usability. Walker said that HCI could either be done as an independent field of study or
integrated with other topics and that they had chosen to base their projects mostly on the latter view.
Transitions between generations in computer technology are hard to define, especially as they are taking place.
Some changes, such as the switch from vacuum tubes to transistors, are immediately apparent as fundamental
changes, but others are clear only in retrospect. Many of the developments in computer systems since 1990
reflect gradual improvements over established systems, and thus it is hard to claim they represent a transition to
a new ―generation‖, but other developments will prove to be significant changes. In this section, we offer some
assessments about recent developments and current trends that we think will have a significant impact on
computational science. This generation is beginning with many gains in parallel computing, both in the
hardware area and in improved understanding of how to develop algorithms to exploit diverse, massively
parallel architectures. Parallel systems now compete with vector processors in terms of total computing power
and most especially parallel systems to dominate the future. Combinations of parallel/vector architectures are
well established, and one corporation (Fujitsu) has announced plans to build a system with over 200 of its high
and vector processors. Manufacturers have set themselves the goal of achieving teraflops (1012arithmetic
operations per second) performance by the middle of the decade, and it is clear this will be obtained only by a
system with a thousand processors or more. Work station technology has continued to improve, with processor
designs now using a combination of RISC, pipelining, and parallel processing. As a result it is now possible to
procure a desktop workstation that has the same overall computing power (100megaflops) as fourth generation
supercomputers. This development has sparked an interest in heterogeneous computing: a program started on
one workstation can find idle workstations elsewhere in the local network to run parallel sub tasks. One of the
most dramatic changes in the sixth generation is the explosive growth of wide area networking. Network
bandwidth has expanded tremendously in the last few years and will continue to improve for the next several
years. T1 transmission rates are now standard for regional networks, and the national ―backbone‖ that
interconnects regional networks uses T3. Networking technology is becoming more widespread than its original
strong base in universities and government laboratories as it is rapidly finding application in K-12 education,
community networks and private industry. A little over a decade after the warning voiced in the Lax report, the
future of a strong computational science infrastructure is bright.
3.7 Seventh Generation of computer (1996-date)
The seventh generation of computer is still under development. However, it can be refer to:
a. Seven generation sustainability, the idea that decisions should be considered for their impact on the seventh
generation to come, inspired by the laws of the Iroquois
b. Seventh Generation Amendment, a proposed amendment to the U.S. Constitution to put ecologically
sensitive areas under government control
c. Seventh Generation Inc., a Vermont-based manufacturer of cleaning products
d. History of video game consoles (seventh generation), the previous generation of video games containing the
Xbox 360, Nintendo DS, Wii, PlayStation Portable, and PlayStation
e. Dual Core processors generation.
f. The social media and social networking generation

The characteristics. The Seventh Generation replacing desktop PCs and personal printers with more energy-
efficient laptops and all-in-one printers. Desktop PCs and personal printers are out. Energy-efficient laptops and
all-in-one printers are in. Therefore with more energy-efficient availability and accessibility of laptops, Internet,
e-prints, Ipad, GSM, e-mail, face-book, Whats App, modem, twitter, Podcasts, blogs, Wikis, Linkedin,
YouTube, MySpace etc, one can achieve the following characteristics of social media and social networking:
a. Web space. The website should provide the users free web space to upload content.
b. Web address. The users are given a unique web address that becomes their web identity. They can post and
share all their content on this web address.
c. Build profiles. Users are asked to enter personal details like name, address, date of birth, school/college
education, professional details etc. The site then mines the personal data to connect individuals.
d. Connect with friends. Users are encouraged to post personal and professional updates about themselves.
The site then becomes a platform to connect friends and relatives.
e. Upload content in real time. Users are provided the tools to post content in real time. This content can be
text, images, audio, video or even symbolic likes and dislikes. The last post comes first, giving the site
freshness.
f. Enable conversations. Members are given the rights to comment on posts made by friends and relatives. The
conversations are a great social connect.
g. Posts have time stamp. All posts are time stamped, making it easy to follow posts.
h. Interactive: Another characteristic of modern social networks is the fact that they are so interactive
i. Relationships: Unlike the websites of the past, social networks thrive on relationships
j. Emotion over content. The social network actually provides users with emotional security and a sense that
no matter what happens, their friends are within easy reach
k. User-based. Online social networks, are built and directed by users themselves.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Classification Based on types of data they represent
Even though there are no standardized methods of categorizing computers, different types of computer systems
are available in the market to cater to the variety of computing needs. Broadly, computers may be classified on
the basis of:
a. The type of input they accept and the way they perform the processing operations, and
b. Size, in terms of capacities and speed of processing, namely: Digital, Analog and Hybrid computers.

1. Digital Computer
Digital computer represents its variable in the form of digits. It counts the data it deals with, whether
representing numbers, letters or other symbols are converted into binary form on input to the computer. The
data undergoes a processing after which the binary digits are converted back to alpha numeric form for output
for human use. Because of the fact that business applications like inventory control, invoicing and payroll deal
with discrete values (separate, disunited, discontinuous); they are beset processed with digital computers. As a
result of this, digital computers are mostly used in commercial and business places today. They work with
quantities represented as digitals. They operate on discrete quantities. They contain both numeric and non-
numeric information which are represented as strings of digits. They use binary codes such as 0s (off) and 1s
(on), to represent the information. The basic operation performed by a digital computer is addition,
multiplication, division, subtraction and exponentiation before computed. The digital computers are useful for
evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulation of data such as payroll preparation, billing. Examples of
digital computers.
Examples of digital computers are
 - Calculators.
- Adding machines
- Computers such as Desktop, laptop, Tablet laptop etc.
- A digital clock that display whole seconds but not the time in between the seconds.

Digital Clock. It does not represent time continuously, but rather discretely, in distinct steps. A digital clock
might display whole seconds but not the time in between the seconds.

The characteristics of Digital Computer.

a. Speed. The speed of operation is very high. This is why they can carry out trillions of operations in a second.
Digital computers are discrete systems and operate in discontinuous steps and so operate by counting.
b. Automatic. These machines are automatic. Once properly started, they can perform task without any human
intervention. This makes these devices immensely helpful in carrying out tedious tasks which may tire normal
human brain
c. The calculations are converted into binary numbers (1s and 0s). This is why numbers, words and symbols can
easily and quickly represented and processed.
d. The output is represented in the form of discrete values.
e. Its accuracy is good. A Digital computer stores the information in encoded form which guarantees its
longevity and accurate retrieval
f. It has large memory space. It can store and recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage
facility. The information can be stored and retrieved as long as a user desires
g. Flexibility. It is versatile in nature in the sense that they carry out different type of jobs at a time without any
interference. They are also suitable for a number of applications. They modify their behaviour based on the
information they process.

2. Analog Computer
Analogue is a Greek word, meaning similar. The similarities between two quantities are measured by electrical
voltages or current. These are special-purpose computers dedicated to a single task. They are computers that
operate on continuous electrical signals or data usually by measuring of weigh, speed, lengths, voltage
waveform, current waveform, temperature instead of counting. This type of computer sets up a model of a
system. Common type represents it variables in terms of electrical voltage and sets up circuit analog to the
equation connecting the variables. The answer can be either by using a voltmeter to read the value of the
variable required, or by feeding the voltage into a plotting device. They hold data in the form of physical
variables rather than numerical quantities. In theory, analog computers give an exact answer because the answer
has not been approximated to the nearest digit. Whereas, when we try to obtain the answers using a digital
voltmeter, we often find that the accuracy is less than that which could have been obtained from an analog
computer. It is almost never used in business systems. It is used by the scientist and engineer to solve systems
of partial differential equations. It is also used in controlling and monitoring of systems in such areas as
hydrodynamics and rocketry; in production.

There are two useful properties of this computer once it is programmed

a. It is simple to change the value of a constant or coefficient and study the effect of such changes.
b. It is possible to link certain variables to a time pulse to study changes with time as a variable, and chart the
result on an X-Y plotter.
The output of an analogue computer is in the form of graphs. Examples of the analogue computers include: (a)
Thermometer, (b) Measuring scales, (c) Barometer (d) Speedometer,(e) Antikythera mechanism, (f) astrolabe,
(g) differential analyzer,(h) Deltar,(i) Kerrison Predictor,(j) mechanical integrator,(k) MONIAC Computer
(hydraulic model of UK economy), (l) nomogram, (m) Norden bombsight, (n) operational amplifier,
(o)planimeter,(p) Range keeper,(q) slide rule,(r) thermostat, (s) tide predictor, (t) Torpedo Data Computer,
(u)Torquetum, (v) Water integrator, (w)Mechanical computer, (x) a dial clock, (y) Analog Clock, the hands
move continuously. This clock is an example of analogue computer showing only the hours and the munities.

The characteristics of Analogue computer.

- It operates by measuring.
- It requires physical analogue.
- It functions on continuously varying quantities.
- The output is usually represented in the form of graph.
- They are first converted in equations and later converted into electrical signals.
- The accuracy of the output is poor.
- Its speed is usually low.
- It has limited memory space.
- It is not versatile (It has limited applications).
- It is not suitable for business and industry.
- It has infinite voltage gain.
- It has infinite input resistance (or zero input current).
- It has zero output resistance (infinite output current capability).
- It excel in solving differential equations and is faster than digital computers

3. Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computers combine the features of analogue and digital computers, i.e. they count and measure things
as they can process both continuous and discrete data. They have many of the same kinds of parts of an
analogue computer. But like digital computers, they process data by manipulating numbers. In some cases, the
user may wish to obtain the output from an analog computer as processed by a digital computer or vice versa.
To achieve this, he set up a hybrid machine where the two are connected and the analog computer may be
regarded as a peripheral of the digital computer. In such a situation, a hybrid system attempts to gain the
advantage of both the digital and the analog elements in the same machine. This kind of machine is usually a
special-purpose device which is built for a specific task. It needs a conversion element which accepts analog
inputs, and output digital value. Such converters are called digitizers. There is need for a converter from analog
to digital also. It has the advantage of giving real-time response on a continuous basis. Complex calculations
can be dealt with by the digital elements, thereby requiring a large memory, and giving accurate results after
programming. They are mainly used in aerospace and process control applications. Examples of Hybrid
computers include:
 Microcomputer.
 Minicomputer.
 Thermometer and Speedometer.

Differences between Digital and Analogue Computers.

S/N Digital computer Analogue computer

1. It operates by counting It operates by measuring
2. It functions on discrete numbers It functions on continuous
variables
3. The calculations are converted The calculations are first
into binary numbers(1s and 0s) converted to equations and later
into electrical signals
4. The output is in the form of Its output are in the form of graph
discrete values
5. It is more accurate It is less accurate
 6. It has high speed It has less speed
7. It has more memory space It has less memory space
8. It has high flexibility It is rigid
9. It can process alphanumeric It cannot process alphanumeric
information information
10. It has more applications It has less applications

What are the characteristics of digital analog and hybrid computers?

The following are the characteristics of digital, analog and hybrid computers:
a. digital computers work on discrete data representing quantities by encoding (e.g. integers, coded
alphanumeric characters, coded floating point numbers).
b. analog computers work on continuous data representing quantities by analogy (e.g. voltages, currents, shaft
rotation rate, shaft position).
c. hybrid computers are a combination of digital & analog computers connected together to work as one
machine.

Classification of computer based on purpose.

Depending on their flexibility in operation, computers are classified as either special purpose or general purpose/
degree of versatility
a. Special purpose
b. General purpose

1 Special Purpose Computers

Computers can be classified according to the principles of operation, purpose and on the basis of their size,
speed and generation. Classes of computer on the principles of Operations include: the Digital computer,
Analogue computer and Hybrid computer as mentioned above. Those on the basis of purpose or application
include special purpose and general purpose computers. Those computers that are classified on the basis of size
and speed are five namely: Super computer, Mainframe computer, workstations,
Minicomputers/Microcomputer and microcontrollers. Likewise, those computers classified on the basis of
generations include: 1st generation, 2nd generation, third generation, fourth generation, fifth generation and
sixth generation. The classification of computer on the basis of degree of versatility (purpose and application)
is:
Special Purpose. As the name suggest, these are computers designed to perform a particular job or task
because of its limited memory and speed. For example, the computers that are designed for air traffic control, or
measuring temperature cannot be used in word processing of documents. A special purpose computer is one
that is designed to solve a restricted class of problems. Such computers may even be designed and built to
handle only one job. In such machines, the steps or operations that the computer follows may be built into the
hardware. Most of the computers used for military purposes fall into this class. Other example of special
purpose computers include:
a. Computers designed specifically to solve navigational problems.
b. Computers designed for tracking airplane or missiles.
c. Computers used for process control applications in industries such as oil refinery, chemical manufacture,
steel processing and power generation.
d. Computers used as robots in factories like vehicles assembly plants and glass industries.

Attributes of Special Purpose Computers

Special purpose computer are usually very efficient for the tasks for which they are specially designed.
However, they are very much less complex than the General-Purpose Computers. The simplicity of the
circuiting stems from the fact that provision is made only for limited facilities. They are very much cheaper
than the General-Purpose type since they involve less components and are less complex.
General Purpose. These are computers designed to solve a wide variety of tasks in the fields of
engineering, science, commerce, education, industry etc. With general or generic purpose computers, the
emphasis is on flexibility in preparing store reports, sales reports, students‘ exams reports, payroll etc. For
example, a computer is designed to solve the problem of word processing with graphics embedded at the same
time performing calculation using Excel software. They are designed to handle wide range of problems.
Theoretically, a general-purpose computer can be adequate by means of some easily alterable instructions to
handle any problems that can be solved by computation. In practice however, there are limitations imposed by
memory size, speed and the type of input/output devices. Examples of areas where the general purpose are
employed include the following:
a. Payroll
b. Banking
c. Billing
d. Sales analysis
e. Cost accounting
f. Manufacturing scheduling
g. Inventory control

Some of the attributes of General-Purpose Computers include the following:

a. General-Purpose computers are more flexible than special purpose computers.
b. They can handle a wide spectrum of problems.
c. They are less efficient than the special-purpose computers due to such problems as;
 Inadequate storage;
 Low operating speed;
 Coordination of the various tasks and subsection may take time.
 General Purpose Computers are more complex than the special purpose ones.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
HARDWARE COMPONENTS
Components of the computer are variously, called: parts of the computers, system unit, and anatomy of the
computer that made up the computer. The five components of the computer consist of the input, CPU, primary,
secondary and output units.

1 Input devices and their functions

An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. Input devices such as cameras, scanners,
keyboard and mouse are used to input information into a computer system. Obviously a keyboard and mouse
are the main input devices used to control a computer system to type information and control the cursor on
screen. There are many input devices, but the two most common ones are a keyboard and the mouse. Every key
you press on the keyboard and every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific input signal
to the computer. These input devices are also known as peripherals since they surround the CPU and memory
of a computer system. The input devices are grouped into four, namely:
a. Text input devices
b. Pointing devices
c. Gaming devices
d. Image, video input devices
e. Audio input devices

Text Input devices

The text input devices include the keyboard. The Keyboard is a device to input text and characters by
depressing buttons (referred to as keys), similar to a typewriter. Keyboard is the most common input device of a
Computer System. Modern Keyboards have more than just the letter and numeric keys. They have multimedia
keys for volume control, Play / Pause videos etc. Every single key on a keyboard is assigned a binary numbers
to it which transmits that binary pattern to the computer.

a. Standard Keyboard. The average number of keys on a regular keyboard is 105. Some older versions may
have keys in the range of 95-103. QWERTY keyboards are the most common and have the six alphabets Q, W,
E, R, T, and Y in the first row, while letters in AZERTY keyboards are replaced with A, Z, E, R, T, and Y in
the first row(Different Types of Keyboards - Buzzle,2013)

b. Ergonomics refers to the study of methods that can reduce stress on muscles to avoid repetitive strain injury.
Ergonomic computer keyboards are a computer keyboard designed with ergonomic considerations to minimize
muscle strain and a host of related problems. An ergonomic keyboard is designed to make typing easier and
lessen the strain that your hands may suffer, such as "Carpal Tunnel Syndrome(CTS)

c. Wireless Keyboards. As the name suggests, these keyboards do not need to be connected to the computer
using wire. This makes it very convenient for the user to use the keyboard comfortably. Wireless keyboards use
three basic types of connections: Bluetooth, Infrared (IR), and Radio Frequency to connect to the computer

Function Keyboard
1. Use of F1: It is almost always used as the help key, almost every program will open the help screen when
this key is pressed. Teachers can use it for Enter CMOS Setup. You can use Windows Key + F1 to open the
Microsoft Windows help and support center. They can equally use it to Open the Task Pane.
2. Use of F2: It is use in Windows to renames a highlighted icon, file, or folder in all versions of Windows.
Teachers can use Alt + Ctrl + F2 to opens document window in Microsoft Word. Teachers can also use Ctrl +
F2 to display the print preview window in Microsoft Word. They can well use it to quickly rename a selected
file or folder. Teachers can as well use it to Enter CMOS Setup.
3. Use of F3: Often opens a search feature for many programs including Microsoft Windows when at the
Windows Desktop. Teachers can use it MS-DOS or Windows command line F3 will repeat the last command.
They can use Shift + F3 to change the text in Microsoft Word from upper to lower case or a capital letter at the
beginning of every word. They can use Windows Key + F3 to open the Advanced find window in Microsoft
Outlook. They can equally use it to Open Mission Control on an Apple computer running Mac OS X.
4. Use of F4: Open find window in Windows 95 to XP. Teachers can use it to Open the address bar in Windows
Explorer and Internet Explorer. They can also use it to repeat the last action performed (Word 2000+).
5. Use of Alt + F4. Teachers use it to close the program window currently active in Microsoft Windows.
Teachers can use Ctrl + F4 to close the open window within the current active window in Microsoft Windows.
6. Use of F5: In all modern Internet browsers pressing F5 will refresh or reload the page or document window.
Teachers can use it to open the find, replace, and go to window in Microsoft Word. They can use it to starts a
slideshow in PowerPoint.
7. Use of F6: Move the cursor to the Address bar in Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, and most other Internet
browsers. Teachers can use Ctrl + Shift + F6 to open to another open Microsoft Word document.
8. Use of F7: Commonly used to spell check and grammar check a document in Microsoft programs such as
Microsoft Word, Outlook, etc. Teachers can use Shift + F7 to run a Thesaurus check on the word highlighted.
They can use it to Turns on Caret browsing in Mozilla Firefox.
9. Use of F8: Function key is used to enter the Windows startup menu, as well as to access Windows Safe
Mode.
10. Use of F9: Opens the Measurements toolbar in Quark 5.0.Teachers can use it with Mac OS 10.3 or later to
show all open Windows. They can use the Fn key and F9 at the same time to open Mission Control on an Apple
computer running Mac OS X.
11. Use of F10: In Microsoft Windows activates the menu bar of an open application. The use of Shift + F10 is
the same as right-clicking on a highlighted icon, file, or Internet link. Teachers can use it to access the hidden
recovery partition on HP and Sony computers. They can also use it to enter CMOS Setup. They can as well use
it with Mac OS 10.3 or later to show all open Windows for active program.
12. Use of F11: Full-screen mode in all modern Internet browsers. Teachers can use the Ctrl + F11 as computer
is starting to access the hidden recovery partition on many Dell computers. They can also use it to access the
hidden recovery partition on eMachines, Gateway, and Lenovo computers. They can use it with Mac OS 10.4
or later hides all open windows and shows the Desktop.
13. Use of F12: Open the Save as window in Microsoft Word. Teachers can use it to Shift + F12 to save the
Microsoft Word document. They can also use Ctrl + Shift + F12 to prints a document in Microsoft Word. They
can equally use it to preview a page in Microsoft Expression Web. Teachers can use it to Open Firebug.
Teachers may find it useful with an Apple running Mac OS 10.4 or later F12 to show or hides the Dashboard.
14. Use of F13-F24: Early IBM computers also had keyboards with F13 through F24 keys. However, because
these keyboards are no longer used they are not listed on this page.

Numeric Keypad
The numeric keypad contains a set of keys required for typing or entering number digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
and 9 into the computer store. A numeric key is often activated by pressing the Num lock Key. The numeric
keypad is also used in combination with Alternate (Alt) key to produced extended characters. Extended
characters are characters not normally found on down the Alt key and press 224; to produce character the Alt
key and press 255 and to produce pound sterling denoted by ‗₤‘, one holds down the Alt key and press 156.

Shift Key
When the Shift key is pressed, the capital letters on the alphanumeric keys are activated. It also serves as the
activator of characters that are at the upper part of each alphanumeric key. The Shift key has no effects on
itself; its effect are realized when some other keys are pressed. Thus, if one presses the shift key and then
‗equal‘ sign key, the ‗plus‘ sign which is at the upper part of the ‗equal‘ sign is activated and then it appears
on the screen.

CapLock Key
The Cap Lock Shifts all alphabetic characters into upper case (capital letters). Thus all characters typed are in
lower case (small letters) when not pressed.

Alternate Key (Alt)

The Alternate key can be used in combination with numeric keys to generate characters not shown on the
keyboard, that is, extended characters. For example, holding the Alt key down and pressing 228 produces
thsimultaneously.

Num Lock Key

The Num lock key activates the numeric keypad. Neither Num Lock nor Cap Lock affects the function keys.

Control Key (Ctrl)

The Control key is often used in most text mode to perform block operations like mass deletion, insertion and
so on. For example, CTRL + Y delete a line in most text documents. It can also be used in combination with
other keys to move the cursor to different locations in a text or document. In some application packages, the
Alt, Ctrl and Shift key are used in combination with the function keys to perform several operations. For
example, in Word Perfect word processing package, to centre a text; press Shift and F6; to print a text, press
Shift and F7.

Escape Key (Esc)

The Escape key cancels an operation in progress. For example, when one is editing a file or issuing a command,
ESC cancels any changes one might have made or terminates the command.

Return or Enter Key

The Return key serves as one of the most important keys on most keyboards. It is actually used to inform the
computer the end of an input or command. It performs two functions depending on the program with which it is
used. For example, suppose you are asked to respond to an operating system command at the prompt or other
entries, the operating system will wait until the return key is pressed before continuing. Pressing the return key
also positions the cursor at the beginning of the next line ( in text mode), which is the equivalent of pressing the
carriage return on a typewriter.

Insert Key (Ins)

Pressing the Insert key puts ones keyboard in insert mode, pressing it again returns to overstrike (type over)
mode. In insert mode, the characters one types are inserted at the cursor position, the character at the cursor
position and all characters to the right, shift to make room for them. In overstrike or type over mode, newly
typed characters overwrite the characters at the current cursor position. In most application software insert
mode is indicated by a symbol in the status line.

Delete Key (Del)

The delete key deletes the character at the cursor position when pressed and the remaining text moves to the left
while the cursor remains at the same position.

Back Space Key

The Back Space Key deletes the characters to the left of the cursor when pressed and all other characters to the
right of the cursor are shifted one space to the left.
Spacebar
The Spacebar is the longest key found on most keyboards. It erases characters at the cursor position or gives
blank space when pressed.

Tab Key
The Tab Key moves the cursor by five spaces to the right when pressed. The number of positions moved
depends on the software or the Tab Set by the operator. The Tab is normally pressed to insert paragraphs during
typing. In some programs, when this key is pressed in combination with shift key, the same number of positions
is moved backwards.

Print Screen Key (Prtsc)

When the Print Screen key is pressed in combination with the Shift Key, whatever in is the screen will be
printed on a printer. The same effect can be achieved by pressing the key alone on some keyboards.

The Mouse can fall into the following:

a. Mechanical mouse. It has a ball on the bottom and is attached with a cord to the system unit. It is usually
referred to as the traditional type, but currently widely used. As you move the mouse across a smooth surface,
the roller rotates and controls the pointer on the screen.
b. Optical mouse. This type of mouse has no moving parts. It emits and senses light to detect mouse
movement. It can be used on any surface, more precise and does not require periodic cleaning.
c. Cordless or wireless mouse. It is a battery-powered device that typically uses radio waves or infrared light
waves to communicate with the system unit. It frees up desk space and eliminates the mouse cord.
d. Palm mouse – held in the palm and operated with only two buttons; the movements across the screen
correspond to a feather touch, and pressure increases the speed of movement
e. Foot mouse – sometimes called a mole – a mouse variant for those who do not wish to or cannot use the
hands or the head; instead, it provides foot clicks. Similar to a mouse is a puck, which, rather than tracking the
speed of the device, tracks the absolute position of a point on the device (typically a set of crosshairs painted on
a transparent plastic tab sticking out from the top of the puck). Pucks are typically used for tracing in
CAD/CAM/CAE work, and are often accessories for larger graphics tablets.
f. Eye tracking devices – a mouse controlled by the user's retinal movements, allowing cursor-manipulation
without touch.
g. Finger-mouse – An extremely small mouse controlled by two fingers only; the user can hold it in any
position
h. Gyroscopic mouse – a gyroscope senses the movement of the mouse as it moves through the air. Users can
operate a gyroscopic mouse when they have no room for a regular mouse or must give commands while
standing up. This input device needs no cleaning and can have many extra buttons, in fact, some laptops
doubling as TVs come with gyroscopic mice that resemble, and double as, remotes with LCD screens built in
i. Soap mouse – a handheld, position-based pointing device based on existing wireless optical mouse
technology

Trackballs.
A trackball is a pointing input device. It performs functions like a mouse but it is a stationary device. It has
move-able ball on its top. The ball is rotated or rolled with fingers (or palm of the hand) to move the pointer on
the screen. Like mouse, a trackball also has buttons used to send the commands to computer. The trackball is
usually available laptop computer. It is fixed on its keyboard. It is also available as separate input device as
indicated above. A trackball device consisting of an exposed protruding ball housed in a socket that detects
rotation about two axes. The trackballs can be used to control the pointer by rotating a ball with your thumb.
Joystick is also a pointing device even though it is a gaming device. Track ball is an input device that is mostly
used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving
fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than
a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

Touch surfaces. It is also called touch pad and can be used to control the pointer by moving and tapping your
finger. Touch Pad is a pressure-sensitive pointing device. Touch pad is also known as track pad. It is also
stationary device like trackball but it has no moving arts. It is a small, flat surface (or sensitive pad) over which
a user slides fingertip to move the pointer on the screen. Touch Pad also has one or two buttons. These buttons
are located near the pad. These buttons work like mouse buttons. Touch Pad is normally used with laptops.
Nowadays, it is also available as separate input device. It is fixed on separate keyboard.

Light Pen. Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing
element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

The advantages and disadvantages of the three pointing devices

Name Advantages Disadvantages

1 Mouse (a).Relatively (a).When gripped
inexpensive. too tightly can cause
(b).Very little finger muscle strain.
movement is needed (b).Uses more desk
to reach the bottoms space than other
(c).Moves the cursor printing devices.
faster than the arrow (c).Must be cleaned
keys of keyboard regularly
2 Trackball (a).It uses less desk (a).Wrist is bent
space than mouse. during use.
(b).It requires less (b).More finger
arm and hand movement needed to
movement than the reach buttons than
mouse. with other pointing
devices
3 Touchpad (a).Small footprint. (a).Places more
(b).Least prone to stress on index
dust finger than other
pointing devices do.
(b).Small active area
makes precise cursor
control difficult
4 Light pen (a).Small pen (a). Places more
(b).Less prone to stress on pointing
dust devices
(b).The pen can spoil
the pad when getting
old
 Central Processing Unit
The processing is mainly handled by the Central Processing Unit (CPU).

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) - The ALU is the part of a CPU that performs all arithmetic computations
including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The Arithmetic Logic Unit also performs all
logical operations. The ALU is a literally the fundamental building block of the CPU, and even the simplest
processors contain an ALU. Today's modern CPUs and graphics processing units (GPUs) in graphic cards have
very complex ALUs, and some contain a number of ALUs. In some CPUs an individual ALU is further divided
into two units called an arithmetic unit (AU) and a logic unit (LU). Some processors even contain more than
one AU. Normally the ALU has direct input and output access to the processor controller, main system memory
(RAM), and input/output devices. In a nutshell an ALU works by loading data from what is called input
registers, then an external Control Unit tells the ALU what operation to perform on that data, and finally the
ALU stores its result into an output register. At this point the data is moved between the registers and the
memory via a data path called a bus.

2 Control Unit
The CPUs control unit is responsible for executing or storing the results coming out of the ALU. Within the
CPU, the control unit performs the functions of fetch, decode, execute, and store. The control unit
communicates with both the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and memory, and literally directs the entire computer
system to carry out, or execute, stored program instructions. In a nutshell here is how a control unit works.
Basically a control unit fetches or retrieves an instruction from memory and then analyzes the instruction it
fetched before deciding how it should be processed. Depending on the action required, the control unit will then
send segments of the original instruction to the appropriate section of the processor.

3. Registers
Registers are the temporary storage areas for instructions or data within the processor. Registers are basically
special storage locations somewhat similar to a computer‘s memory though contained within the processor and
exceptionally faster. Registers work under the direction of the control unit to accept, hold and transfer
instructions or data and perform arithmetic or logical comparisons at a high rate of speed. Metaphorically
speaking, the control unit uses the CPUs data storage registers similar to the way a cashier at a local market
would conveniently store money away in a cash register to be used temporarily for transactions.

What Does the CPU do?

a. Carries out instructions and tells the rest of computer system what to do.
b. Sends command signals to the other components of the system.
c. Perform arithmetic calculations and data manipulation.
d. Holds data and instructions, which are in current use.

Control Unit (CU)

a. Directs the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions.
b. Instructs the arithmetic logic unit which arithmetic operations or logical operation is to be performed.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

a. Executes arithmetic and logical operations.
b. Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
c. Logical operations compare numbers, letters and special characters.

Memory Unit
The memory unit holds data and instructions for processing.
a. RAM (Random Access Memory) used to store instructions and data needed while processing.
b. ROM (Read Only Memory) comes with instructions permanently stored inside and these instructions cannot
be over-written by the computer‘s CPU.

RAM & ROM.

The term ROM stands for Read-Only Memory. A ROM chip is programmed with a permanent collection of
pre-set bytes. The address bus tells the ROM chip which byte to get and place on the data bus. When the RD
line changes state, the ROM chip presents the selected byte onto the data bus. Similarly, the term RAM stands
for Random-Access Memory. RAM contains bytes of information, and the microprocessor can read or write to
those bytes depending on whether the RD or WR line is signaled. One problem with today's RAM chips is that
they forget everything once the power goes off. That is why the computer needs ROM. On a PC, the ROM is
called the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System). When the microprocessor starts, it begins executing instructions
it finds in the BIOS. The BIOS instructions do things like test the hardware in the machine, and then it goes to
the hard disk to fetch the boot sector. This boot sector is another small program, and the BIOS store it in RAM
after reading it off the disk. The microprocessor then begins executing the boot sector's instructions from RAM.
The boot sector program will tell the microprocessor to fetch something else from the hard disk into RAM,
which the microprocessor then executes, and so on. This is how the microprocessor loads and executes the
entire operating system.

Storage capacity of a computer

Based on the above analysis of the storage capacity of a computer which is measured in megahertz and gigabit
(GB), they are used to measure both memory (such as RAM) and storage space such as found on hard disks.
The faster the clock ticks, the faster the computer runs.
 Bits. Personal computers are digital computers because they work with two digits: 0s and 1s. A zero or a
one is a bit.
 Bytes. A combination of 8 bits is a byte (pronounced bite). A byte of memory space can hold one
alphanumeric character (a letter or a number).
 Kilobytes (KB). A kilobyte is 1,024 bytes (usually rounded off to simply 1,000). A kilobyte of space will
hold about 128 alphanumeric characters – about the size of this whole sentence including the spaces.
 Megabytes (MB). A megabyte is 1 thousand kilobytes. The now increasingly obsolete 3.5 inch floppy disks
could hold about 1.5 megabytes of information. A megabyte of storage space will hold about 1,000 copies of
the first two sentences of this paragraph.
 Gigabytes (GB). A gigabyte is 1 billion megabytes. It is the unit most often used when considering the
memory and hard disk space of current personal computers, for example: 4GB of RAM and a 500 GB hard
disk.
 Terabytes. A terabyte is 1,000 gigabytes – the equivalent of 1 trillion bytes. Hard disks of one terabyte are
now available. In 2008 Cisco, the computer network hardware manufacturer, estimated that the Internet
transferred about 160 terabytes per second.

Therefore the following are the file sizes of the secondary storage facilities: floppy dis, zip disk, CD and DVD
can hold:
 a floppy disk holds about 1.5 Mb;
 a Zip disk holds 100 Mb or 250 Mb;
 a CD holds about 800 Mb;
 a DVD holds about 4,700 Mb.
 The capacity of a CD-ROM is 650MB to 700MB
 The capacity of CD-R is 650MB to 700MB
 The capacity of CD-RW is 650MB to 700MB
 The capacity of DVD-ROM is 4.7GB
 The capacity of DVD-R is 4.7GB
 The capacity of DVD-ROM range from 2.6 to 5.2GB
 Gmail.com can allow 25MB attachment and space
 Yahoo.com can allow 25MB attachment and space
 Livemail.com can allow 25MB attachment and space
 Hotmail.com can allow 10MB attachment and space
 Rediffmail.com can allow 10MB attachment and space

Factors Affecting the computer Processor Speed

There are many factors which affect how fast your computer can process data and instructions. They all
depends on:
a. The amount of RAM memory
b. The speed and generation of your CPU (the system clock)
c. The size of the Register on your CPU
d. The Bus type and speed
e. The amount of Cache memory

Ways of speeding up Computer PC or Laptop are as follows:

a. Reduce the number of programs that ―run-on-start up
b. Add a bigger and faster disk drive
c. Clean up your computer
d. Scan your computer for Viruses
e. Remove unnecessary browser ―Add-Ons‖
f. Reinstall or Repair your Operating System (OS)
g. Upgrade your Operating System (OS)
h. Replace your modem
i. Contact your ISP ask for a ―speed-test‖ and see if they can ―boost‖ your internet speed
j. Buy a new PC or Laptop

Ten ways to make your computer run faster

a. Uninstall unused programs
b. Automatically delete temporary files
c. Install a solid state drive
d. More hard drive storage
e. Prevent unnecessary start ups
f. More RAM.RAM, which stands for Random Access Memory, is the temporary storage memory used by your
computer and is in use when tasks are being executed by different programs
g. Run a disk defragment
h. Run disk clean up
i. Give your computer a static IP
j. Hovering out the dust

Primary and Secondary Memory

There are two types of physical memory: primary and secondary memory. Primary memory is volatile memory.
Secondary memory (secondary storage) is non-volatile. Computer‘s memory can be classified into two types;
primary memory and secondary memory (RAM). Memory is the best essential element of a computer because
computer can‘t perform simple tasks. The performance of computer mainly based on memory and CPU.
Memory is internal storage media of computer that has several names such as majorly categorized into two
types, Main memory and Secondary memory
1 Primary memory(Volatile Memory)
Primary Memory, also known as main storage, is the area in a computer in which data is stored for quick access
by the computer‘s processor. It is a computer system‘s volatile storage mechanism. This includes several types
of memory, such as the processor cache and system ROM. However, in most cases, primary memory refers to
system RAM. Primary memory is considered faster than secondary memory. The main functions of primary
memory (also called main memory or primary storage) is to execute program code and store temporary data.
Primary memory is the memory that the processor accesses first. The memory is on chips located on the
motherboard. The primary memory stores applications to run the operating system (OS), the user interface and
installed software utilities. The computer can manipulate only the data that is in main memory. Every program
executed and every file accessed must be copied from a storage device into main memory. The amount of main
memory in a computer system determines how many programs can be executed at one time and how much data
can be readily available to a program. The components of the primary memory are as following:
a. CPU which is further divided into the Register and the Cache. The cache memory is a type of memory used
to hold frequently used data. Cache memory is relatively small but very fast. Most web browsers use a cache to
load regularly viewed web pages fast. The most important type of cache memory is the CPU cache. Once the
data is stored in cache, it can be used by accessing the cached copy rather than recomputing the original data

b. Random access memory (RAM). This consists of one or more memory modules that temporarily store data
while a computer is running. RAM is Volatile Memory, meaning it is erased when the power is turned off.
Therefore, each time you start up your computer, the operating system must be loaded from secondary memory
(such as a hard drive) into the primary memory, or RAM. Similarly, whenever you launch an application on
your computer, it is loaded into RAM. This is a type of volatile memory and is the most common type of
memory found in computer and other devices such as printers. RAM requires a flow of electricity to retain the
data such as the computer is powered On. The two types of RAM are(a)SRAM. This is a static RAM (b)
DRAM. This is a dynamic RAM.

c. Read Only Memory (ROM).ROM is memory containing hardwired instructions that the computer uses when
it boots up, before the system software loads. ROM stores the program required to initially boot the computer.
It only allows reading. The data stored on ROM cannot be changed. This is a type of non-volatile memory and
is computer memory on which data has been prerecorded. The ROM will retain data without the flow of
electricity. That is when the computer powered is off. That means it can keep the contents of your document
without even the power source. The components of the ROM are: (a) PROM which stands for Programmable
ROM (b) EPROM which means Erasable Programmable ROM, and EEPROM meaning Electrically Erasable
Programmable ROM.

RAM chips
This is memory that temporarily holds data and instructions that will be needed shortly by the processor. The
following are the different types of RAM:
SRAM–Static Random Access Memory.
DRAM-Dynamic Random Access Memory.
FPM DRAM-Fast page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory.
EDO DRAMA -Extended Data-Out Dynamic Random Access Memory.
SDRAM–Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory.
DDR SDRAM-Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM.
Credit Card Memory
ROM Chips.
Unlike the RAM which is constantly being written on and erased, ROM, which stands for read-only memory
and is also known as firmware, cannot be written on or erased by the computer user. It is therefore fixed and
cannot be written on or erased or altered by regular program instructions or the computer user. It is non-volatile
making it an ideal means of storing information to function properly. The followings are the different forms of
ROM:
 Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM). This is a blank chips on which the buyer, using special
equipment, writes the program. Once the program is written, it cannot be erased.
 Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM). It retains its contents until it is changed using
burner (ultraviolet light). You can erase the content with special equipment and new material can be written.
 Electrically Erasable PROM (EE-PROM). This can be reprogrammed using special electrical impulses.
They may not be removed from the computer to be changed.

The main features of this chip are as follows:

 No need of ultra-violet light to erase the program.
 The information can be changed by electrical signals.
 The chip does not have to be removed for rewritten.
 The entire chip need not be completely erased to change a specific portion of it.
 Changing of the contents does not require any additional special equipment.