Outline

■ Introduction
■ Background
■ Distributed DBMS Architecture
■ Distributed Database Design
■ Semantic Data Control
❏ Distributed Query Processing
➠ Query Processing Methodology
➠ Distributed Query Optimization
❏ Distributed Transaction Management
❏ Parallel Database Systems
❏ Distributed Object DBMS
❏ Database Interoperability
❏ Current Issues

Distributed DBMS © 1998 M. Tamer Özsu & Patrick Valduriez Page 7-9. 1
Query Processing

high level user query

query
processor

low level data manipulation

commands

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Query Processing Components

■ Query language that is used

➠ SQL: “intergalactic dataspeak”

■ Query execution methodology

➠ The steps that one goes through in executing high-
level (declarative) user queries.

■ Query optimization
➠ How do we determine the “best” execution plan?

Distributed DBMS © 1998 M. Tamer Özsu & Patrick Valduriez Page 7-9. 3
Selecting Alternatives
SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP,ASG
WHERE EMP.ENO = ASG.ENO
AND DUR > 37

Strategy 1
ΠENAME(σDUR>37∧EMP.ENO=ASG.ENO=(EMP × ASG))
Strategy 2
ΠENAME(EMP ENO (σDUR>37 (ASG)))

Strategy 2 avoids Cartesian product, so is “better”

Distributed DBMS © 1998 M. Tamer Özsu & Patrick Valduriez Page 7-9. 4
 What is the Problem?
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5
ASG1=σENO≤“E3”(ASG) ASG2=σENO>“E3”(ASG) EMP1=σENO≤“E3”(EMP) EMP2=σENO>“E3”(EMP) Result

Site 5 Site 5
result = EMP1’∪EMP2’ result2=(EMP1∪=EMP2) ENOσDUR>37(ASG1∪=ASG1)
EMP1’ EMP2’
ASG1 ASG2 EMP1 EMP2
Site 3 Site 4
EMP1’=EMP1 ENOASG1
’ EMP2’=EMP2 ENOASG2
’
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4

ASG1’ ASG2’
Site 1 Site 2
ASG1’=σDUR>37(ASG1) ASG2’=σDUR>37(ASG2)

Distributed DBMS © 1998 M. Tamer Özsu & Patrick Valduriez Page 7-9. 5
Cost of Alternatives
■ Assume:
➠ size(EMP) = 400, size(ASG) = 1000
➠ tuple access cost = 1 unit; tuple transfer cost = 10 units
■ Strategy 1
❶ produce ASG': (10+10)∗tuple access cost 20
❷ transfer ASG' to the sites of EMP: (10+10)∗tuple transfer cost 200
❸ produce EMP': (10+10) ∗tuple access cost∗2 40
❹ transfer EMP' to result site: (10+10) ∗tuple transfer cost 200
Total cost 460
■ Strategy 2
❶ transfer EMP to site 5:400∗tuple transfer cost 4,000
❷ transfer ASG to site 5 :1000∗tuple transfer cost 10,000
❸ produce ASG':1000∗tuple access cost 1,000
❹ join EMP and ASG':400∗20∗tuple access cost 8,000
Total cost 23,000
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Query Optimization Objectives
Minimize a cost function
I/O cost + CPU cost + communication cost
These might have different weights in different distributed
environments
Wide area networks
➠ communication cost will dominate
◆ low bandwidth
◆ low speed
◆ high protocol overhead
➠ most algorithms ignore all other cost components
Local area networks
➠ communication cost not that dominant
➠ total cost function should be considered
Can also maximize throughput

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Complexity of Relational
Operations
Operation Complexity

Select
Project O(n)
■ Assume (without duplicate elimination)
➠ relations of cardinality n Project
➠ sequential scan (with duplicate elimination) O(nlog n)
Group

Join
Semi-join O(nlog n)
Division
Set Operators

Cartesian Product O(n2)

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 Query Optimization Issues –
Types of Optimizers
■ Exhaustive search
➠ cost-based
➠ optimal
➠ combinatorial complexity in the number of relations
■ Heuristics
➠ not optimal
➠ regroup common sub-expressions
➠ perform selection, projection first
➠ replace a join by a series of semijoins
➠ reorder operations to reduce intermediate relation size
➠ optimize individual operations

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 Query Optimization Issues –
Optimization Granularity

■ Single query at a time

➠ cannot use common intermediate results

■ Multiple queries at a time

➠ efficient if many similar queries

➠ decision space is much larger

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Query Optimization Issues –
Optimization Timing
■ Static
➠ compilation optimize prior to the execution
➠ difficult to estimate the size of the intermediate results
error propagation
➠ can amortize over many executions
➠ R*
■ Dynamic
➠ run time optimization
➠ exact information on the intermediate relation sizes
➠ have to reoptimize for multiple executions
➠ Distributed INGRES
■ Hybrid
➠ compile using a static algorithm
➠ if the error in estimate sizes > threshold, reoptimize at
run time
➠ MERMAID
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 Query Optimization Issues –
Statistics

■ Relation
➠ cardinality
➠ size of a tuple
➠ fraction of tuples participating in a join with
another relation
■ Attribute
➠ cardinality of domain
➠ actual number of distinct values
■ Common assumptions
➠ independence between different attribute values
➠ uniform distribution of attribute values within their
domain

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Query Optimization Issues –
Decision Sites
■ Centralized
➠ single site determines the “best” schedule
➠ simple
➠ need knowledge about the entire distributed
database
■ Distributed
➠ cooperation among sites to determine the schedule
➠ need only local information
➠ cost of cooperation
■ Hybrid
➠ one site determines the global schedule
➠ each site optimizes the local subqueries

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 Query Optimization Issues –
Network Topology
■ Wide area networks (WAN) – point-to-point
➠ characteristics
◆ low bandwidth
◆ low speed
◆ high protocol overhead
➠ communication cost will dominate; ignore all other
cost factors
➠ global schedule to minimize communication cost
➠ local schedules according to centralized query
optimization
■ Local area networks (LAN)
➠ communication cost not that dominant
➠ total cost function should be considered
➠ broadcasting can be exploited (joins)
➠ special algorithms exist for star networks

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Distributed Query
Processing Methodology
Calculus Query on Distributed
Relations

Query GLOBAL
Query GLOBAL
Decomposition
Decomposition SCHEMA
SCHEMA

Algebraic Query on Distributed

Relations
CONTROL
Data FRAGMENT
SITE Data FRAGMENT
Localization SCHEMA
Localization SCHEMA

Fragment Query

STATS
Global
Global STATSON
ON
Optimization FRAGMENTS
Optimization FRAGMENTS

Optimized Fragment Query

with Communication Operations

LOCAL Local LOCAL

Local LOCAL
Optimization SCHEMAS
SITES Optimization SCHEMAS

Optimized Local
Queries

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 Step 1 – Query Decomposition
Input : Calculus query on global relations
■ Normalization
➠ manipulate query quantifiers and qualification
■ Analysis
➠ detect and reject “incorrect” queries
➠ possible for only a subset of relational calculus
■ Simplification
➠ eliminate redundant predicates
■ Restructuring
➠ calculus query Τalgebraic query
➠ more than one translation is possible
➠ use transformation rules

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Normalization
■ Lexical and syntactic analysis
➠ check validity (similar to compilers)
➠ check for attributes and relations
➠ type checking on the qualification
■ Put into normal form
➠ Conjunctive normal form
(p11∨p12∨…∨p1n) ∧…∧ (pm1∨pm2∨…∨pmn)
➠ Disjunctive normal form
(p11∧p12 ∧…∧p1n) ∨…∨ (pm1 ∧pm2∧…∧Τpmn)
➠ OR's mapped into union
➠ AND's mapped into join or selection

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Analysis
■ Refute incorrect queries
■ Type incorrect
➠ If any of its attribute or relation names are not defined in
the global schema
➠ If operations are applied to attributes of the wrong type
■ Semantically incorrect
➠ Components do not contribute in any way to the
generation of the result
➠ Only a subset of relational calculus queries can be tested
for correctness
➠ Those that do not contain disjunction and negation
➠ To detect
◆ connection graph (query graph)
◆ join graph

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Analysis – Example
SELECT ENAME,RESP
FROM EMP, ASG, PROJ
WHERE EMP.ENO = ASG.ENO
AND ASG.PNO = PROJ.PNO
AND PNAME = "CAD/CAM"
AND DUR ≥ 36
AND TITLE = "Programmer"

Query graph Join graph

DUR≥36

ASG ASG
EMP.ENO=ASG.ENO ASG.PNO=PROJ.PNO EMP.ENO=ASG.ENO ASG.PNO=PROJ.PNO

TITLE =
EMP RESP PROJ EMP PROJ
“Programmer”

ENAME
RESULT
PNAME=“CAD/CAM”

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Analysis
If the query graph is not connected, the query is
wrong.
SELECT ENAME,RESP
FROM EMP, ASG, PROJ
WHERE EMP.ENO = ASG.ENO
AND PNAME = "CAD/CAM"
AND DUR ≥ 36
AND TITLE = "Programmer"

ASG

EMP RESP PROJ

ENAME
RESULT
PNAME=“CAD/CAM”

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Simplification
■ Why simplify?
➠ Remember the example
■ How? Use transformation rules
➠ elimination of redundancy
◆ idempotency rules
p1 ∧ ¬( p1) ⇔ false
p1 ∧ (p1 ∨ p2) ⇔ p1
p1 ∨ false ⇔ p1
…

➠ application of transitivity
➠ use of integrity rules

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Simplification – Example
SELECT TITLE
FROM EMP
WHERE EMP.ENAME = “J. Doe”
OR (NOT(EMP.TITLE = “Programmer”)
AND (EMP.TITLE = “Programmer”
OR EMP.TITLE = “Elect. Eng.”)
AND NOT(EMP.TITLE = “Elect. Eng.”))

SELECT TITLE
FROM EMP
WHERE EMP.ENAME = “J. Doe”

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Restructuring
■ Convert relational calculus to ΠENAME Project
relational algebra
■ Make use of query trees
■ Example σDUR=12 OR DUR=24
Find the names of employees other than
J. Doe who worked on the CAD/CAM
project for either 1 or 2 years. σPNAME=“CAD/CAM” Select
SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP, ASG, PROJ
WHERE EMP.ENO = ASG.ENO σENAME≠“J. DOE”
AND ASG.PNO = PROJ.PNO
AND ENAME ≠ “J. Doe”
PNO
AND PNAME = “CAD/CAM”
AND (DUR = 12 OR DUR = 24)
ENO Join

PROJ ASG EMP

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Restructuring –
Transformation Rules
■ Commutativity of binary operations
➠ R×S⇔S×R
➠ R S⇔S R
➠ R∪S⇔S∪R
■ Associativity of binary operations
➠ ( R × S ) × T ⇔ R × (S × T)
➠ (R S) T⇔R (S T)
■ Idempotence of unary operations
➠ ΠA’(ΠA’(R)) ⇔ΤΠA’(R)
➠ σp1(A1)(σp2(A2)(R)) = σp1(A1) ∧ p2(A2)(R)
where R[A] and A' ⊆ A, A" ⊆ A and A' ⊆ A"
■ Commuting selection with projection
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Restructuring –
Transformation Rules
■ Commuting selection with binary operations
➠ σp(A)(R × S) ⇔ (σp(A) (R)) × S
➠ σp(Ai)(R (Aj,Bk) S) ⇔ (σp(Ai) (R)) (Aj,Bk) S
➠ σp(Ai)(R ∪ T) ⇔ σp(Ai) (R) ∪ σp(Ai) (T)
where Ai belongs to R and T

■ Commuting projection with binary operations

➠ ΠC(R × S) ⇔ ΠΤA’(R) × ΠΤB’(S)
➠ ΠC(R (Aj,Bk) S) ⇔ ΠΤA’(R) (Aj,Bk) ΠΤB’(S)
➠ ΠC(R ∪ S) ⇔ ΠΤC (R) ∪ ΠΤC (S)
where R[A] and S[B]; C = A' ∪ B' where A' ⊆ A, B' ⊆ B

Distributed DBMS © 1998 M. Tamer Özsu & Patrick Valduriez Page 7-9. 25
Example
Recall the previous example: ΠENAME Project
Find the names of employees other
than J. Doe who worked on the
CAD/CAM project for either one or σDUR=12 OR DUR=24
two years.

SELECT ENAME
σ
PNAME=“CAD/CAM” Select

FROM PROJ, ASG, EMP

WHERE ASG.ENO=EMP.ENO σENAME≠“J. DOE”
AND ASG.PNO=PROJ.PNO
AND ENAME≠“J. Doe” PNO
AND PROJ.PNAME=“CAD/CAM”
AND (DUR=12 OR DUR=24) ENO Join

PROJ ASG EMP

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Equivalent Query
ΠENAME

σPNAME=“CAD/CAM” ∧(DUR=12 ∨ DUR=24) ∧=ENAME≠“J. DOE”

PNO ∧ENO

ASG PROJ EMP

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Restructuring
ΠENAME

PNO

ΠPNO,ENAME

ENO

ΠPNO ΠPNO,ENO ΠPNO,ENAME

σPNAME = "CAD/CAM" σDUR =12 ∧ΟDUR=24 σENAME ≠ "J. Doe"

PROJ ASG EMP

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Step 2 – Data Localization

Input: Algebraic query on distributed relations

■ Determine which fragments are involved
■ Localization program
➠ substitute for each global query its materialization
program
➠ optimize

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Example
ΠENAME
Assume
➠ EMP is fragmented into EMP1, EMP2, σDUR=12 OR DUR=24
EMP3 as follows:
◆ EMP1=σENO≤“E3”(EMP)

◆ EMP2= σ“E3”<ENO≤“E6”(EMP)
σPNAME=“CAD/CAM”
◆ EMP3=σENO≥“E6”(EMP)

➠ ASG fragmented into ASG1 and ASG2 as

σENAME≠“J. DOE”
follows:
◆ ASG1=σENO≤“E3”(ASG) PNO

◆ ASG2=σENO>“E3”(ASG)

ENO
Replace EMP by (EMP1∪EMP2∪EMP3 ) and
ASG by (ASG1 ∪ ASG2) in any query PROJ ∪ ∪

EMP1 EMP2 EMP3 ASG1 ASG2

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Provides Parallellism

ENO ENO ENO ENO

EMP1 ASG1 EMP2 ASG2 EMP3 ASG1 EMP3 ASG2

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Eliminates Unnecessary Work

ENO ENO ENO

EMP1 ASG1 EMP2 ASG2 EMP3 ASG2

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Reduction for PHF
■ Reduction with selection
➠ Relation R and FR={R1, R2, …, Rw} where Rj=σ p (R)
j

σ pi(Rj)= φ if ∀x in R: ¬(pi(x) ∧Τpj(x))

➠ Example
SELECT *
FROM EMP
WHERE ENO=“E5”

σ ENO=“E5” σ ENO=“E5”

EMP1 EMP2 EMP3 EMP2

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Reduction for PHF

■ Reduction with join

➠ Possible if fragmentation is done on join attribute

➠ Distribute join over union

(R1 ∪ΤR2) S ⇔ (R1 S) ∪Τ(R2 S)

➠ Given Ri = σp (R) and Rj = σp (R)
i j

Ri Rj = φΤif ∀x in Ri, ∀y in Rj: ¬(pi(x) ∧Τpj(y))

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Reduction for PHF
■ Reduction with join - Example
➠ Assume EMP is fragmented as before and
ASG1: σENO ≤ "E3"(ASG)
ASG2: σENO > "E3"(ASG)
➠ Consider the query
SELECT*
FROM EMP, ASG
WHERE EMP.ENO=ASG.ENO
ENO

∪ ∪

EMP1 EMP2 EMP3 ASG1 ASG2

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Reduction for PHF
■ Reduction with join - Example
➠ Distribute join over unions
➠ Apply the reduction rule

ENO ENO ENO

EMP1 ASG1 EMP2 ASG2 EMP3 ASG2

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Reduction for VF
■ Find useless (not empty) intermediate relations
Relation R defined over attributes A = {A1, ..., An} vertically
fragmented as Ri = ΠA' (R) where A' ⊆ A:
ΠD,K(Ri) is useless if the set of projection attributes D is not in A'
Example: EMP1= ΠENO,ENAME (EMP); EMP2= ΠENO,TITLE (EMP)
SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP

ΠENAME ΠENAME

ENO Þ
EMP1 EMP2 EMP1
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Reduction for DHF
■ Rule :
➠ Distribute joins over unions
➠ Apply the join reduction for horizontal fragmentation
■ Example
ASG1: ASG ENO EMP1
ASG2: ASG ENO EMP2
EMP1: σ TITLE=“Programmer” (EMP)
EMP2: σ TITLE=“Programmer” (EMP)
Query
SELECT *
FROM EMP, ASG
WHERE ASG.ENO = EMP.ENO
AND EMP.TITLE = “Mech. Eng.”

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Reduction for DHF
Generic query ENO

σΟTITLE=“Mech. Eng.”

∪ ∪

ASG1 ASG2 EMP1 EMP2

Selections first ENO

∪ σΟTITLE=“Mech. Eng.”

ASG1 ASG2 EMP2

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Reduction for DHF
Joins over unions ∪

ENO ENO

σΟTITLE=“Mech. Eng.” σΟTITLE=“Mech. Eng.”

ASG1 EMP2 ASG2 EMP2

Elimination of the empty intermediate relations
(left sub-tree) ENO

σΟTITLE=“Mech. Eng.”

ASG2 EMP2
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Reduction for HF
■ Combine the rules already specified:
➠ Remove empty relations generated by contradicting
selections on horizontal fragments;

➠ Remove useless relations generated by projections

on vertical fragments;

➠ Distribute joins over unions in order to isolate and

remove useless joins.

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Reduction for HF
Example
Consider the following hybrid ΠENAME
fragmentation: ΠENAME
EMP1=σENO≤"E4" (ΠENO,ENAME (EMP))
σΟENO=“E5”
EMP2=σENO>"E4" (ΠENO,ENAME (EMP))
EMP3= ΠENO,TITLE (EMP) σΟENO=“E5”
ENO
and the query
SELECT ENAME
∪
FROM EMP EMP2
WHERE ENO=“E5”

EMP1 EMP2 EMP3

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 Step 3 – Global Query Optimization
Input: Fragment query
■ Find the best (not necessarily optimal) global
schedule
➠ Minimize a cost function
➠ Distributed join processing
◆ Bushy vs. linear trees
◆ Which relation to ship where?
◆ Ship-whole vs ship-as-needed
➠ Decide on the use of semijoins
◆ Semijoin saves on communication at the expense of
more local processing.
➠ Join methods
◆ nested loop vs ordered joins (merge join or hash join)

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Cost-Based Optimization
■ Solution space
➠ The set of equivalent algebra expressions (query trees).

■ Cost function (in terms of time)

➠ I/O cost + CPU cost + communication cost
➠ These might have different weights in different distributed
environments (LAN vs WAN).
➠ Can also maximize throughput

■ Search algorithm
➠ How do we move inside the solution space?
➠ Exhaustive search, heuristic algorithms (iterative
improvement, simulated annealing, genetic,…)

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Query Optimization Process

Input Query

Search Space Transformation

Generation Rules

Equivalent QEP

Search Cost Model

Strategy

Best QEP

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Search Space
■ Search space characterized by PNO
alternative execution plans
ENO
■ Focus on join trees PROJ

■ For N relations, there are O(N!) EMP ASG

equivalent join trees that can be
obtained by applying ENO
commutativity and associativity
rules PNO EMP
SELECT ENAME,RESP
FROM EMP, ASG, PROJ PROJ ASG
WHERE EMP.ENO=ASG.ENO
ENO,PNO
AND ASG.PNO=PROJ.PNO

× ASG

PROJ EMP
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Search Space
■ Restrict by means of heuristics
➠ Perform unary operations before binary operations
➠ …
■ Restrict the shape of the join tree
➠ Consider only linear trees, ignore bushy ones

Linear Join Tree Bushy Join Tree

R4

R3

R1 R2 R1 R2 R3 R4

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Search Strategy
■ How to “move” in the search space.
■ Deterministic
➠ Start from base relations and build plans by adding one
relation at each step
➠ Dynamic programming: breadth-first
➠ Greedy: depth-first
■ Randomized
➠ Search for optimalities around a particular starting point
➠ Trade optimization time for execution time
➠ Better when > 5-6 relations
➠ Simulated annealing
➠ Iterative improvement

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Search Strategies
■ Deterministic

R4

R3 R3

R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
■ Randomized

R3 R2

R1 R2 R1 R3

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Cost Functions
■ Total Time (or Total Cost)
➠ Reduce each cost (in terms of time) component
individually
➠ Do as little of each cost component as possible
➠ Optimizes the utilization of the resources

Increases system throughput

■ Response Time
➠ Do as many things as possible in parallel
➠ May increase total time because of increased total activity

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Total Cost
Summation of all cost factors

Total cost = CPU cost + I/O cost + communication cost

CPU cost = unit instruction cost ∗ no.of instructions

I/O cost = unit disk I/O cost ∗ no. of disk I/Os

communication cost = message initiation + transmission

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Total Cost Factors

■ Wide area network

➠ message initiation and transmission costs high

➠ local processing cost is low (fast mainframes or

minicomputers)
➠ ratio of communication to I/O costs = 20:1

■ Local area networks

➠ communication and local processing costs are more
or less equal
➠ ratio = 1:1.6

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Response Time

Elapsed time between the initiation and the completion of

a query

Response time = CPU time + I/O time + communication time

CPU time = unit instruction time ∗ no. of sequential

instructions

I/O time = unit I/O time ∗ no. of sequential I/Os

communication time = unit msg initiation time ∗

no. of sequential msg + unit transmission time ∗
no. of sequential bytes

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Example
Site 1
x units

Site 3

Site 2 y units

Assume that only the communication cost is considered

Total time = 2 ∗ message initialization time + unit
transmission time ∗ (x+y)
Response time = max {time to send x from 1 to 3, time to
send y from 2 to 3}
time to send x from 1 to 3 = message initialization time +
unit transmission time ∗ x
time to send y from 2 to 3 = message initialization time +
unit transmission time ∗ y
Distributed DBMS © 1998 M. Tamer Özsu & Patrick Valduriez Page 7-9. 54
Optimization Statistics
■ Primary cost factor: size of intermediate relations
■ Make them precise more costly to maintain
➠ For each relation R[A1, A2, …, An] fragmented as R1, …, Rr
◆ length of each attribute: length(Ai)
◆ the number of distinct values for each attribute in each fragment:
card(∏A Rj)
i
◆ maximum and minimum values in the domain of each attribute:
min(Ai), max(Ai)
◆ the cardinalities of each domain: card(dom[Ai])
◆ the cardinalities of each fragment: card(Rj)
➠ Selectivity factor of each operation for relations
◆ For joins

card(R S)
SF (R,S) =
card(R)Τ∗Τcard(S)
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Intermediate Relation Sizes
Selection
size(R) = card(R) ∗Τlength(R)
card(σF (R)) = SFσ (F) ∗Τcard(R)
where
1
S Fσ(A = value) =
card(∏A(R))
max(A) – value
S Fσ(A > value) =
max(A) – min(A)
value – max(A)
S Fσ(A < value) =
max(A) – min(A)

SFσ(p(Ai) ∧Τp(Aj)) = SFσ(p(Ai)) ∗ SFσ(p(Aj))

SFσ(p(Ai) ∨Τp(Aj)) = SFσ(p(Ai)) + SFσ(p(Aj)) – (SFσ(p(Ai)) ∗ SFσ(p(Aj)))
SFσ(A ∈ value) = SFσ(A= value) ∗ card({values})

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Intermediate Relation Sizes
Projection
card(ΠA(R))=card(R)
Cartesian Product
card(R × S) = card(R) ∗=card(S)
Union
upper bound: card(R ∪ S) = card(R) + card(S)
lower bound: card(R ∪ S) = max{card(R), card(S)}
Set Difference
upper bound: card(R–S) = card(R)
lower bound: 0

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Intermediate Relation Size
Join
➠ Special case: A is a key of R and B is a foreign key of
S;
card(R A=B S) = card(S)
➠ More general:
card(R S) = SF ∗Τcard(R) ∗Τcard(S)

Semijoin
card(R A S) = SF (S.A) ∗Τcard(R)
where
card(∏A(S))
SF (R A S)= SF (S.A) =
card(dom[A])

Distributed DBMS © 1998 M. Tamer Özsu & Patrick Valduriez Page 7-9. 58
Centralized Query Optimization

■ INGRES
➠ dynamic

➠ interpretive

■ System R
➠ static

➠ exhaustive search

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INGRES Algorithm
❶ Decompose each multi-variable query into a
sequence of mono-variable queries with a
common variable
❷ Process each by a one variable query processor
➠ Choose an initial execution plan (heuristics)
➠ Order the rest by considering intermediate relation
sizes

No statistical information is maintained

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INGRES Algorithm–Decomposition
■ Replace an n variable query q by a series of
queries
q1 → q2 → … → qn
where qi uses the result of qi-1.
■ Detachment
➠ Query q decomposed into q' → q" where q' and q"
have a common variable which is the result of q'
■ Tuple substitution
➠ Replace the value of each tuple with actual values
and simplify the query
q(V1, V2, ... Vn) → (q' (t1, V2, V2, ... , Vn), t1 ∈ R)

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Detachment

q: SELECT V2.A2,V3.A3, …,Vn.An

FROM R1 V1, …,Rn Vn
WHERE P1(V1.A1’) AND P2(V1.A1,V2.A2,…, Vn.An)

q': SELECT V1.A1 INTO R1'

FROM R1 V1
WHERE P1(V1.A1)

q": SELECT V2.A2, …, Vn.An

FROM R1' V1, R2 V2, …, Rn Vn
WHERE P2(V1.A1, V2.A2, …, Vn.An)

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Detachment Example
Names of employees working on CAD/CAM project
q1: SELECT EMP.ENAME
FROM EMP, ASG, PROJ
WHERE EMP.ENO=ASG.ENO
AND ASG.PNO=PROJ.PNO
AND PROJ.PNAME="CAD/CAM"

q11: SELECT PROJ.PNO INTO JVAR

FROM PROJ
WHERE PROJ.PNAME="CAD/CAM"

q': SELECT EMP.ENAME

FROM EMP,ASG,JVAR
WHERE EMP.ENO=ASG.ENO
AND ASG.PNO=JVAR.PNO

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Detachment Example (cont’d)
q': SELECT EMP.ENAME
FROM EMP,ASG,JVAR
WHERE EMP.ENO=ASG.ENO
AND ASG.PNO=JVAR.PNO

q12: SELECT ASG.ENO INTO GVAR

FROM ASG,JVAR
WHERE ASG.PNO=JVAR.PNO

q13: SELECT EMP.ENAME

FROM EMP,GVAR
WHERE EMP.ENO=GVAR.ENO

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Tuple Substitution
q11 is a mono-variable query
q12 and q13 is subject to tuple substitution
Assume GVAR has two tuples only: <E1> and <E2>
Then q13 becomes
q131: SELECT EMP.ENAME
FROM EMP
WHERE EMP.ENO="E1"

q132: SELECT EMP.ENAME

FROM EMP
WHERE EMP.ENO="E2"

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System R Algorithm

❶ Simple (i.e., mono-relation) queries are

executed according to the best access path

❷ Execute joins

2.1 Determine the possible ordering of joins

2.2 Determine the cost of each ordering

2.3 Choose the join ordering with minimal cost

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System R Algorithm
For joins, two alternative algorithms :
■ Nested loops
for each tuple of external relation (cardinality n1)
for each tuple of internal relation (cardinality n2)
join two tuples if the join predicate is true
end
end
➠ Complexity: n1∗n2
■ Merge join
sort relations
merge relations
➠ Complexity: n1+ n2 if relations are previously sorted and
equijoin

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System R Algorithm – Example
Names of employees working on the CAD/CAM project
Assume
➠ EMP has an index on ENO,
➠ ASG has an index on PNO,
➠ PROJ has an index on PNO and an index on PNAME

ASG
ENO PNO

EMP PROJ

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System R Example (cont’d)
❶ Choose the best access paths to each relation
➠ EMP: sequential scan (no selection on EMP)
➠ ASG: sequential scan (no selection on ASG)
➠ PROJ: index on PNAME (there is a selection on
PROJ based on PNAME)
❷ Determine the best join ordering
➠ EMP ASG PROJ
➠ ASG PROJ EMP
➠ PROJ ASG EMP
➠ ASG EMP PROJ
➠ EMP × PROJ ASG
➠ PROJ × EMP ASG
➠ Select the best ordering based on the join costs
evaluated according to the two methods

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System R Algorithm
Alternatives

EMP ASG PROJ

EMP ASG EMP ×=PROJ ASG EMP ASG PROJ PROJ ASG PROJ ×=EMP
pruned pruned pruned pruned

(ASG EMP) PROJ (PROJ ASG) EMP

Best total join order is one of

((ASG EMP) PROJ)
((PROJ ASG) EMP)

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System R Algorithm
■ ((PROJ ASG) EMP) has a useful index on
the select attribute and direct access to the
join attributes of ASG and EMP

■ Therefore, chose it with the following access

methods:
➠ select PROJ using index on PNAME

➠ then join with ASG using index on PNO

➠ then join with EMP using index on ENO

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Join Ordering in Fragment Queries

■ Ordering joins
➠ Distributed INGRES

➠ System R*

■ Semijoin ordering
➠ SDD-1

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Join Ordering
■ Consider two relations only

if size (R) < size (S)

R S
if size (R) > size (S)

■ Multiple relations more difficult because too

many alternatives.
➠ Compute the cost of all alternatives and select the
best one.
◆ Necessary to compute the size of intermediate
relations which is difficult.

➠ Use heuristics

Distributed DBMS © 1998 M. Tamer Özsu & Patrick Valduriez Page 7-9. 73
Join Ordering – Example

Consider
PROJ PNOASG ENOEMP

Site 2

ASG
ENO PNO

EMP PROJ
Site 1 Site 3

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Join Ordering – Example
Execution alternatives:
1. EMP → Site 2 2. ASG → Site 1
Site 2 computes EMP'=EMP ASG Site 1 computes EMP'=EMP ASG
EMP' → Site 3 EMP' → Site 3
Site 3 computes EMP’ PROJ Site 3 computes EMP’ PROJ

3. ASG → Site 3 4. PROJ → Site 2

Site 3 computes ASG'=ASG PROJ Site 2 computes PROJ'=PROJ ASG
ASG' → Site 1 PROJ' → Site 1
Site 1 computes ASG' EMP Site 1 computes PROJ' EMP

5. EMP → Site 2
PROJ → Site 2
Site 2 computes EMP PROJ ASG

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Semijoin Algorithms
■ Consider the join of two relations:
➠ R[A] (located at site 1)
➠ S[A] (located at site 2)

■ Alternatives:
1 Do the join R A S
2 Perform one of the semijoin equivalents
R A S ⇔ (R A S) A S
⇔ R A (S A R)
⇔ (R A S) A (S A R)

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Semijoin Algorithms
■ Perform the join
➠ send R to Site 2
➠ Site 2 computes R A S
■ Consider semijoin (R A S) A S
➠ S' ←Τ∏A(S)
➠ S' → Site 1
➠ Site 1 computes R' = R A S'
➠ R' → Site 2
➠ Site 2 computes R' A S
Semijoin is better if
size(ΠA(S)) + size(R A S)) < size(R)
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Distributed Query
Processing

Algorithms Opt. Objective Opt. Network Semijoin Stats Fragments

Timing Function Factors Topology

Dist. Dynamic Resp. Msg. Size, General or No 1 Horizontal

INGRES time or Proc. Cost Broadcast
Total time
R* Static Total time No. Msg., General or No 1, 2 No
Msg. Size, Local
IO, CPU
SDD-1 Static Total time Msg. Size General Yes 1,3,4, No
5

1: relation cardinality; 2: number of unique values per attribute; 3: join selectivity factor; 4: size
of projection on each join attribute; 5: attribute size and tuple size

Distributed DBMS © 1998 M. Tamer Özsu & Patrick Valduriez Page 7-9. 78
Distributed INGRES Algorithm
Same as the centralized version except

■ Movement of relations (and fragments) need to

be considered

■ Optimization with respect to communication

cost or response time possible

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R* Algorithm
■ Cost function includes local processing as well
as transmission
■ Considers only joins
■ Exhaustive search
■ Compilation
■ Published papers provide solutions to handling
horizontal and vertical fragmentations but the
implemented prototype does not

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R* Algorithm
Performing joins
■ Ship whole
➠ larger data transfer
➠ smaller number of messages
➠ better if relations are small
■ Fetch as needed
➠ number of messages = O(cardinality of external
relation)
➠ data transfer per message is minimal
➠ better if relations are large and the selectivity is
good

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R* Algorithm –
Vertical Partitioning & Joins
1. Move outer relation tuples to the site of the inner
relation
(a) Retrieve outer tuples
(b) Send them to the inner relation site
(c) Join them as they arrive
Total Cost = cost(retrieving qualified outer tuples)
+ no. of outer tuples fetched ∗
cost(retrieving qualified inner tuples)
+ msg. cost ∗ (no. outer tuples fetched ∗Τ
ΤΤΤΤΤ ΤΤΤΤavg. outer tuple size) / msg. size

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R* Algorithm –
Vertical Partitioning & Joins

2. Move inner relation to the site of outer relation

cannot join as they arrive; they need to be stored
Total Cost = cost(retrieving qualified outer tuples)
+ no. of outer tuples fetched ∗
cost(retrieving matching inner tuples
from temporary storage)
+ cost(retrieving qualified inner tuples)
+ cost(storing all qualified inner tuples
in temporary storage)
+ msg. cost ∗ (no. of inner tuples fetched ∗
avg. inner tuple size) / msg. size

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R* Algorithm –
Vertical Partitioning & Joins
3. Move both inner and outer relations to another
site
Total cost = cost(retrieving qualified outer tuples)
+ cost(retrieving qualified inner tuples)
+ cost(storing inner tuples in storage)
+ msg. cost ∗ (no. of outer tuples fetched ∗
avg. outer tuple size) / msg. size
+ msg. cost ∗ (no. of inner tuples fetched ∗
avg. inner tuple size) / msg. size
+ no. of outer tuples fetched ∗
cost(retrieving inner tuples from
temporary storage)
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R* Algorithm –
Vertical Partitioning & Joins
4. Fetch inner tuples as needed
(a) Retrieve qualified tuples at outer relation site
(b) Send request containing join column value(s) for outer
tuples to inner relation site
(c) Retrieve matching inner tuples at inner relation site
(d) Send the matching inner tuples to outer relation site
(e) Join as they arrive
Total Cost = cost(retrieving qualified outer tuples)
+ msg. cost ∗ (no. of outer tuples fetched)
+ no. of outer tuples fetched ∗ (no. of
inner tuples fetched ∗ avg. inner tuple
size ∗ msg. cost / msg. size)
+ no. of outer tuples fetched ∗
cost(retrieving matching inner tuples
for one outer value)

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SDD-1 Algorithm
■ Based on the Hill Climbing Algorithm
➠ Semijoins

➠ No replication

➠ No fragmentation

➠ Cost of transferring the result to the user site from

the final result site is not considered

➠ Can minimize either total time or response time

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Hill Climbing Algorithm
Assume join is between three relations.
Step 1: Do initial processing
Step 2: Select initial feasible solution (ES0)
2.1 Determine the candidate result sites - sites
where a relation referenced in the query exist
2.2 Compute the cost of transferring all the other
referenced relations to each candidate site
2.3 ES0 = candidate site with minimum cost
Step 3: Determine candidate splits of ES0 into
{ES1, ES2}
3.1 ES1 consists of sending one of the relations
to the other relation's site
3.2 ES2 consists of sending the join of the
relations to the final result site
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Hill Climbing Algorithm

Step 4: Replace ES0 with the split schedule

which gives

cost(ES1) + cost(local join) + cost(ES2) < cost(ES0)

Step 5: Recursively apply steps 3–4 on ES1 and

ES2 until no such plans can be found

Step 6: Check for redundant transmissions in the

final plan and eliminate them.

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Hill Climbing Algorithm –
Example
What are the salaries of engineers who work on the
CAD/CAM project?
ΠSAL(PAY TITLE(EMP ENO(ASG PNO(σPNAME=“CAD/CAM”(PROJ)))))

Relation Size Site

EMP 8 1
PAY 4 2
PROJ 4 3
ASG 10 4
Assume:
➠ Size of relations is defined as their cardinality
➠ Minimize total cost
➠ Transmission cost between two sites is 1
➠ Ignore local processing cost

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Hill Climbing Algorithm –
Example
Step 1:
Selection on PROJ; result has cardinality 1

Relation Size Site

EMP 8 1
PAY 4 2
PROJ 1 3
ASG 10 4

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Hill Climbing Algorithm –
Example
Step 2: Initial feasible solution
Alternative 1: Resulting site is Site 1
Total cost = cost(PAY→Site 1) + cost(ASG→Site 1) + cost(PROJ→Site 1)
= 4 + 10 + 1 = 15

Alternative 2: Resulting site is Site 2

Total cost = 8 + 10 + 1 = 19

Alternative 3: Resulting site is Site 3

Total cost = 8 + 4 + 10 = 22

Alternative 4: Resulting site is Site 4

Total cost = 8 + 4 + 1 = 13
Therefore ES0 = {EMP → Site 4; S → Site 4; PROJ → Site 4}

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Hill Climbing Algorithm –
Example
Step 3: Determine candidate splits
Alternative 1: {ES1, ES2, ES3} where
ES1: EMP → Site 2

ES2: (EMP PAY) → Site 4

ES3: PROJ → Site 4

Alternative 2: {ES1, ES2, ES3} where

ES1: PAY → Site 1

ES2: (PAY EMP) → Site 4

ES3: PROJ → Site 4

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Hill Climbing Algorithm –
Example
Step 4: Determine costs of each split alternative
cost(Alternative 1) = cost(EMP→Site 2) + cost((EMP PAY)→Site 4) +
cost(PROJ → Site 4)

= 8 + 8 + 1 = 17
cost(Alternative 2) = cost(PAY→Site 1) + cost((PAY EMP)→Site 4) +
cost(PROJ → Site 4)

= 4 + 8 + 1 = 13
Decision : DO NOT SPLIT
Step 5: ES0 is the “best”.
Step 6: No redundant transmissions.

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Hill Climbing Algorithm
Problems :
❶ Greedy algorithm → determines an initial feasible
solution and iteratively tries to improve it
❷ If there are local minimas, it may not find global
minima
❸ If the optimal schedule has a high initial cost, it
won't find it since it won't choose it as the initial
feasible solution
Example : A better schedule is
PROJ → Site 4
ASG' = (PROJ ASG) → Site 1
(ASG' EMP) → Site 2
Total cost = 1 + 2 + 2 = 5

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SDD-1 Algorithm
Initialization
Step 1: In the execution strategy (call it ES),
include all the local processing
Step 2: Reflect the effects of local processing on
the database profile
Step 3: Construct a set of beneficial semijoin
operations (BS) as follows :
BS = Ø
For each semijoin SJi
BS ← BS ∪ SJi if cost(SJi ) < benefit(SJi)

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SDD-1 Algorithm – Example
Consider the following query
SELECT R3.C
FROM R1, R2, R3
WHERE R1.A = R2.A
AND R2.B = R3.B
which has the following query graph and statistics:
relation card tuple size relation
size
R1 30 50 1500
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 R2 100 30 3000
A B R3 50 40 2000
R1 R2 R3 attribute SF size(Πattribute)
R1.A 0.3 36
R2.A 0.8 320
R2.B 1.0 400
R3.B 0.4 80
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SDD-1 Algorithm – Example

■ Beneficial semijoins:
➠ SJ1 = R2 R1, whose benefit is
2100 = (1 – 0.3)∗3000 and cost is 36
➠ SJ2 = R2 R3, whose benefit is
1800 = (1 – 0.4) ∗3000 and cost is 80

■ Nonbeneficial semijoins:
➠ SJ3 = R1 R2 , whose benefit is
300 = (1 – 0.8) ∗1500 and cost is 320
➠ SJ4 = R3 R2 , whose benefit is 0 and cost is 400

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SDD-1 Algorithm
Iterative Process
Step 4: Remove the most beneficial SJi from BS
and append it to ES
Step 5: Modify the database profile accordingly
Step 6: Modify BS appropriately
➠ compute new benefit/cost values

➠ check if any new semijoin need to be

included in BS

Step 7: If BS ≠ Ø, go back to Step 4.

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SDD-1 Algorithm – Example
■ Iteration 1:
➠ Remove SJ1 from BS and add it to ES.
➠ Update statistics
size(R2) = 900 (= 3000∗0.3)
SF (R2.A) = ~0.8∗0.3 = ~0.24
■ Iteration 2:
➠ Two beneficial semijoins:
SJ2 = R2’ R3, whose benefit is 540 = (1–0.4) ∗900 and cost is
200
SJ3 = R1 R2', whose benefit is 1140=(1–0.24)∗1500 and cost is 96
➠ Add SJ3 to ES
➠ Update statistics
size(R1) = 360 (= 1500∗0.24)
SF (R1.A) = ~0.3∗0.24 = 0.072

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SDD-1 Algorithm – Example

■ Iteration 3:
➠ No new beneficial semijoins.
➠ Remove remaining beneficial semijoin SJ2 from
BS and add it to ES.
➠ Update statistics
size(R2) = 360 (= 900*0.4)
Note: selectivity of R2 may also change, but not
important in this example.

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SDD-1 Algorithm
Assembly Site Selection
Step 8: Find the site where the largest amount of data
resides and select it as the assembly site

Example:
Amount of data stored at sites:
Site 1: 360
Site 2: 360
Site 3: 2000
Therefore, Site 3 will be chosen as the assembly site.

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SDD-1 Algorithm
Postprocessing
Step 9: For each Ri at the assembly site, find the
semijoins of the type
Ri Rj
where the total cost of ES without this semijoin
is smaller than the cost with it and remove the
semijoin from ES.
Note : There might be indirect benefits.
➠ Example: No semijoins are removed.
Step 10: Permute the order of semijoins if doing so
would improve the total cost of ES.
➠ Example: Final strategy:
Send (R2 R1) R3 to Site 3
Send R1 R2 to Site 3
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 Step 4 – Local Optimization

Input: Best global execution schedule

■ Select the best access path
■ Use the centralized optimization techniques

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Distributed Query Optimization
Problems
■ Cost model
➠ multiple query optimization
➠ heuristics to cut down on alternatives
■ Larger set of queries
➠ optimization only on select-project-join queries
➠ also need to handle complex queries (e.g., unions,
disjunctions, aggregations and sorting)
■ Optimization cost vs execution cost tradeoff
➠ heuristics to cut down on alternatives
➠ controllable search strategies
■ Optimization/reoptimization interval
➠ extent of changes in database profile before
reoptimization is necessary

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