CHILD

AND
ADOLESCENT
LEARNERS
AND
LEARNING
PRINCIPLES
 PART 1 – INTRODUCTION
UNIT 1 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)

INTRODUCTION
The learner is the center of instruction. The world of instruction revolves around
the learner. This module introduces you to the fourteen (14) learner-centered principles
which shall be used throughout this book as a guide in determining appropriate pedagogy
for learners at different life stages.
Advance Organizer

Cognitive and Motivational

Metacognitive and Affective
Factor (6 Factors
principles) (3 principles)
14
Learner-Centered
Principles

Developmental Individual
and Social Difference
Factors Factors
(2 principles) (3 principles)

Analysis

Go back to each word and write

Examine the title, “Learner-
phrases about why you think
Centered principles”.
the word can be associated with
Quickly, jot down at least
LCP.
10 words that come to your
Analysis
Share your responses. Summarize your responses.

I think that Learner-Centered Principles

focus on

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Abstract/Generalization
LEARNER-CENTERED PYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
Learner centered psychological principles were put together by the American
Psychological Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner
and a learning process. The 14 principles have the following aspects:
• They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the
control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or psychological factors.
However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or
contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.

• The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of
real-world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set
of principles; No principles should be viewed in isolation.
 • The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and
metacognitive, (2) motivational and affective, (3) developmental and
social, and (4) individual difference factors influencing learners and learning.

• Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners – from children, to
teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in
our educational system.

COGNITIVE and METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

1. Nature of the Learning Process
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
• There are different types of learning process, for example, habit formation in motor
learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills
and learning strategies.
• Learning in schools emphasizes the use of
intentional processes that students can use to
construct meaning from information,
experience, and their own thoughts and
beliefs.
• Successful learners are active, goal-directed,
self-regulating, and assume personal
responsibility for contributing to their own
learning.

2. Goals of the Learning Process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
• The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed.
 • The construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking
and learning strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life
span, students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially,
students’ short -term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time
their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and
deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach
longer-term goals.
• Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are
consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of Knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.

• Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of
these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or
reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these
links are made or develop may vary in different
subject areas, and among students with varying
talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new
knowledge becomes integrated with the learner’s
prior knowledge and understanding, this new
knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most
effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations.
 • Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by several
strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities,
such as concept mapping and thematic organization or categorizing.

4. Strategic Thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
• Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning,
problem solving, and concept learning.
• They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach learning
and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations.
• They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the
methods they used to see which work
well for them, by receiving guided
instruction and feedback, and by
observing or interacting with appropriate
models.
• Learning outcomes can be enhanced if
educators assist learners in developing,
applying, and assessing their strategic
learning skills.

5. Thinking about Thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.
• Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable
learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies
or methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals.
 • In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are
not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate
alternative methods to reach their goal (or
reassess the appropriateness and utility of
the goal).
• Instructional methods that focus on helping
learners develop these higher order
(metacognitive) strategies can enhance
student learning and personal responsibility
for learning.

6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
• Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with
both the learner and the learning environment.
• Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant
variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking.
• Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners’ level of
prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies.
• The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not,
can also have significant impacts on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and Emotional influences on Learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation
to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and
goals, and habits of thinking.
 • The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success
or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and
information processing.
• Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a
marked influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence
both the quality of thinking and information processing as well as an individual's
motivation to learn.
• Positive emotions, such as
curiosity, generally enhance
motivation and facilitate learning
and performance. Mild anxiety can
also enhance learning and
performance by focusing the
learner’s attention on a particular
task. However, intense negative emotions (anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and
related thoughts (worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing
punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation,
interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.

8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by task of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and
providing for personal choice and control.

• Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking,

and creativity are major indicators of the
 learner’s intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting
basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal control.
• Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on task that learners perceive as interesting and
personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the
learner’s abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed.
• Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on task that are comparable to real-world
situations and meet needs for choice and control.
• Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and motivation
to learn by attending to individual differences in learners’ perceptions of optimal
novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.

9. Effects of Motivation on Effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and
guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort
is unlikely without coercion.
• Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex
knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and
strategic effort, along with persistence overtime.
• Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that
enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high
standards of comprehension and understanding.
• Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that
enhance positive emotions an intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that
increase learners’ perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental Influences on Learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within an across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
• Individuals learns best when material
is appropriate to their a
developmental level and is presented
in an enjoyable and interesting way.
• Because individual development
varies across intellectual, social,
emotional, and physical domains,
achievement in different instructional
domains may also vary.
• Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness such as reading readiness,
for example, may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more
capable in other areas of performance.
• The cognitive, emotional, and social development of individual learners and how
they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture, and
community factors.
• Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of
language interactions and two-way communications between adults and children
can influence these developmental areas.
• Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children with
and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the
creation of optimal learning contexts.
11. Social Influences on Learning
Learning if influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.
• Learning can be enhanced
when the learner has an
opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on
instructional tasks.
• Learning settings that allow for
social interactions, and that
respect diversity, encourage
flexible thinking and social
competence.
• In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an
opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher
levels of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem.
• Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase
learners’ sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a
positive climate for learning.
• Family influences, positive interpersonal support an instruction in self-motivation
strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative
beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety,
negative sex role expectations, and undue pressure to perform well.
• Positive learning climates can also help to establish the contexts for healthier
levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to
share ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning
community.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual Differences in Learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are
a function of prior experience and heredity.
• Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
• In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their
own preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn.
However, these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their
learning goals.
• Educators need to help students to examine their learning preferences and expand
or modify them, if necessary.
• The interaction between the learner differences and curricular and environmental
conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes.
• Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. The also need
to attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences are
accepted and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.

13. Learning and Diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.

• The same basic principles of learning,

motivation, and effective instruction
apply to all learners. However, language,
ethnicity, race, beliefs, and
socioeconomic status all can influence
learning. Careful attention to these
factors in the instructional setting
 enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning
environments.
• When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds,
cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in learning
tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.

14. Standards and Assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well
as learning progress – including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment – are
integral parts of the learning process.

• Assessment provides important

information to both the learner
and teacher at all stages of the
learning process.
• Effective learning takes place
when learners feel challenged to
work towards appropriately high
goals; therefore, appraisal of the
learner’s cognitive strengths and
weaknesses, as well as current
knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of
an optimal degree of difficulty.
• Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular material can
provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward
the learning goals.
• Standardized assessment of the learner progress and outcomes assessment
provides one type of information about achievement levels both within and
across individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions.
 • Performance assessment can provide other sources of information about the
attainment of learning outcomes.
• Self-assessment of learning progress can also improve students’ self-appraisal
skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five
areas:
1. The Knowledge Base.
✓ One’s existing knowledge serve as the foundation of all future learning.
✓ The learner’s previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on
how he represents new information, makes associations, and filters new
experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control.
✓ Learner’s can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors
in order to learn more effectively (metacognition).
3. Motivation and affect.
✓ Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within), reasons for wanting to learn,
personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the
learning process.
4. Development and individual differences.
✓ Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own
unique combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context.
✓ Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.

Application
The application of the 14 principles will be done as you explore the succeeding
modules. For now, keep the 14 principles in mind as you explore the rest of the modules.
Always try to relate these principles to the concepts you will learn, especially when you
do the 5-minute non-stop writing at the end of each module.

Research Connection
Read a research study related to Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP).
Fill out the matrix below.
Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Reflection
5-Minute Non-stop Writing begins…. NOW!

From the Module on LCP, I realized that…

 Unit 2 – Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development

Introduction
Every living creature is cold to become what it is meant to be. The Caterpillar is
meant to become a butterfly; a seed into a full-grown herb, Bush or tree; and a human
baby into a mature person, the person “who is fully alive, the glory of God” in the words
of St. Irenaeus.
How this development happens is what we learn in our biology class. We have
seen it to be a fantastic process. So wonderful a process that we can't help but experience
a feeling of awe for the Power or the Force or the Principle.
The process of development involves beginnings and endings. What was this
Organism then? What will this Organism be?
Several researchers on human development have been conducted. A lot of theories
on human development have been forwarded. Researches on human development
continue as existing theories get corrected, complemented, or replaced. Up to the present
several issues on human development are unresolved and so the research for
explanations continues.
In this unit, you will be acquainted with human development as a process, the
developmental task that come along with each developmental stage and relevant issues
that are raised about human development.
 Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and
Approaches
- Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD
MODULE
1
“All the world’s stage, and all the men and women
merely players; they have their exits and entrances,
and one man in his time plays many parts.”
- William Shakespeare

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Define human development in your own words.
• Distinguish between the traditional Ann lifespan approach of development.

Introduction
As you read this textbook, you are undergoing the process of development. How
does this development take place? What do experts say about development? These are
the concerns of this module.

Activity
1. Here are pictures of a seven-year old Naschielle and three-year old Kenn. Each one is
bundle of possibilities. Describe what they were before birth (their point of origin) and
who they will possibly be after birth unto adulthood. What will they possibly become?
Expound your answers.
Analysis
After listening to the predictions given by each member of the group, answer the
following questions:
1. When you gave your own predictions as to the kind of child, adolescent and adult
Naschielle and Kenn may become hypothesized on who they once were, you were
referring to human development. What then is development? Translate the meaning
of development in your Mother Tongue.
2. Will three-year old Kenn be able to do all that seven-year old Naschielle can do? Why
or why not?
3. Will there be anything common in the pattern of development of Naschielle and Kenn?
If yes, what?
4. Will there be differences in their development, e.g. pace or rate of development? What
and why?
5. Will the process of development take place very fast or gradually? Expound your
answer.
6. Do you believe that Naschielle and Kenn will continue to develop even in adulthood?
Or will they stop developing in adulthood?

Abstraction
Two approaches to Human Development
If you believe that Nikki and Kenn will show extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age, your approach
to development is traditional. In contrast, if you believe that even in adulthood
development change takes place as it does during childhood, your approach is termed
life-span approach.

What are the characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective?

Paul Baltes, an expert in life-span development, gives the following characteristics:
1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. Ken and Nikki will continue
developing even in adulthood.
2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development
is possible throughout the life-span. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing
as “I AM TOO OLD FOR THAT…” Neither Kenn nor Nikki will be too old to learn
something.
Aging is associated with declines in certain intellectual abilities. This decline can be
prevented or reduced. In one research study, the reasoning abilities of older adults
were improved through retraining.
3. Development is multidimensional. Development is consisting of biological,
cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions. Development as a process is complex
because it is the product of biological, cognitive and socioeconomical
processes.

Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature. The brains of
Naschielle and Kenn develop. They will gain height and weight. They will experience
hormonal changes when they reach the period of liberty, and cardiovascular decline
as they approach late adulthood. All these show the common biological processes and
development.

Development is relatively orderly. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm)

Naschielle and Kenn will learn to sit, crawl, then walk before they can run. The muscular
control of the trunk and the arms comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers.
This is the proximodistal pattern. During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs
at the top - the head - with physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation
gradually working its way down from top to bottom (for example, neck, shoulders, middle
trunk and so on). This is the cephalon-caudal pattern. These development patterns are
common to Nascheille and Kenn.
Development takes place gradually. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm)
Naschielle and Kenn won't develop into pimply teenagers overnight. It takes years before
they become one. In fact, that's the way of nature. The bud does not blossom suddenly.
The seed does not germinate overnight night. While some changes occur in flash of
insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes
that result in the display of developmental characteristics.

Cognitive processes involved changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and

language. Naschielle and Kenn develop from mere sounds to a word becoming two words,
the two words becoming a sentence. They would move on to memorizing their first
prayer, singing “Lupang Hinirang” in every flag ceremony to imagining what it would be
like to be a teacher or a pilot, playing chess and solving a complex math problem. All
these reflect the role of cognitive processes and development.

Socioemotional processes include changes in the individual’s relationship with other

people, changes in emotions and changes in personality. As babies, Naschielle and Kenn
responded with a sweet smile when affectionately touched and frowned when displeased
an even showed temper tantrum when they could not get or do what they wanted. From
aggressive children, they may develop into a fine lady and gentlemen or otherwise,
depending on a myriad of factors. They may fall in love and get inspired for life or may
end up betrayed, deserted, and desperate afterwards. All these reflect the role of
socioemotional processes in development.

These biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are inextricably

intertwined. While these processes are studied separately, the effect of one process or
factor on one person’s development is not isolated from the other processes. If Kenn and
Naschielle were undernourished and troubled by the thought of father and mother about
to separate, they could not concentrate on their studies and consequently would fail and
repeat. As a consequence, they may lose face and drop out school, revert to illiteracy,
become unskilled, unemployed, and so on. See how a biological process, affects the
cognitive process which in turn, affects the socioemotional process.

4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.

Individuals respond to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individual’s
biological make up, physical environment, cognitive processes, historical, social, and
cultural contexts. Naschielle’s and Kenn’s biological make up, social and cultural
contexts may vary and therefore make them develop differently from each other.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation. Growth,
maintenance, and regulation are three (3) goals of human development. The goals of
individual vary among developmental stages. For instance, as individual’s reach middle
and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the backstage while maintenance
and regulation take the center stage.

Application
1. State five characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective and
their implications to childcare, education, and parenting.
Characteristic of human development Educational implication to Child Care,
from a life-span perspective Education and Parenting
1. Development is lifelong.
2.
3.
4.
5.

2. “Growth is an evidence of life” or “development is an evidence of life”. What does

this mean? What does this imply to a person’s development?
3. Below are the principles of child development and learning which are the bases of
developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood program. They affirm the
characteristics of life-span development approach we just discussed. Find out which
one is a re-statement of the principles of human development by stating the
characteristic of human development from life-span perspective in the second
column.

Principles of Human Development Characteristics of Human

(NAEC, 2009) Development from Life-Span
Perspective

All the domains of development and

learning – physical, social, and
emotional, and cognitive – are Development is
important, and they are closely multidimensional
interrelated. Children’s development
and learning in one domain
influence and are influenced by what
takes place in other domains.

Many aspects of children’s learning

and development follow well
documented sequences, with later
abilities, skills, and knowledge
building on those already acquired.

Development and learning proceed

at varying rates from child to child, as
well as at uneven rates across
different areas of a child’s individual
functioning.
 Development and learning result
from a dynamic and continuous
interaction of biological maturation
and experience.

Early experiences have profound

effects, both cumulative and
delayed, on a child’s development
and learning; and optimal periods
exist for certain types of
development and learning occur.

Development proceeds toward

greater complexity, self-regulation,
and symbolic or representational
capacities.

Children develop best when they

have secure, consistent relationships
with responsive adults and
opportunities for positive
relationships with peers.

Development and learning occur in

and are influenced by multiple social
and cultural contexts.
 Always mentally active in seeking to
understand the world around them,
children learn in variety of ways; a
wide range of teaching strategies and
interactions are effective in
supporting all these kinds of learning.

Play is an important vehicle for

developing self-regulation as well as
for promoting language, cognition,
and social competence.

Development and learning advance

when children are challenged to
achieve at a level just beyond their
current mastery, and also when they
have many opportunities to practice
newly acquired skills.

Children’s experiences shape their

motivation and approaches to
learning, such as persistence,
initiative, flexibility; in turn, these
dispositions and behaviors affect
their learning and development.
Test Your Understanding
1. Do the following to ensure mastery of the big ideas presented in this Module.
a) Give the meaning of human development
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.
Patterns of development
a) The direction of growth following the cephalocaudal pattern is from the _____
to the ______.
b) The direction of growth following the proximodistal pattern is from ______ to
the ______.
3. Differences between the traditional and life-span approaches to human development.
4. Characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective.

Characteristic
of human
development

5. Discuss the meaning of the quotations “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and
women merely players; they have their exits and entrances, and one man in his time
plays many parts…” and “By virtue of being born to humanity, every human being
has a right to development and fulfillment of his potentialities as a human being.”.
Relate the quotation to your life. Childcare, education, and parenting.
Research Connection
View on Youtube of Helen Pearson: Lessons the longest study on human development.
Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!
1. You are a bundle of responsibilities. You are meant to develop like any other living
thing or else you will rut. Remember “Growth is an evidence of life.” If you are alive,
then you must be growing and developing. Are you on your way to development?
2. Like you, each of your future student is also a bundle of responsibilities. How should
you look at them in terms of development? Write down your reflections. There is no
wrong answer.

Write Here!
 The Stages of Development and Developmental
Tasks
- Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD
MODULE
2
“Who are you?, asked the caterpillar. Alice replied
rather shyly, “I, I hardly know, Sir, just at present – at
least I know who I was when I got up this morning, but I
must have changed several times since then.”
- Lewis Carroll

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Define developmental tasks in your own words.
• Describe the developmental tasks in each development stage.
• Come up with research abstracts/summaries of researches on developmental
tasks.

Introduction
For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental task. What
happens when the expected developmental tasks are not achieved at the corresponding
developmental stage? How can you help children achieve these developmental tasks?

Activity
Study the pictures and the descriptions below each set of pictures from pages 26-
33, then answer the following questions.
1. Do the pictures suggest the respective developmental stages?
2. Symbolize each developmental stage. Give a symbol that stands for the developmental
task for each stage.
3. If you were given a chance, which developmental stage would you like to be in? Why?
Pre-natal Period
Referring to pre-natal development, Santrock
(2002) asked the following questions succinctly:
How from so simple beginning to endless forms develop
and grow and mature? What was this Organism, what is
it now, and what will it become? Birth’s fragile moment
arrives, when the newborn is on a threshold between two
worlds.”

Infancy (from birth to 2 years)

As newborns, we were not empty-headed organisms. We cried, kick, coughed,
sucked, saw, heard, and tasted. We slept a lot and occasionally we smile, although the
meaning of our smiles was not entirely clear. We crawled and then we walked, a journey
of 1000 miles beginning with a single step. Sometimes we conformed, sometimes others
conformed to us. Our development was a continuous creation of complex forms, and our
helpless kind demanded the meeting eyes of love. We split the universe into two halves:
“me and not me”. And we juggled the need to curb our own will with becoming what we
could freely. Santrock (2002)

Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)

In early childhood, our greatest untold poem was being only four years old. We
skipped, played, and ran all day long, never in our lives so busy, busy becoming
something we had not quite grasped yet. Who knew our thoughts, which worked up into
small mythologies all our own. Our thoughts and images and drawings took wings. the
blossoms of our heart, no wind could touch. Our small world widened as we discovered
new refuges and new couple. When we said “I” we meant something totally unique, not
to be confused with any other.” Santrock (2002)

Middle and Late Childhood (6 to 12 years)

“In middle and late childhood, we were on a different plane, belonging to a
generation and a feeling properly our own. It is the wisdom of human development that
at no other time we are more ready to learn than at the end of early childhood's period
of expansive imagination. Our thirst was to know and to understand. Our parents
continued to cradle our lives, but our growth was always also being shaped by successive
choirs of friends. We did not think much about the future or the past but enjoyed the
present.” (Except for a few words, the paragraph is taken from Santrock 2002)

Adolescence (13 to 18 years)

“In no order of things was adolescence, the simple time of life for us. We clothed
ourselves with rainbows and went brave as the Zodiac, flashing from one end of the world
to the other. We tried on one face after another, searching for a face of our own. We
wanted our parents to understand us and hoped they would give up the privilege of
understanding them. We wanted to fly but found the first we had to learn to stand and
walk and climb and dance. In our most pimply and awkward moments we became
acquainted with sex. We played furiously at adult games but were confined to a society
of our own peers. Our generation was the fragile cable by with the best and the worst of
our parent’s generation was transmitted to the present. In the end, there were two but
lasting bequests our parents could leave us – one being roots, the other wings.” Santrock
2002)
Early Adulthood (19 to 29 years)
Early adulthood is a time for work and a time for love, sometimes leaving little
time for anything else. For some of us, finding our place in adult society and committing
to a more stable life take longer than we imagine. We still ask ourselves who we are and
wonder if it isn't enough just to be. Our dreams continue and our thoughts are bold but
at some point, we become more pragmatic. Sex and love are powerful passions in our
lives at times angels of light, at other times of torment. And we possibly will never know
the love of our parents until we become parents ourselves. Santrock (2002)
Middle Adulthood (30 to 60 years)
In middle adulthood what we have been forms what we will be. For some of us,
Middle Age is such a foggy place, a time when we need to discover what we are running
from and to and why. We compare our life with what we vowed to make it. In middle
age, more time stretches before us and some evaluations have to be made, however
reluctantly. As the young or old polarity greets us with special force, we need to join the
daring of youth with the discipline of age in a way that does justice do both. As middle-
aged adults we come to sense that the generations of living things pass in a short while
and like runners’ hand on the torch of life. Santrock (2002)
Late Adulthood (61 years and above)
The rhythm and meaning of human development eventually went their way to late
adulthood, when each of us stands alone at the heart of the earth and “suddenly it is
evening” We shed the leaves of youth and are stripped by the winds of time down to the
truth. We learned that life is lived forward but understood backward. We traced the
connection between the end and the beginning of life and try to figure out what this
whole show is about before it is over. Ultimately, we come to know that we are what
survives of us. Santrock (2002)

Analysis
1. How many developmental stages were described? How do these stages compare to
Havighurst’s developmental stages given below?
Havighurst has identified six major age periods:
➢ Infancy and early childhood (0-5 years)
➢ Middle childhood (6-12 years)
 ➢ Adolescence (13-18 years)
➢ Early adulthood (19-29 years)
➢ Middle adulthood (30-60 years)
➢ Later maturity (61+)
2. What is an outstanding trait or behavior of each stage?
3. What task/s is/are expected of each developmental stage?
4. Does a developmental task in a higher level require accomplishment of the lower level
developmental task?
5. Refers to Havighurst’s developmental tasks given in the table on the next page. Match
the descriptions given by Santrock. Are Havighurst and Santrock saying the same
things?
Developmental Tasks
Infancy and early childhood Middle childhood (6-12 years) Adolescence (13-18 years)
(0-5 years)
❖ Learning to walk ❖ Learning physical skills ❖ Achieving mature
❖ Learning to take solid necessary for ordinary relationships with
foods games both sexes
❖ Learning to talk ❖ Building a wholesome ❖ Achieving a masculine
❖ Learning to control the attitude toward and feminine social
elimination of body oneself role
wastes ❖ Learning to get along ❖ Accepting one’s
❖ Learning sex with agemates physique
differences and sexual ❖ Learning an ❖ Achieving emotional
modesty appropriate sex role independence of
❖ Acquiring concepts ❖ Developing adults
and language to fundamental skills in ❖ Preparing for marriage
describe social and reading, writing, and and family life
physical reality calculating ❖ Preparing for an
❖ Readiness for reading ❖ Developing concepts economic career
❖ Learning to distinguish necessary for everyday ❖ Acquiring values and
right from wrong and living an ethical system to
developing a ❖ Developing guide behavior
conscience conscience, morality, ❖ Desiring and achieving
and a scale of values socially responsible
❖ Achieving personal behavior
independence
❖ Developing acceptable
attitudes toward
society
 Early adulthood (19-29 years) Middle adulthood (30-60 Later maturity (61+)
years)
❖ Selecting a mate ❖ Helping teenage ❖ Adjusting to
❖ Learning to live with a children to become decreasing strength
partner happy and responsible and health
❖ Starting a family adults ❖ Adjusting to
❖ Rearing child ❖ Achieving adult social retirement and
❖ Managing a home and civic responsibility reduced income
❖ Starting an occupation ❖ Satisfactory career ❖ Adjusting to death of
❖ Assuming civic achievement spouse
responsibility ❖ Developing adult ❖ Establishing relations
leisure time activities with one’s own age
❖ Relating to one’s group
spouse as a person ❖ Meeting social and
❖ Accepting the civic obligations
physiological changes ❖ Establishing
of middle age satisfactory living
❖ Adjusting to aging quarters.
parent

Abstraction
Concept of Developmental Tasks
In each stage of development, a certain tasks or tasks are expected of every
individual. Robert Havighurst defines development task as one that “arises at a certain
period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success
with later tasks while failure leads unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with
later tasks.” Havighurst (1972).

Developmental Stages
There are 8 developmental stages given by Santrock. The 8 developmental stages cited
by Santrock are the same with Havighurst’s 6 developmental stages only that Havighurst
did not include prenatal period. Havighurst combined infancy and early childhood while
Santrock mentioned them as two separate stages. These developmental stages are
described more in detail in the next paragraphs.
The Developmental Tasks (Santrock, 2002)
Let’s describe the developmental tasks and outstanding trait of each stage as
described by Santrock and compare them to those listed by Havighurst himself.
1. Prenatal Period (from conception to birth) – it involves tremendous growth- from
single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities.
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) – a time of extreme dependence on adults.
Many psychological activities are just beginning – language, symbolic thought,
sensorimotor coordination, and social learning.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade 1) – These are the preschool
years. Young children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves,
develop school readiness skills and spend many hours in play with peers.
4. Middle and Late Childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school years) – The
fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The child is
formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more
central theme of the child’s world and self-control increases.
5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age) – Begins with rapid
physical changes – dramatic gains in height and weight, changes is body contour, and
the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts,
development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Pursuit of
independence and identity are prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract, and
idealistic. More time is spent outside of the family.
6. Early Adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s) – it is a time of
establishing personal and economic independence, career development, selecting a
mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family and rearing
child.
7. Middle Adulthood (40-60 years of age) – it is a time of expanding personal and social
involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming
competent and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a
career.
8. Late Adulthood (60s above) – it is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength and
health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.

Application
1. Answer this question with a learning partner. What are the implications of these
developmental tasks to your role as a teacher and or parent? Let’s pay attention to
each of the developmental stages – prenatal, infancy, early childhood, middle and late
childhood, and adolescence.
Preschool period – what are pregnant others supposed to do to ensure the birth of a
normal and healthy baby?
Infancy – what should mothers and babysitters do and do not do to help infants
develop normally and healthily?

Early Childhood

Help them develop readiness for school and not to be

too academic in teaching approach. They ought to give
much time for preschoolers to play. Or perhaps help
preschoolers develop school readiness by integrating
children’s games in school activities.

Middle and Late Childhood

Elementary teachers ought to help their students by….

Parents ought to help their teenage children by…..

Adolescence

High School Teachers ought to help their students by….

Parents ought to help their teenage children by…..
 Early Adulthood

Teachers ought to help their students by….

Parents can help their children who are now young
adults by….

Middle Adulthood

What should adults do to obtain satisfaction in their

career?
What should schools teach for students to be prepared
for middle adulthood?

Late Adulthood

In their retirement, adults should…..

2. How should children relate to their parents in their late adulthood stage? What should
teachers teach to students on how they should treat and relate to parents,
grandparents in their late adulthood?
3. Come up with an object to symbolize each period or stage of development.

Reflection
❖ Reflect on your early childhood, middle and late childhood days. Were you able to
acquire the developmental tasks expected of early, middle, late childhood and
 adolescence? What facilitated your acquisitions of the ability to perform such
tasks? Write your reflections.

❖ Having mastered the developmental tasks of early childhood, middle and late
childhood, and adolescence, reflect on what you should do as a teacher to facilitate
your students’ acquisition of these developmental tasks. Write down your
reflections.
 Issues on Human Development
- Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD
MODULE

3
“The interaction of heredity and environment is so
extensive that to ask which is more important,
nature or nurture, is like asking, which is more
important to a rectangle, height or with.”
- William Greenough

Learning Outcome
At the end of this module, you should be able to take research-based position on
the three (3) issues on development.

Introduction
Each of us has his/her own informal way of looking at our own and other people’s
development. These paradigms of human development while obviously lacking in
scholastic vigor, provide us with a conceptual framework for understanding ourselves and
others. Scholars have come up with their own models of human development. Back up
by solid research, they take stand on issues on human development.

Activity
(This is to be assigned at least more than one week before the scheduled debate)
Here are the topics and issues:
CONTINUITY vs. DISCONTINUITY
Does development involve
gradual, cumulative change
(continuity) or distinct changes
(discontinuity). Is our
development like that of a
seedling gradually growing into
an acacia tree? Or it is more like
that of a caterpillar becoming a
butterfly?
 STABILITY vs. CHANGE
NATURE vs. NURTURE
Is development best described
Which has a more significant as involving change? Are we
influence on human what are our first experiences
development? Nature refers have made of us or do we
to an individual’s biological develop into someone
inheritance. Nurture refers to different from who we were at
environmental experiences. an earlier point in
development?

Analysis
After a small debate presentation, the teacher facilitates the whole class discussion
and asks the following:
1. Who are pro-nature? Pro-nurture? Are there additional reasons you can give in
favor of nature/nurture? Who are neither for nature/nurture? Why?
2. Who go for continuity? Discontinuity? Can you give additional arguments to defend
continuity/discontinuity? Who are in between the two? Why?
3. Who claims stability is more correct that change? Or vice versa?

Abstraction
The issues presented can be translated into questions that have sparked animated
debate among developmentalists. Are girls less likely to do well in math because of their
“feminine” nature or because of society's “masculine” bias? How extensively can the
elderly be trained to reason more effectively? How much, if at all, does our memory
decline in old age? Can techniques be used to prevent or reduce the decline? For children
who experienced a world of poverty, neglect by parents, and poor schooling in childhood,
can enriched experiences in adolescence remove the “deficits” that they encountered
earlier in their development (Santrock, 2002)?

Based on the presentations, each one has his/her own explanations for his/her
stand on the developmental issues. What is the right answer? Up to this time, the debate
continues. Researches are on-going. But let me tell you that most lifespan
developmentalists recognize the extreme positions on these issues are unwise.
Development is not all nature or all nurture, not all continuity or discontinuity and not all
stability or all change (Lerner, 1998 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). Both nature and
nurture, continuity and discontinuity, stability and change characterize our life-span
development. The key to development is the interaction of nature and nurture rather
than either factor alone (Rutter, 2001 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). In other words, it is
a matter of “both-and” not “either-or”. Just go back to the quote beneath the title of this
lesson and the message gets crystal.
To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a person even to
exist. Without genes, there is no person; Without environment, there is no person (Scarr
and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock, 2002). Heredity and environment operate
together – or cooperate and interact - to produce a person's intelligence, temperament,
height, weight - ability to read and so on.

If heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater influence or

contribution, heredity, or environment? The relative contributions of heredity and
environment are not additive. So, we can't say 50% is a contribution of heredity and 50%
of environment. Neither is it correct to say that full genetic expression happens once,
around conception of or birth, after which we take our genetic legacy into the world to
see how far it gets us. Genes produce proteins throughout the lifespan, in many different
environments. Or they don't produce these proteins, depending on how harsh or
nourishing those environments are. (Santrock, 2002)
Application
Let’s find out where you can apply what you learned from a discussion of these
developmental issues. Interview a parent and ask what is written below:

How crucial the role of the parents to the development of their children?

Remember the heredity is already fixed. Their children have been born and

they have passed on these inherited traits at conception and that they cannot

do anything anymore to change them.

So, concentrate on how they can contribute to their children’s favorable

development by creating the environment conducive to development. Like

heredity, environment is complex. It includes nutrition as early as conception,

parenting, family dynamics, schooling, neighborhood quality and biological

encounters such as viruses, birth complications, and even biological events in

cells.
 How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of your Life
What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed to be anxious,
overweight, or asthmatic? How is it that some of us are prone to heart attacks, diabetes, or
high blood pressure?

There's a list of conventional answers to these questions. We are the way we are
because it's in our genes. We turn out the way we do because of our childhood experiences.
Or our health and well-being stem from the lifestyle choices we make as adults.

They are powerful source of influence you may not have considered: your life as a
fetus. The nutrition you received in the womb; the pollutants, drugs and infections you were
exposed to during gestation; Your mother's health and state of mind while she was pregnant
with you - all these factors shaped you as a baby and continued to affect you to this day.

This is the provocative contention of a field known as fetal origins, whose pioneers
assert that the nine months of gestation constitute the most consequential period of our
lives, PERMANENTLY (Underscoring, mine) influencing the wiring of the brain and the
functioning of organs such as the heart, liver, and pancreas. In the literature on the subject,
which has exploded over the past ten years, you can find references to the fetal origins of
cancer, cardiovascular disease, allergies, asthma, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, mental
illness. At the farthest edge of fetal origins research, scientists are exploring the possibility
that intrauterine conditions influence not only our physical health but also our intelligence,
temperament, even our sanity.

As a journalist who covers science, I was intrigued when I first heard about fetal
origins. But two years ago, when I began to delve more deeply into the field, I had a more
personal motivation: I was newly pregnant. If it was true that my actions over the next nine
months would affect my offspring for the rest of his life, I needed to know more.

Of course, no woman who is pregnant today can escape hearing the message that
what she does affects her fetus. She here said at doctors’ appointments, sees it in the
pregnancy guidebooks: do not eat this, don't drink that, be vigilant but never stressed.
Expectant mothers could be forgiven for feeling that pregnancy is just a nine-month slog,
full of guilt and devoid of pleasure, and this research threatened to add to the burden.

But the scientists I met were not full of dire warnings but of the excitement of
discovery - and the hope that their discoveries would make a positive difference. Research
on fetal origins is prompting a revolutionary shift in thinking about where human qualities
come from and when they begin to develop. It's turning pregnancy into a scientific frontier:
the National Institutes of health embarked last year on a multi decade study that will
examine its subjects before they are born. And it makes the womb a promising target for
prevention, raising hopes of conquering public health score just like obesity and heart
disease through interventions before birth. - Time Magazine, Oct.4, 2010
Test your Understanding
Read, analyze, and then answer the following questions:
• Does the article agree that heredity, environment, and individual’s choice are the
factors that contribute to what a person may become? Read that paragraph that
tells so.
• Read the 4th paragraph again. Focus your attention on the highlighted word,
“PERMANENTLY”. Relate this to the issue on stability versus change issue. Does
the word “PERMANENTLY” convince you that we are what our first experiences
have made of us (stability)? Explain your answer.

Research Connection
Read a research related to issues on human development.Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!
Relate what you learned here to your personal development. Reflect on your own
personal development. What has helped you become the person that you are now? Is
what you have become a product of the mere interaction of heredity and environment?
Or is what you have become a product of both heredity and environment interacting and
what you have decided or determined yourself to become? (Self-determination or
freedom is a third factor). Write your reflections

Write Here!
 Research in Child and Adolescent Development
- Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD

MODULE
“Research is to see what everybody else has seen and
4 to think what nobody else has thought.”
- Albert Szent – Gyorgi, Hungarian Biochemist

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Explain the basic principles of research. Demonstrate appreciation of the role of
teachers as consumers and producers of developmental research.
• Read researchers on child and adult sent development an make simple research
abstracts out of researchers read.

Introduction
You may have a separate 3-unit course on research. This module is not intended
to be substituted for that three-unit course. It is simply meant to supplement what you
got or will still get in the Research course.
As you may have noticed, most if not all of what is presented about the
development of the child and adolescent are products of research period it might interest
you to know how these concepts or theories were arrived at. Or after having been
exposed to a number of researchers cited in this course, hopefully, you may be so inspired
that you, too, would like to start conducting research as on your own or join a group of
research.

Activity
Read each statement below. Do you agree or disagree with each statement? Put a check

mark ✓ to indicate your answer.

 Statement Yes No
1. Research is only for those who plan to take master’s degree or doctorate
degrees.
2. Research is easy to do.
3. Research is all about giving questionnaires and tallying the responses.
4. Research with one or two respondents is not a valid research.
5. Teachers, because they are busy in their classrooms, are expected to use
existing research rather than conduct their own research in the classroom.
6. There is no need to go into research because a lot of researches have
already been conducted.
7. Students are mere users of knowledge arrived at by research. It is not
their task to conduct research.
8. Students do not possess the qualifications to conduct research.
9. It is not worth conducting research considering the time and money it
requires.

Analysis
Share your answers among classmates. The teacher will read each statement and the
students will “shake their body” if they answer YES, and “wave the body” if they answer
NO. The teacher will process each question by encouraging students to explain their
answers.

Abstraction
Your answers to the questionnaire indicate your basic attitude about research. As
a pre- service teacher, it is important to have a positive regard for research. Best practices
in education are usually borne out of research. Research informs practice.
 All of the topics discussed in this book are, in one way or another, a product of
research. Research is a very reliable means for teachers to learn about child and
adolescent development. When conducted in an appropriate and accurate manner it
becomes a strong basis for making decisions about the things you will do as an effective
teacher.

Teacher as Consumers/End Users of Research

Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important knowledge to use in
decision-making for the benefit of learners and their families. Well-informed teachers can
use and integrate the most authoritative research findings. Research enables teachers to
come up with informed decision on what to teach and how to teach. This involves
decisions related to educational policies, curriculum, effective teaching-learning
processes, and even those involving research, too. It can help us, teachers, to be more
knowledgeable about how to fit our teaching with the developmental levels of our
learners.

Teachers as Researchers
The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation writers. It
is for the students and teachers, too. Let us learn how to conduct a research by finding
out the different research principles and the research methods and designs with focus on
child and adolescent development.

The Scientific Method

One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific method, since
research is a systematic and a logical process. As such, researchers basically follow the
scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps of the scientific method. They are as follows:
1. Identify and define the problem
2. Determine the hypothesis
3. Collect and analyze data
 4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis

Simply explained, identifying the research problem is the first step. This is followed by
stating a tentative answer to the research problem called the hypothesis. The hypothesis
is also referred to as an “educated guess”. How correct is your “educated guess” or
“hypothesis?” if your research problem id concerned with determining the cause of an
effect or a phenomenon you have to gather and analyze data derived from an experiment.
This is true with experimental research. However, if your research problem is concerned
with describing data and characteristics about the subjects or phenomenon you are
studying, you do not need to perform an experiment. This is descriptive research. After
analyzing the data, you formulate your conclusions.

Compare your conclusions to your original hypothesis to find out if your original
hypothesis is correct or not. If your original hypothesis jibes with your finding and
conclusions, affirm your hypothesis. If your original hypothesis does not jibe with your
finding and conclusions, reject your original hypothesis.

Research Design
Researches that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide us with
valuable information about child and adolescent development. To be able to conduct
quality research, it is important that you know various research designs and different
data-gathering techniques used by developmental researchers. Some are given and
described below:
Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses
1. Case Study An in-depth look at an It provides Need to exercise
individual information about caution when
an individual’s generalizing from
fears, hopes, the information;
 fantasies, traumatic the subject of a
experiences, case study is
upbringing, family unique, with
relationships, genetic make-up
health and anything and experiences no
that helps one else shares;
psychologist involves judgment
understand that of unknown
person’s reliability, in that
development usually no check is
(Santrock, 2002) made to see if
other psychologists
agree with other
observations
(Santrock, 2002)
2. Correlational A research design that Useful because the Because
Study determines more strongly two correlational
associations events are research does not
correlated, the involve the
more we can manipulation of
predict one from factors, it is not a
the other dependable way to
isolate cause
(Kantowitz, et al,
2001 cited by
Santrock, 2002)
3. Experimental A research design that The only true experimental
determines cause- reliable method of research is limited
and-effect to what is
relationships. The establishing cause observable,
experimental method and effect testable and
involves manipulating manipulable.
one variable to Failure to achieve
determine if changes randomization may
in one variable cause limit the extent to
changes in another which the study
variable. This method sample is
relies on controlled representative of
methods, random the parent
assignment and the population and,
manipulation of with it,
variables to test a generalizability of
hypothesis. the findings of the
study.

Experimentation
with humans is
subject to a
number of external
influences that may
dilute the study
resolves (Donnan,
2000).

A further limitation
of experimental
research is that
subjects may
 change their
behavior or
respond in a
specific manner
simply because of
awareness of being
observed -
Hawthorne effect
(Haughey, 1994;
Clifford, 1997)
4. Naturalistic A research design that one of the The disadvantages
Observation focuses on children's advantages of this of naturalistic
experiences in natural type of research is observation include
settings. that it allows the the fact that it can
researcher to be difficult to
This does not involve directly observe the determine the exact
any intervention or subject in a natural cause of a behavior
manipulation on the setting. and the
part of the researcher. experimenter
This technique cannot control
involves observing outside variables.
subjects in their
natural environment.
This type of research
is often utilized in
situations where
conducting lab
research is unrealistic,
cost prohibitive or
 would unduly affect
the subject’s behavior.
5. Longitudinal This research design allows them to they are expensive
studies and follows record and monitor and time
through a single developmental consuming.
group over a period of trends.
time. The same The longer the
individuals are studied study lasts, the
over a period of time, more subjects drop
usually several years out -- they move,
or more. get sick, lose
interest, etc.
Subjects can bias
the outcome of a
study, because
those who remain
may be dissimilar to
those who drop
out.
6. Cross- A research strategy in allows them to It gives no
Sectional which individuals of record and monitor information about
different ages are developmental how individuals
compared at one trends. The change or about
time. researcher does not the stability of their
have to wait for the characteristics
individuals to grow (Santrock, 2002).
up or become
older.
7. Sequential Is the combined allows them to It is complex,
cross-sectional and record and monitor expensive, and
longitudinal developmental time consuming
approaches to learn trends. It provides
about life-span information that is
development (Schaie, impossible to obtain
1993 cited by from cross-
Santrock, 2002). This sectional or
starts with a cross- longitudinal
sectional study that approaches alone
includes individuals of (Santrock, 2002).
different ages. A
number of months or
years after the initial
assessment, the same
individuals are tested
again this is the
longitudinal aspect of
the design. At this
later time, and you
group of subjects is
assessed at each
grade level.
8. Action action research is a appropriate in a typically takes place
Research reflective process of particular setting in one organization
progressive problem when the purpose only at the
solving led by of study is to create particular time and
individuals working changes and gain could not be
with others in teams information on interpreted within
or as part of a processes an different
community of practice outcome of the organizations in the
to improve the way strategies used same way.
they address issues (Hunt, 1987). Therefore, research
and solve problems. findings are hard
Uses different (Impossible) to
In the context of methods, can get generalize.
teaching, action the best out of the
researchers of different methods If research
teachers stem from employed, if done participants do not
their own questions well. Stakeholders feel they
about and reflections are included understand and
on their everyday throughout and so own the research
classroom practice. researchers are project, this could
more likely to make lead to a potential
a difference. conflict of interest
between the
researcher and
those participating
in the organization,
but also between
the researcher with
some participants,
on one hand and
other members of
the organization,
on the other.
Data-Gathering Techniques
Data-Gathering Definition/Description
Technique
1. Observation Observations can be made in either laboratories or natural
settings. In naturalistic observation, behavior is observed in the
real world like classrooms, home in neighborhood.
2. Physiological Certain indicators of children's development such as, among
Measures others, heart rate, hormonal levels, bone growth, body weight,
and brain activity are measured.
3. Standardized These are prepared test that assess individuals’ performance in
different domains. These tests are administered in a consistent
manner.
4. Interviews and Involve asking the participants to provide information about
Questionnaires themselves based on the interview or questionnaire given by the
researcher.

Gathering of data may be conducted through a printed

questionnaire, over the telephone, by mail, in person, or online.

Information is obtained by utilizing standardized procedures so

that every participant is asked the same questions in the same
manner. It entails asking participants for information in some
structured for month.
5. Life-History These are records of information about a lifetime chronology of
Records events and activities. They often involve a combination of data
records on education, work, family, and residence. These include
public records or historical documents or interviews with
respondent.
Ethical Principles
To serve the genuine purpose of research, feature researchers are subject to
ethical principles. Just as we have the Code of Ethics that governs the behavior of
teachers, there also exist ethical standards that guide the conduct of research. These
ethical standards serve as reminders that as researchers, we should strive to protect the
subjects of our study and to maintain the integrity of our research period details of these
ethical principles are found in documents such as the following:
1. Ethical standards of the American Educational Research Association
http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/About_AERA/Ethical_Standards/EthicalStanda
rds.pdf
2. Ethical standards for Research with Children – Society for Research in Child
Development (USA)
http://www.srcd.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=68Itemid=1
10
3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning Research
http://www.lcsc.edu/policy/Policy/1.112a.PDF
WE INVITE YOU TO READ AND REFLECT ON THEM.

Common among the three standards given above are the following consideration for
research is conducted with young children and other vulnerable population which are
enumerated by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).
Some key points are:
1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or psychologically.
2. Children and their families have the right to full information about the research in
which they may participate, including possible risks and benefits. Their decision to
participate must be based on what is called “informed consent”. There must be
informed consent procedures with research participants.
 3. Children's questions about the research should be answered in a truthful manner
and in ways that children can understand. Researchers must be honest and clear
in their communication.
4. There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through research with
children should remain confidential. Researchers should not disclose personal
information or the identity of participants in written or oral reports and discussions.

The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (R.A. 10173)

This law was passed in the Philippines in 2012 “to protect the fundamental human
right of privacy of communication while ensuring free flow of information to promote
innovation and growth.”
The law states that the collection of personal data “must be a declared, specified,
and legitimate purpose and pause that… consent is required prior to the collection of all
personal data.”
For more details, read R.A 10173.

Impact of Teacher’s Research Involvement on Teachers

Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and nothing to
lose when they get involved in the research process. Evidence suggests that:
1. Teachers who have been involved in research may become more reflective, more
critical analytical in their teaching, and more open and committed to professional
development (Oja & Pine 1989; Henson 1996; Keyes 2000; Rust 2007)
2. Participating in teacher research also helps teachers become more deliberate in
their decision-making and actions in the classroom.
3. Teacher research develops their professional dispositions of lifelong learning,
reflective and mindful teaching, and self-transformation (Mills 2000; Stringer
2007).
 4. Engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking and
reconstructing what it means to be a teacher or teacher educator and,
consequently, the way teachers relate to children and students.
5. Teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and prospective
teachers that learning to teach is inherently connected to learning to inquire
(Borko, Liston, & Whitcomb 2007).

Application
1. Except this module on Research, divide the modules in this book among the group.
Go over the modules of the Unit assigned to you and look for statements of research
findings. If the research design and data gathering techniques were not identified,
identified to the best of your ability what must have been used in the researches. The
table below can make your task easier.
Unit/Module Statement of Page Research Data-
Research Design Used gathering
Finding technique
2. A Research Abstract – A research abstract is a brief summary that appears at the
beginning of the article. It has the following parts:
• Title
• Researchers
• Date of research
• Introduction
• Methods
• Findings results of the study
• Conclusions and recommendations
• References
The first three (3) are self-explanatory and so need no further explanation. The
introduction, as the title implies, introduces the problem or issue that is being studied. It
includes a concise review of research relevant to the topic, theoretical ties, and one or
more hypotheses to be tested. The method section consists of a clear description of the
subjects evaluated in the study, the measures used and the procedures that were
followed. The results section reports that analysis of the data collected. The conclusions
and recommendations state the author/s’ answers to the specific problems of the study
and suggestions on the next steps based on the findings and conclusions of the study.
Methods, Findings/Results of the Study and Conclusions and recommendations constitute
the Body of the Abstract. The last part of the abstract is the references. These include
bibliographic information for each source cited in the research report.

Test your Understanding

Write T if the statement is CORRECT and F if the statement is WRONG.
1. Quality research adheres to the scientific method.
2. For research on child and adult and development to serve its ultimate purpose,
researchers must be governed by ethical principles.
3. Which research design and data gathering technique to use has nothing to do with
the nature of the research problem and objective/s of the research.
4. Teachers are both producers of knowledge when they conduct research and are
consumers or end users of knowledge when they utilize research findings to improve
instruction.
5. Research has a transformative effect on teachers’ self-understanding and on their
classroom practice. It enables teachers to develop a better understanding of
themselves, their classrooms, and their practice through the act of reflective inquiry.
6.
Research Connection
Surf the Internet for samples of research abstracts/researches on child and
adolescent development. Select one research abstract then using the matrix given below
right the problem, the research methodology, the findings, and conclusions.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions

How are the findings of this research useful to teacher?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Reflection
It is said that because teachers are overloaded with work, they usually frown on
the conduct of research. Reflect on the consequences of this attitude. What can be done
to prevent this? Write your reflections here.

Write your reflections here.

 Unit 3 – Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
-Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD

MODULE
“The EGO is not master in its own house.”
5 - Sigmund Freud

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development
• Draw implications of Freud’s theory to education.

Introduction
Freud’s views on human development are more than a century old. He can be
considered the most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting theory about
the unconscious and also about sexual development. Although a lot of his views were
criticized and some consider them debunked, (he himself recanted some of his earlier
views). Freud’s theory remains to be one of the most influential in psychology. He's theory
sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and thus became the starting
point of many other theories, notable of which is Erickson’s psychosocial theory in module
7.
Activity
1. Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a decision. Narrate the
situation below. Indicate what the decision was about, the factors that were
involved and how you arrived at your decision.

Write Here!

Elaborate on your answer.

What factors influenced you in Which of the following did you

making your decision? consider most in making your
decision?

What will make you feel satisfied,

what is most beneficial or
practical, or what you believed
was the most moral thing to do?

Abstract/Generalization
As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many psychologists present
different views about how personality develops. As mentioned, Freud presents a very
interesting theory about the personality, its components and development. Read on and
hopefully it will also somehow lead you to understand more your own personality.
 As you read through Freud’s theory, fill out the graphic organizer below to highlight
the important concepts:
Oral Erogenous Zone______________________________
Erogenous zone. Stage Description of the stage _______________________
A specific area Fixations ___________________________________
that becomes
the focus of Anal Erogenous Zone______________________________
pleasure needs. Description of the stage _______________________
Stage
This may be the Fixations ___________________________________
mouth, anus,
and genitals. Phalic Erogenous Zone______________________________
Description of the stage _______________________
Fixation. Results Stage Fixations ___________________________________
from failure to
satisfy the needs Latency
Erogenous Zone______________________________
of a particular Stage
Description of the stage _______________________
psychosexual Fixations ___________________________________
stage.
Erogenous Zone______________________________
Genital Description of the stage _______________________
Stage Fixations ___________________________________

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of
personality, also probably the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual
development includes five distinct stages. According to Freud, a person goes through the
sequence of these five stages and along the way there are needs to be met. Whether
these needs are met or not, determines whether the person will develop a healthy
personality or not. The theory is quite interesting for many because Freud identified
specific erogenous zones for each stage of development. These are specific “pleasure
areas” that becomes focal points for the particular stage. If needs are not met along the
area, a fixation occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest behaviors related to
this erogenous zone.

Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the
oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little
satisfaction can lead to an oral fixation or oral personality which is shown in an increased
focus on oral activities. This type of personality may be oral receptive, that is, have a
stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat, or oral aggressive, that is, with a
tendency to bite his or her nails, or use curse words or even gossip. As a result, these
persons may become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack leadership traits.
On the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and become pessimistic and
aggressive in relating with people.

Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The child's focus of pleasure in this stage is
the anus. The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. Through society’s
expectations, particularly the parents, the child needs to work on toilet training. Let us
remember that between one year and a half to three years the child’s favorite word might
be “NO!”. Therefore, a struggle might exist in the toilet training process when the child
retains feces when asked to eliminate or may choose to defecate when asked to hold
feces for some reason. In terms of personality, fixation during this stage can result in
being anal retentive, an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control; or anal
expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized.

Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). This pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During
the preschool age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls different.
Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Freud’s studies led him to
believe that during this stage boys develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother.
Boys then see their father as a rival for her mother’s affection. Boys may fear that their
father will punish them for these feelings, thus, the castration anxiety. These feelings
comprise what Freud called “Oedipus Complex”. In Greek Mythology, Oedipus
unintentionally killed his father and married his mother Jocasta.
Psychoanalysis also believed that girls may also have a similar experience,
developing unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is what is referred to
as the Electra complex.
 According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of
their father, boys eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them. By
identifying with their father, the boys develop masculine characteristics and identified
themselves as males and repressed their sexual feelings toward their mother. A fixation
at this stage could result in sexual deviances (both overindulging and avoidance) and
weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It is during this stage that sexual urges remain
repressed. The children's focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys
usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.
Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development
begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the earlier
stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers, with the
pleasure centered on the genitals.

Freud’s Personality Components

Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id,
the ego, and the superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id, followed by
ego, and last to developed is the superego
While reading about the three components, use the graphic organizer below to put
your notes and questions about them.

ego
supergo
id

One’s
Personality
 The id. Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one's
personality because as a baby, it works so that the baby's essential needs are met. The
id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification or
satisfaction of its needs. So, whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no
consideration for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation. For example, a baby
is hungry. Its id wants food or milk. . . so the baby will cry. When the child needs to be
changed, the id cries. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or just
wants attention, the id speaks up until his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not
oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of others. Just see how babies cry any
time of the day and night! Absolutely no regard of whether mommy is tired, or daddy is
sleeping. When the id wants something, it wants it now and it wants it fast!

The Ego. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler, he or she
relates more with the environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates
using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It is practical
because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result in negative consequences
later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As such, it is the
deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the id meet its needs, it
always takes into account the reality of the situation.

The superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic
stage, the Superego develops. The Superego embodies a person's moral aspect. This
develops from what the parents, teachers and other persons who exert influence impart
to be good or moral. The Superego is likened to conscience because it exerts influence
on what one considers right and wrong.
The Three (3) Components and Personality Adjustment
Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can help
satisfy the needs of the id without going against the Superego while maintaining the
person's sense of what is logical, practical, and real. Of course, it is not easy for the ego
to do all that and strike a balance. If the id exerts too much power over the ego, the
person becomes too impulsive and pleasure-seeking behavior takes over one’s life. On
the opposite direction, one may find the Superego so strong that the ego is
overpowered. The person becomes so harsh and judgmental to himself and others’
actions. The person's best effort to be good may still fall short of the Superego’s
expectations.
The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by how the learner
was brought up. His experiences about how his parents met his needs, the extend to
which he was allowed to do things he wanted to do, and also how he was taught about
right and wrong, all figures to the type of personality and consequent adjustment that a
person will make. Freud believed that the personality of an individual is formed early
during the childhood years.

Topographical Model
The unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our lives,
emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep within are not available to us at a conscious
level. He believed that most of what influence us is our unconscious. The Oedipus and
Electra Complex mentioned earlier were both buried down into the unconscious, out of
our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in our
unconscious, they still influence our thinking, feeling, and doing in perhaps dramatic
ways.
The conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our
conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so
that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our
personality; Most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.
 The subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the
part of us that we can reach if prompted but is not in our active conscious. It's right below
the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as our
telephone number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood friend
is stored in the preconscious.
Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware of the very
small conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy of the iceberg to illustrate it.
A big part of the iceberg is hidden beneath the water’s surface.
The water, may represent all that we are not aware of, have not experienced, and
that has not been made part of our personalities, referred to as the nonconscious.

Application
Freud used the case study method to gather the data he used to formulate his
theories. Among the many case studies, five really stood out as bases of his concepts and
ideas. Do further reading of these case studies and write a reaction paper on one of these
case studies focusing on how he explained the personality development of the individuals
in the case studies.
From your internet search engine, just type Freud’s Case Studies. It will be easy
to find to find a pdf file which you can readily download.
Synapse Strengtheners
Visit the Library of Congress in Washington DC, through its virtual museum. Visit
the walls that contain very interesting pictures, documents, and information about the
most controversial psychologist of all the time, Sigmund Freud!
Follow the steps:
1. Go to www.loc.gov
2. Click “Exhibitions”
3. Click “View all Exhibits”
4. Go to “Sigmund Freud: Conflict and Culture”
5. Seat back and enjoy the virtual tour! The pictures and write-ups are so
interesting!!!
As in any visit to a museum, it would be good to take some notes. Make notes on the
following and add your own ideas and comments as well…
Describe Freud’s Family background. Describe the composition of his family. What
do you think was it like for Freud growing up in this family?

Answer:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Reflection
From the Module on Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, I learned that……

From the Module on Freud’s

Psychoanalytic Theory, I learned
that……
 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
- Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD

MODULE
“The principle goal of education is to create men who
6 are capable of doing new things, not simply of repeating
what other generations have done – men who are
creative, inventive and discovers.”
- Jean Piaget
.”

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Describe Piaget’s stages in your own words.
• Conduct a simple Piagetian Task interview with children.
• Match learning activities to the learner’s cognitive stage.

Introduction
Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory of development is truly a classic in the field of
educational psychology. This theory fueled other researchers and theories of
development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.

Activity
Read the situations below. The class may choose each situation before analysis is done.
1. It's Christmas and Uncle Bob is giving “aguinaldo” to the children. Three-year old
Karen did not want to receive the one-hundred-peso bill and instead preferred to
receive four 20-peso bill. Her ten-year-old cousin are telling her it’s better to get
one-hundred-peso bill, but they failed to convince her.
2. Siblings, Tria, 10; Enzo, 8; and Riel, 4 were sorting out their stuffed animals. They
had 7 bears, 3 dogs, 2 cows and 1 dolphin. Mommy, a psychology teacher, enters
and said, “Good thing you are sorting those. Do you have more stuffed animals or
more bears?” Tria and Enzo say “stuffed animals”, Riel says, “Bears”
 3. While eating on her high chair, seven-month old Liza accidentally dropped her
spoon on the floor. She saw mommy pick it up. Lisa again drops her new spoon;
she does this several times more on purpose. Mommy didn’t like it at all, but Liza
appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons the whole time.

Analysis

On Situation 1
On Situation 2
Why do you think did Karen Why do you think Riel answered
prefer the 20-peso bills? “bears?” What does this say about
how she thought to answer the
question?

On Situation 3

What do you think baby Liza

appeared to enjoy dropping the
spoons?

Abstraction
The children in the situations presented above were of different ages and so also
should appear differences in the way they thought. They were in different stages of
cognitive development. Perhaps no one has influenced the field of cognitive development
more than Jean Piaget. As you read through this module you will come to understand
cognitive development of children and adolescents and also identify ways of applying this
understanding in the teaching learners.
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development. His
research method involved observing a small number of individuals as they responded to
cognitive tasks that he designed. These tasks were later known as Piagetian Tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemology” because he
was interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget was initially into
biology, and he also had a background in philosophy. Knowledge from both these
disciplines influenced his theories and research of child development. Out of his
researches, Piaget came up with the stages of cognitive development.
Piaget examined the implications of his theory not only to aspects of cognition but
also to intelligence and moral development. His theory has been applied widely to
teaching and curriculum design specially in the preschool and elementary curricula.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

SCHEMA
✓ Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which
individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment.
✓ It is an individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or
experience.
✓ It is like the mind has a filling cabinet and each drawer has folders that
contain files of things he has had an experience with. For instance, if a child
sees a dog for the first time, he creates his own schema of what a dog is. It
has four legs and a tail. It barks. It’s furry. The child then “puts this
description of a dog, he “pulls” out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind,
looks at the animal, and says, “four legs, tail, barks, furry… that is a dog!”

ASSIMILATION
✓ This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously
created cognitive structure or schema.
✓ If the child sees another dog, this time a little smaller one, he would make a
sense of what he is seeing by adding new information (a different-looking
dog) into his schema of a dog.

ACCOMMODATION
✓ This is the process of creating a new schema.
✓ If the same child now sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but
somehow different. He might try to fit it into his schema of a dog, and say,
“look mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too!”. Then the
mommy explains, “that is not funny looking dog. That is a goat!”. With
mommy’s further descriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that
of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filling cabinet.
sparking on Google EQUILIBRATION
✓ Piaget believed that the people have the natural need to understand how the
world works and to find order, structure, and predictability in their life.
✓ Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation.
✓ When our experiences did not match our schemata (plural of schema) or
() cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This means
there is a discrepancy between what I perceived and what is understood. We
then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish
equilibrium once more.

Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment

in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget’s theory is similar in
nature to other constructivist perspective of learning like Bruner and Vygotsky.

Piaget’s Stage of Cognitive Development

Sensori-motor Stage
❖ Birth to infancy
❖ When a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching
becomes more organized in his movement and activity.
❖ The term sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and
muscle movement through which the infants comes to learn about himself
and the world.
❖ In working with children in the sensori-motor stage, teachers should aim
to provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to
play with.
Object Permanence – the ability of the child to know that an object still
exits even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor
stage.

a Pre-operational Stage
❖ From about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to the
preschool years.
❖ Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature.
❖ In this stage, the child can now make mental representations and is able
to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols.
❖ This stage is highlighted by the following:

Symbolic Function – the ability to represent the objects and events. A

symbol is a thing that represents something else. A drawing, a written word or
a spoken word comes to be understood as representing a real object like a
real MRT train. Symbolic function gradually develops in the period between 2
to 7 years old. Riel, a two-year old may pretend that she is drinking from an
empty glass.

Egocentrism –
Centration –
Though she already pretends the presence of water, the glass remains to be a
glass. At around 4 years of age, however, Nico, may, after pretending to drink
from an empty glass, turn the glass into a rocket ship or a telephone. By the
age of 6 or 7, the child can pretend play with objects that exist only in his
mind. Enzo, who is six, can do a whole ninja turtle routine without any
costume nor props. Tria, who is seven can pretend to host an elaborate
princess ball only in her mind.

Egocentrism – this is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view
and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view. The child
cannot take the perspective of others. You see this in five-year-old boy who
buys a toy truck for his mother's birthday. Or a 3-year-old girl who cannot
understand why her cousins called her daddy “uncle” and not daddy.

Centration – refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect
of a thing or event and exclude other aspects. Example, when a child is
presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child
will say they have the same amount of water. However, once water from one
of the glasses is transferred to an obviously taller but narrower glass, the child
might say that there is more water in the taller glass. The child only focused
or centered only one aspect of the new glass, that it is a taller glass. The child
was not able to perceive that the new glass is also narrower. The child only
centered on the height of the glass and excluded the width in determining the
amount of water in the glass.

Irreversibility – pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse

their thinking. They can understand that 2 + 3 is 5 but cannot understand that
5 - 3 is 2.

Animism – this is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or

characteristics to inanimate objects. When at night, the child is asked, where
the sun is, she will reply, “Mr. Sun is asleep.”

Transductive Reasoning – this refers to the pre-operational child’s type of

reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be
from particular-to-particular, example if A causes B, then B causes A. For
example, since her mommy comes home every day around 6:00 o'clock in the
evening, when asked why it is already night, the child will say “because my
mom is already home.” (for more notes on the cognitive development of the
toddler, refer to the unit 2)
Concrete-Operational ❖ This stage characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but
Stage only in terms of concrete objects.
❖ This covers approximately ages between 8 to 11 years or the elementary
school years.
❖ This stage is marked by the following:

Decentering – refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different

features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to
one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when dealing
with concrete objects and situations.

Reversibility – during the stage of concrete operations, the child can now
follow that certain operation can be done in reverse. For example, they can
already comprehend the commutative property of addition, and that
subtraction is the reverse of addition. They can also understand that a ball of
clay shaped into a dinosaur can again be rolled back into a ball of clay.

Conservation – ability to know that certain properties of objects like

number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance. Because of the development of a child’s ability of decentering and
also reversibility, the concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the
amount of water in a taller glass, but narrower container is still the same as
when the water was in the shorter but wider glass. The children progress to
attain conservation abilities gradually being a pre-conserver, a transitional
thinker and then a conserver.

Seriation – refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based

on one dimension such as weight, volume, or size.

Formal Operational ❖ Final stage covering ages between 12 to 15 years

Stage ❖ Thinking becomes more logical
❖ They can now solve abstract problems and can be hypothesize.
❖ This stage is characterized by the following:

Hypothetical Reasoning – ability to come up with different hypothesis

about the problem and to gather and weigh data into order to make a final
decision or judgement. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects.
The individuals can now deal with “what if” questions.

Analogical Reasoning – ability to perceive the relationship in one instance

and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another
similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal operations stage can
make an analogy. If United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to ____.
The individual will reason that since the UK is found in the continent of Europe
then the Philippines is found in what continent? Then Asia is his answer.
Though reflective thought and even in the absence of concrete objects, the
individual can now understand relationships and do analogical reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning – ability to think logically by applying a general rule

to a particular instance or situation. For example, all countries near the north
pole have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North Pole. Therefore,
Greenland has cold temperature.
From Piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following principles:
1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of
cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that
engage learners and require adaptation (like assimilation and accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or
mental operations for a child of given age; Avoid asking students to perform tasks
that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.

Application
This activity focuses on a story involving the interaction of family members. Choose
a story you want to use for this activity. It can be from a story you have read or a movie
or “telenovela” that you watched or plan to watch. Use the matrix below to relate the
characters to Piaget's stages of cognitive development.

TITLE OF STORY/MOVIE: ______________________________

Write a brief summary of the story:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________

Character Description Piagetian Connection

FATHER

What is his stage of cognitive Development?

Ex. Cite instances why you say he is in this stage. (What he
thought of, how he thought, his reactions and attitudes)
MOTHER

What is her stage of cognitive Development?

Ex. Cite instances why you say she is in this stage. (What
she thought of, how she thought, her reactions and
attitudes)

CHILD

What is his stage of cognitive Development?

Ex. Cite instances why you say he is in this stage. (What he
thought of, how he thought, his reactions and attitudes)

CHILD

What is her stage of cognitive Development?

Ex. Cite instances why you say she is in this stage. (What
she thought of, how she thought, her reactions and
attitudes)

OTHER CHARACTER

What is his/her stage of cognitive Development?

Ex. Cite instances why you say he/she is in this stage.
(What he/she thought of, how he/she thought, his/her
reactions and attitudes)
Synapse Strengtheners
Virtual Talk show. Four students volunteer (or teacher will be assigned) to act
as Piaget. The students acting as Piaget should master the stages assigned to them to
enable them to answer questions from classmates. (3 groups with 5 members must try)
The student should use the pronoun YOU when they ask the question and the four
students acting as Piaget must use the pronoun I when they answer the questions.

Reflection

From the module on Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive

Development, I realized that…
 Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development
- Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD

MODULE
7 “Healthy children will not fear life if their elders
have integrity enough not to fear death.”
- Erik Erikson

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Explain the 8 Stages of Life to someone you care about.
• Write a short story of your life using Erikson’s stages as framework.
• Suggest at least 6 ways on how Erikson’s Theory can be useful for you as a future
teacher.

Introduction
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly regarded
and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving learning and trials which
help us to grow. Erikson’s enlightening theory guides us and helps to tell us why.

Activity
Erik Erikson’s Stage Theory of Development Questionnaire
This contains selected items from Rhona Ochse and Cornelis Plug’s self-report
questionnaire assessing the personality dimensions associated with Erikson’s first 5 stages
of psychosexual development. It can serve to make the stages personally relevant to you.
Indicate how often each of these statements applies to you by using the following scale:
0 = never applies to you
1 = occasionally or seldom applies to you
2 = fairly often applies to you
3 = very often applies to you Read the instructions at the end before putting scores her
 Read the
instructions at
the end
before putting
scores here.
Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust (Infancy and Early Childhood) Score
___ 1. I feel pessimistic about the future of humankind.
___ 2. I feel the world's major problems can be solved.
___ 3. I am filled with admiration for humankind.
___ 4. People can be trusted.
___ 5. I feel optimistic about my future.
Total Score Stage 1

Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame & Doubt (Infancy & Childhood) Score
___ 6. When people try to persuade me to do something I don't want to,
I refuse.
___ 7. After I have made a decision, I feel I have made a mistake.
___ 8. I am unnecessarily apologetic.
___ 9. I worry that my friends will find fault with me.
___ 10. When I disagree with someone, I tell them.
Total Score Stage 2
Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt (Infancy & Childhood) Score
___ 11. I am prepared to take a risk to get what I want.
___ 12. I feel hesitant to try out a new way of doing something.
___ 13. I am confident in carrying out my plans to a successful conclusion.
___ 14. I feel what happens to me is the result of what I have done.
___ 15. When I have difficulty in getting something right, I give up.
Total Score Stage 3

Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority (Infancy & Childhood) Score

___ 16. When people look at something I have done, I feel embarrassed.
___ 17. I get a great deal of pleasure from working.
___ 18. I feel too incompetent to do what I would really like to do in life.
___ 19. I avoid doing something difficult because I feel I would fail.
___ 20. I feel competent.
Total Score Stage 4
 Stage 5: Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Adolescence) Score
___ 21. I wonder what sort of person I really am.
___ 22. I feel certain about what I should do with my life.
___ 23. My worth is recognized by others.
___ 24. I feel proud to be the sort of person I am.
___ 25. I am unsure as to how people feel about me.
Total Score Stage 5

Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation (Early Adulthood) Score

___ 26. I feel that no one has ever known the real me.
___ 27. I have a feeling of complete togetherness with someone.
___ 28. I feel it is better to remain free than to become committed to
marriage for life.
___ 29. I share my private thoughts with someone.
___ 30. I feel as though I am alone in the world.
Total Score Stage 6

Scoring:
Items on the questionnaire were derived from Erikson’s statements about each stage.
Scores for each subscale range from 0 to 15, with high scores reflecting greater
strength on a particular personality dimension.

The response to item 1 should be reversed (0 = 3, 1 = 2, 2 = 1, 3 = 0) and then added to the numbers
given in response to items 2, 3, 4, and 5 to obtain a trust score.
Responses to items 7, 8, and 9 should be reversed and added to item 6 and 10 to assess autonomy.
Answers to 12 and 15 should be reversed and added two items 11, 13, and 14 to measure initiative.
Answers to 16, 18, and 19 should be reversed and then added to 17 and 20 to calculate industry.
Responses to 21 and 25 must be reversed an added to 22, 23, and 24 to obtain a measure of identity
Answers to 26, 28, and 30 are reversed and added to 27 and 29 to give intimacy.

Analysis
What did you discover about yourself in this questionnaire?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Have these scores in mind as you read about Erikson’s stages and see how the stages
can guide you in self-understanding and in understanding others as well.

Abstract/Generalization
Introduction to the 8 Stages:

1. Erikson’s “psychosocial” term is derived from the two source words - namely psychological (or
the root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc.) and social (external relationships
and environment), both at the heart of Erikson’s theory. Occasionally you’ll see the term extended
to biopsychosocial, in which “bio” refers to life, as in biological.

2. Erikson’s theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. but Erickson extended the theory and
incorporated cultural and social aspects into Freud’s biological and sexually-oriented theory.

3. It is also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided by his own journey
through the “psychosocial crisis” stages model that underpinned his work.

4. Like other influential theories, Erikson's model is simple and well designed. The theory is a basis
for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality and behavior, and also for
understanding and for facilitating personal development - of self and others. It can help the teacher
in becoming more knowledgeable and at the same time understanding of the various environmental
factors on and his students’ personality and behavior.

5. Erikson’s eight stages theory is a tremendously powerful model. It is very accessible and
obviously relevant to modern life, from several different perspectives for understanding and
explaining how personality and behavior develops in people. As such Erikson’s theory is useful for
teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with conflict, and generally
for understanding self and others.
6. Various terms are used to describe Erikson’s model, for example Erikson’s biopsychosocial or bio-
psycho-social theory (bio refers to biological, which in this context means life); Erikson’s human
development cycle or life cycle, and variations of these. All refer to the same eight stages
psychosocial theory, it being Erikson’s most distinct work and remarkable model.

7. The Epigenetic Principle. As Boeree explains, “this principle says that we develop through a
predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is
in part determine by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages. A little like the
unfolding of a rosebud, each petal opens up at a certain time, in a certain order; which nature,
through its genetics, has determined. If we interfere in the natural order of development by
pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruined the development of the entire
flower.” Erikson's theory delved into how personality was formed and relieved that the earlier
stages served as a foundation for the later stages. The theory highlighted the influence of one's
environment, particularly on how early your experiences gradually build upon the next and
resolved into one's personality.

8. Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces. A helpful term used
by Erickson for these opposing forces is “contrary dispositions”. Each crisis stage relates to a
corresponding life stage and its inherent challenges. Erickson used the words “syntonic” for the
first-listed “positive” disposition in each crisis (ex. Trust) and “dystonic” for the second-listed
“negative” disposition (ex. Mistrust). To signify the opposing or conflicting relationship between
each pair of forces or dispositions, Erikson connected them with the word “versus”.

9. If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which will
help us through the rest of the stages of our lives. Successfully passing through each crisis involves
achieving a healthy ratio or balance between the two opposing dispositions that represent each
crisis.

10. On the other hand, if you don't do so well, we may develop maladaptation and malignancies, as
well as endanger all our future development. A malignancy is the worse of the two. It involves
too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect of the task, such as a person who
can’t trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and
too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too much.
 11. The crisis stages are not sharply defined steps. Elements tend to overlap and mingle from one
stage to the next and to the preceding stages. It is a broad framework an concept, not a
mathematical formula which replicates precisely across all people and situations.

12. Erikson was keen to point out that the transition between stages is “overlapping”. Crisis stages
connect with each other like interlaced fingers, not like a series of neatly stock boxes. People don't
suddenly wake up one morning and be in a new life stage. Changes don't happen regimented clear-
cut steps. Changes are graduated, mixed-together and organic.

13. Erikson also emphasized the significance of “mutuality” and “generativity” in his theory. The
terms are linked. Mutuality reflects the effect of generations on each other, especially among
families, and particularly between parents and children and grandchildren. Everyone potentially
affects everyone else experiences as they pass through the different crisis stages. Generativity,
actually a named disposition within one of the crisis stages (generativity versus stagnation, stage 7
), reflects the significant relationship between adults and the best interests of children - one's own
children, and in a way everyone else's children - the next generation, and all following
generations.

Now you are ready to go over the eight stages. As you read, enjoy filling up the concept
map we made come up found at the beginning of each stage. This will help you remember
the important terms in each stage and how these terms are interrelated. Use the side
margins to write your thoughts about the stage and how they connect to your own life
now and as a future teacher.

The Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development

Too much Too much
__________ __________
Stage 1

Maladaptation Malignancy
____________ Psychosocial Crisis ___________
________________

Virtue
___________
Stage 1
Psychosocial Crisis
❖ Infancy – first year or year and a half
❖ Crisis is trust versus mistrust
❖ The goal is to develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity for
mistrust.
❖ If the primary caregivers, like the parents can give the baby a sense of familiarity,
consistency, and continuity, then the baby will develop the feeling that the world
is a safer place to be, that people are reliable and loving. If the parents are
unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the infant or harm it, if other interests
cause both parents to turn away from the infant's needs to satisfy their own
instead, then the infant will develop mistrust. He or she will be apprehensive and
suspicious around people.

Maladaptation/Malignancy
❖ Please understand that this doesn't mean that the parents have to be perfect. In
fact parents who are overly protective of the child, who are there the minute the
first cry comes out, will lead the child into the maladaptive tendency which Erikson
calls sensory maladjustment: Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot
believe anyone would mean them harm, and will use all the defenses at their
command to find an explanation or excuse for the person who did him wrong.
Worse, of course, is the child whose balance is tipped way over on the mistrust
side. They will develop the malignant tendency of withdrawal, characterized by
depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis.

Virtue
❖ If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of hope, the
strong belief that, even when things are not going well, they will work out well in
the end.
 ❖ One of the signs that a child is doing well in the first stage is when the child isn't
overly upset by the need to wait a moment for the satisfaction of his or her needs.
Mom or dad doesn't have to be perfect; I trust them enough to believe that, if
they can't be here immediately, they will be here soon; Things may be tough now,
but they will work out. This is the same ability that, in later life, get us through
disappointments in love, our careers, and many other domains of life.

Stage 2
Too much Too much
__________ __________
Stage 2

Maladaptation Malignancy
____________ Psychosocial Crisis ___________
________________

Virtue
___________

Stage 2
Psychosocial Crisis
❖ The second stage is early childhood from 18 months to 3 or 4 years old.
❖ The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt.
❖ If mom and dad, or caregiver permits the child will develop a sense of autonomy
or independence. The parents should not discourage the child, but neither should
they push.
❖ A balance is required.
❖ People often advise new parents to be firm but tolerant at this stage, and the
advice is good. This way, the child will develop both self-control and self-esteem.
On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop instead a sense of
shame and doubt. If the parents come down hard on any attempt to explore Ann
be independent, the child will soon give up where the belief that he or she cannot
 and should not act on his or her own. We should keep in mind that even something
as innocent as laughing at the toddler's efforts can lead the child to feel deeply
ashamed and to doubt his or her abilities.
❖ There are other ways to lead children to shame and doubt. If you give children
unrestricted freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to help children do what
they should learn to do for themselves, you will also give them the impression that
they are not good for much. If you aren't patient enough to wait for your child to
tie his or her shoelaces, your child will never learn to tie them, and will assume
that this is too difficult to learn.

Maladaptation/Malignancy
❖ Nevertheless, a little “shame and doubt” is not only inevitable, but beneficial.
Without it, you will develop the maladaptive tendency Erikson called it
“impulsiveness”, a sort of shameless willfulness that leads you, in later childhood
and even adulthood, to jump into things without proper consideration of your
abilities. Worse, of course, is too much shame and doubt, which leads to the
malignancy Ericson calls “compulsiveness”.
❖ The compulsive person feels as if their entire being rides on everything they do,
and so everything must be done perfectly. Following all the rules precisely keeps
you from mistakes, and mistake must be avoided at all costs. Many of you know
how it feels to always be ashamed and always doubt yourself. A little more
patience and tolerance with your own children may help them avoid your path.
And give yourself a little slack, too!

Virtue
❖ If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shamed and doubt, you
will develop the virtue of willpower or determination. One of the most
admirable and frustrating things about two - and - three year old is their
 determination. “Can do” is their motto. If we can preserve that “can do” attitude
(with appropriate modesty to balance it) we are much better off as adults.

Stage 3
Too much Too much
__________ __________
Stage 3

Maladaptation Malignancy
____________ Psychosocial Crisis ___________
________________

Virtue
___________

Psychosocial Crisis
❖ is the early childhood stage, from three or four to five or six.
❖ The task is to learn initiative without too much guilt.
❖ Initiative means a positive response to the world challenges, taking on
responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful.
❖ Parents can encourage initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas.
❖ We should accept and encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination.
❖ This is a time for play, not for formal education.
❖ The child is now capable, as never before, of imagining a future situation, one that
isn't a reality right now.
❖ Initiative is the attempt to make that non-reality a reality.
❖ If children can imagine the future, if they can plan, then they can be responsible
as well, and guilty.
❖ If my two-year-old flushes my watch down the toilet, I can safely assume that
there were no “evil intentions”. It was just a matter of shiny object going around
an round and down.
 ❖ If my 5-year-old does the same thing, well, she should know what is going to
happen to the watch, what's going to happen to the daddy’s temper and what's
going to happen to her. She can be guilty of the act and she can begin to feel
guilty as well. The capacity for moral judgment has arrived.
❖ Erikson is, of course, a Freudian, and as such, he includes the Oedipal crisis
involves the reluctance a child feels in relinquishing, his or her closeness to the
opposite sex parent.
❖ A parent has the responsibility, socially, to encourage the child to grow up – “you're
not a baby anymore!” But if this process is done too harshly and too abruptly, the
child learns to feel guilty about his or her feelings.

Maladaptation/Malignancy
❖ Too much initiative and two little guilt means a maladaptive tendency Erickson
calls ruthlessness. To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling or be “without
mercy”.
❖ The ruthless person takes the initiative alright.
❖ They have their plans, whether it is a matter of school or romance or politics or
career.
❖ It is just that they don't care who they step on to achieve their goals.
❖ The goals are the only things that matter, and guilty feelings and mercy are only
signs of weakness. The extreme form of ruthlessness is sociopathy.
❖ Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually it relatively easy on the ruthless person.
❖ Harder on the person is the malignancy of too much guilt, which Erikson calls
inhibition.
❖ The inhibited person will not try things because “nothing ventured, nothing lost
and, particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are so afraid to start and take
a lead on a project. They fear that if it fails, they will be blamed.
Virtue
❖ A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose. A sense of purpose
is something many people crave for in their lives, yet many do not realize that they
themselves make their purposes, through imagination and initiative. I think an
even better word for this virtue would have been courage, the capacity for action
despite a clear understanding of your limitations and past failings.

Stage 4
Too much Too much
__________ __________
Stage 4

Maladaptation Malignancy
____________ Psychosocial Crisis ___________
________________

Virtue
___________

Psychosocial Crisis
❖ Stage four is the school-age stage when the child is from about six to twelve.
❖ The past is to develop a capacity for industry while avoiding an excessive sense
of inferiority.
❖ Children must “tame the imagination” and dedicate themselves to education and
to learning the social skills their society requires of them.
❖ There is a much broader social sphere at work now.
❖ The parents and other family members are joined by teachers and peers and other
members of the community at large.
❖ They all contribute. Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers must
accept.
 ❖ Children must learn that there is pleasure not only in conceiving a plan, but in
carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of success, whether it is in school or
on the playground, academic or social.
❖ A good way to tell the difference between a child in the third stage and one in the
fourth stage is to look at the way they play games.
❖ Four-year old may love games, but they will have only a vague understanding of
the rules, may change them several times during the course of the game, and be
very unlikely to actually finish the game, unless it is by throwing the pieces at their
opponents.
❖ A seven-year-old, on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules, considers them
pretty much sacred, and is more likely to get upset if the game is not allowed to
come to its required conclusion.
❖ If the child is allowed to little success, because of harsh teachers or rejecting peers,
for example, then he or she will develop instead a sense of inferiority or
incompetence. Additional sources of inferiority, Erickson mentions, our racism,
sexism, and other forms of discrimination. If a child believes that success is related
to who you are rather than to how hard you try, then why try?

Maladaptation/Malignancy
❖ Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow virtuosity.
❖ We see this in children who are not allowed “to be children”, the ones that parents
or teachers push into one area of competence, without allowing the development
of broader interests.
❖ These are the kids without a life; child actors, child athletes, child musicians, child
prodigies of all sorts. We all admire their industry, but if we look a little closer, it
is all that stands in the way of an empty life.
❖ Much more common is the malignancy called inertia.
❖ This includes all of us who suffer from the “inferiority complexes” Alfred Adler
talked about.
 ❖ If at first you don't succeed, don't ever try again! Many of us didn't do well in
mathematics, for example, so we’d die before we took another math class. Others
were humiliated instead in the gym class, so we never try out for a sport or play
a game of basketball. Others never developed social skills -- the most important
skills of all -- and so we never go out in public. We become inert.
Virtue
❖ A happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry an inferiority -- that is,
mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble. Then
we have the virtue called competency.

Stage 5
Too much Too much
__________ __________
Stage 5

Maladaptation Malignancy
____________ Psychosocial Crisis ___________
________________

Virtue
___________

Psychosocial Crisis
❖ Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18 to 20
years old.
❖ The task during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid roll confusion.
❖ It was adolescence that interested Ericson first and most, and the patterns he saw
here were the basis for his thinking about all the other stages.
❖ Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit into the rest of society.
It requires that you take all you have learned about life and yourself and mold it
into a unified self-image, one that your community finds meaningful.
 ❖ There are a number of things that makes things easier: First, we should have a
mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescent’s respect, one with good
adult role models and open lines of communication.
❖ Further, society should provide clear rites of passage, certain accomplishments
and rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the child. In primitive and
traditional societies, an adolescent boy may be asked to leave the village for a
period of time to live on his own, hunt some symbolic animal, or seek an
inspirational vision. Boys and girls may be required to go through certain test of
endurance, symbolic ceremonies, or educational events. In one way or another,
the distinction between the powerless, but irresponsible, time of childhood and the
powerful and responsible time of adulthood, is made clear.
❖ Without these things, we are likely to see a role confusion, meaning an uncertainty
about one’s place in society and the world. When an adolescent is confronted by
role confusion, Erickson says, he or she is suffering from an identity crisis. In
fact, a common question adolescent in our society ask is a straight-forward
question of identity: “Who am I?”
❖ One of Erikson’s suggestions for adolescence in our society is the psychosocial
moratorium. He suggests you take a little “time out”. If you have money, go to
Europe. If you don't, bum around the Philippines. Quit school and get a job. quit
your job and go to school. Take a break, smell the roses, get to know yourself. We
tend to want to get to “success” as fast as possible, and yet few of us have ever
taken the time to figure out what success means to us. A little like the young
Oglala Lakota, perhaps we need to dream a little.

Maladaptation/Malignancy
❖ There is such a thing as too much “ego identity”, where a person is so involved
in a particular role in a particular society or subculture that there is no room left
for tolerance. Erikson calls this maladaptive tendency fanaticism. A fanatic
believes that his way is the only way. Adolescents are, of course, known for their
 idealism, and for their tendency to see things in “black and white”. These people
will gather others around them and promote their beliefs and life-styles without
regard to others’ rights to disagree.
❖ The lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erickson refers to the
malignant tendency here as repudiation. The repudiate is to reject. They reject
their membership in the world of adults and, even more, they reject their need for
an identity. Some adolescents prefer to go to groups that go against the norms to
form their identity: religious cults, militaristic organizations, groups founded on
hatred, groups that have divorced themselves from the painful demands of
mainstream society. They may become involved in destructive activities -- drugs,
or alcohol - or they may withdraw into their own psychotic fantasies. After all,
being “bad” or being “nobody” is better than not knowing who you are!

Virtue
❖ If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erickson called
fidelity.
❖ Fidelity means loyalty, the ability to live by society's standards despite their
imperfections and incompleteness and inconsistencies. We are not talking about
blind loyalty, and we are not talking about accepting the imperfections. After all,
if you love your community, you will want to see it become the best it can be. But
fidelity means that you have found a place in that community, a place that will
allow you to contribute.
Stage 6
Too much Too much
__________ __________
Stage 6

Maladaptation Malignancy
____________ Psychosocial Crisis ___________
________________

Virtue
___________
Psychosocial Crisis
❖ If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of young adulthood, which lasts
from about 18 to about 30.
❖ The ages in the adult stages are much fuzzier than in the childhood stages, and
people may differ dramatically.
❖ The task is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed to remaining in
isolation.
❖ Intimacy is the ability to be close to others, as a lover, a friend, and as a participant
in society. Because you have a clear sense of who you are, you no longer need to
fear “losing” yourself, as many adolescents do.
❖ The “fear of commitment” some people seem to exhibit is an example of
immaturity in this stage. This fear is not always obvious. Many people today are
always putting off the progress of their relationships: I'll get married (or have a
family or get involved in important social issues) as soon as I finish school, as soon
as I have a job, as soon as I have a house, as soon as…. If you have been engaged
for the last ten years, what's holding you back?
❖ Neither should the young adult need to prove him or herself anymore. A teenager
relationship is often a matter of trying to establish identity through “couple-hood.”
Who am I? I’m her boyfriend. The young adult relationship should be a matter of
two independent egos wanting to create something larger than themselves. We
intuitively recognize this when we frown on a relationship between a young adult
and a teenager:
❖ We see the potential for manipulation of the younger member of the party by the
older.

Maladaptation/Malignancy
❖ Erikson calls the maladaptive tendency form promiscuity, referring particularly to
the tendency to become intimate too freely, too easily, and without any depth to
 your intimacy. This can be true of your relationships with friends and neighbours
and your whole community as well as with lovers. The malignancy he calls
exclusion, which refers to the tendency to isolate oneself from love, friendship,
and community, and to develop a certain hatefulness in compensation for one's
loneliness.

Virtue
❖ If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with you for the rest
of your life the virtue of psychosocial strength Erickson calls love. Love, in the
context of his theory, means being able to put aside differences and antagonisms
through mutuality of devotion. It includes not only the love we find in a good
marriage, but the love between friends and the love of one's neighbor, co-worker,
and compatriot as well.

Stage 7
Too much Too much
__________ __________
Stage 7

Maladaptation Malignancy
____________ Psychosocial Crisis ___________
________________

Virtue
___________

Psychosocial Crisis
❖ The seventh stage is that of middle adulthood.
❖ It is hard to pin a time to it, but it would include the period during which we are
actively involved in raising children. For most people in our society, this would put
it somewhere between the middle twenties and the late fifties.
 ❖ The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of generativity and stagnation.
❖ Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concerned for the next
generation and all future generations. As such, it is considerably less “selfish” than
the intimacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between lovers or friends,
is a love between equals, and it is necessarily mutual. With generativity, the
individual, like a parent, does not expect to be repaid for the love he gives to his
children, at least not as strongly. Few parents expect a “return on their investment”
from their children; if they do, we don’t think of them as very good parents!
❖ Although the majority of people practice generativity by having and raising
children, there are many other ways as well. Erikson considers teaching, writing,
invention, the arts and sciences, social activism, and generally contributing to the
welfare of future generations to be generativity as well – anything, in fact, that
satisfies that old “need to be needed”. Stagnation, on the other hand, is self-
absorption, caring for no-one. The stagnant person stops to be productive member
of society.

Maladaptation/Malignancy
❖ It is perhaps hard to imagine that we should have any “stagnation” in our lives,
but the maladaptive tendency Erickson calls overextension illustrates the
problem: some people tried to be so generative that they no longer allow time for
themselves, for rest and relaxation. The person who is overextended no longer
contributes well. I'm sure we all know someone who belongs to so many clubs, or
is devoted to so many causes, or tries to take so many classes or hold so many
jobs that they no longer have time for any of them!
❖ More obvious, of course, is the malignant tendency of rejectivity. Too little
generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer participating in or
contributing to society. And much of what we call the “meaning of life” is a matter
of how we participate and what we contribute.
 ❖ This is the stage of the “midlife crisis”. Sometimes men and women take a look at
their lives and ask that big, bad question “what am I doing all this for?” Notice the
question carefully: because their focus is on themselves, they ask what, rather
than whom, they are doing it for. In their panic up getting older and not having
experienced or accomplished what day imagined they would when they were
younger, they try to recapture their youth. Men are often the most flambouyant
examples: They leave their long-suffering wives, quit their humdrum jobs, buy
some “hip” new clothes, and start hanging around singles’ bars. Of course, they
seldom find what they are looking for, because they are looking for the wrong
thing!

Virtue
❖ But if you are successful at this stage, you will have a capacity for caring that will
serve you through the rest of your life.

Stage 8
Too much Too much
__________ __________
Stage 8

Maladaptation Malignancy
____________ Psychosocial Crisis ___________
________________

Virtue
___________

Psychosocial Crisis
❖ The last stage, referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity, or less delicately
as old age, begins sometimes around retirement, after the kids have done, say
somewhere around 60.
❖ Some older folks will protest and say it only starts when you feel old and so on,
but that’s an effect of our youth-worshipping culture, which has even old people
avoiding any acknowledgement of age. In Erikson’s theory, reaching this stage is
a good stage, and not reaching it suggests that earlier problems retarded your
development!
❖ The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair. This stage
seems like the most difficult of all. First comes a detachment from society, from a
sense of usefulness, for most people in our culture. Some retire from jobs they
have held for years; others find their duties as parents coming to a close; most
find that their input is no longer requested or required.
❖ Then there is a sense of biological usefulness, as the body no longer does
everything it used to. Women go through a sometimes-dramatic menopause. Men
often find they can no longer “rise to the occasion”. Then there is the illness of old
age, such as arthritis, diabetes, heart problems, concerns about breast and ovarian
and prostate cancers. There are come fears about things that one was never afraid
of before – the flu, for example, or just falling down. Along with these illnesses
come concerns of death. Friends die. Relatives die. One’s spouse dies. It is, of
course, certain that you, too, will have your turn. Faced with all this, it might seem
like everyone would feel despair.
❖ In response to this despair, some older people become preoccupied with the past.
After all, that's where things were better. Some becomes preoccupied with their
failures, the bad decisions they made, and regret that (unlike some in the previous
stage) they really don't have the time or energy the reverse them. We find some
older people become depressed, spiteful, paranoid, hypochondriacal, or
developing the patterns of senility with or without physical bases.
❖ Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby coming to terms
with the end of life. If you are able to look back and accept the course of events,
the choices made, your life as you lived it, as being necessary, then you need not
fear death. Although most of you are not yet at this point in life, perhaps you can
 still sympathize by considering your life up to now. We've all made mistakes, some
of them pretty nasty ones; Yet, if you hadn't made these mistakes, you wouldn't
be who you are. If you had been very fortunate, or if you had played it safe and
made very few mistakes, your life would not have been as rich as is.
Maladaptation/Malignancy
❖ The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is what
happens when a person “presumes” ego integrity without actually facing the
difficulties of old age.
❖ The person in old age believes that he alone is right. He does not respect the ideas
and views of the young.
❖ The malignant tendency is called disdain, by which Erikson means a contempt of
life, one’s own or anyone's. The person becomes very negative and appears to
hate life.

Virtue
❖ Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength Erikson calls
wisdom. He calls it a gift to children because healthy children will not fear life if
their elders have integrity enough not to fear death.
❖ He suggests that a person must be somewhat gifted to be truly wise. But I would
like to suggest that you understand “gifted” in as broad as fashion as possible. I
have found that there are people of very modest gifts who have taught me a great
deal, not by their wise words, but by their simple and gentle approach to life and
death, by their “generosity of spirit”.

Application
Write your own life story using the stages of psychosocial development as a
framework. Go through each of the stages that apply to you (most probably, stages 1 to
5 or 6). Ask information from your parents and other significant persons in your life. Look
at old baby books and photo albums. Also, include the results of your questionnaire in
the activity section. Write a narrative for each stage.
You may choose to have this project in PowerPoint slides or in scrapbook style
printouts. For every psychosocial stage include pictures of yourself and significant persons
in your life. Discuss your own psychosocial development using Erikson’s theory. Consider
the crisis, maladaptations/malignancies and the virtues.

Research Connection
Read a research that is related to Erikson’s theory. Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

_______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!

From the module on Erikson’s Stages

pf Psycho-social Theory of
Development, I realized that…
 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
- Maria Rita D. Lucas. PhD

MODULE
“Right action tends to be defined in terms of general
8 individual rights and standards that have been critically
examined and agreed upon by the whole society.” -
Lawrence Kohlberg

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Explain the stages of moral development.
• Analyze a person's level of moral reasoning based on his responses to moral
dilemmas.
• Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as a teacher
later on.

INTRODUCTION
Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make moral
decisions, exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence kohlberg was
interested in studying the development of moral reasoning. He based his theory on the
findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our ability to choose right from
wrong is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.

ACTIVITY
Read the moral dilemma below.
Ryan, 17, Hawaii has been saving up money to buy a ticket for this concert of rock
band. His parents have discouraged him from going as the concert will surely be with
rowdy crowd. The band is notorious for having out-of-control audience who somehow
managed to get drunk and stoned during the concert. Ryan agreed not to watch anymore.
But a day before the concert, Nic, 15-year-old brother of Ryan, saw a corner of what
appeared to be a concert ticket showing in the pocket of Ryan’s bag. Nic examined it and
confirmed it was indeed a ticket. Looking at Ryan's bag, Nic also found an extra shirt and
two sticks of marijuana. So he figured Ryan will go to the concert after all. That night,
Ryan told his parents that he was spending tomorrow night at a classmate’s house for a
school requirement. Then later that evening, he told Nic of his plan to go to the concert.
Nik didn't say anything, but he found it difficult to sleep that night, thinking whether to
tell their parents or not.
1. If you were Nik, what would you do?
______________________________________________________________________
2. Why would you choose to do that? What were the things you considered in deciding
what to do?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

ANALYSIS
Examine the answers you gave. Compare it with the responses provided below in which
of these responses is your answer most similar?
Stage 1 – “Yes I will tell our parents. Because if they found out later that I knew, for sure
they will get angry and most likely punish me.”
“No. I will not tell because Ryan will make my life difficult and also punish me for
telling.”

Stage 2- “Yes. I will tell my parents because they will reward me for it. I will subtly ask
for that new I Pod that I'm wishing to have.”
“No. I will not tell. Ryan will surely grant me a lot of favors for not telling. He’ll
not also squeal on me.”
Stage 3 – “Yes. I will tell so my parents will think I am such an honest boy.”
“No I will not tell. Ryan will think of me as a really cool brother!”

Stage 4 – “Yes I will tell because we should follow the rules that our parents say.”
“No, because it's been our rule to keep each other secrets.”

Stage 5 – “Yes. I will tell because he might be hurt or get in trouble and his welfare is
stopped most priority.”
“No, Because he is big enough to question my parents decision not to let him
go.”

Stage 6 – “Yes, I will tell because lying is always wrong, and I want to be true to what I
believe in.”
“No, because I believe brothers watch out for each other. If he trusted me with
this, I should stay true to him and not say anything.”

In what level of moral development did your response to the dilemma fall? Reflect
about what this indicates about your moral reasoning in this moral dilemma.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
As you continue to read this module, you will get to know more about the different
levels of moral reasoning is posed by Kohlberg.

ABSTRACTION/GENERALIZATION
Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget’s work and set the groundwork for the present
debate within psychology on moral development. Like Piaget, he believed that children
form ways of thinking through their experiences which include understandings of moral
concepts such as justice, rights, equality, and human welfare. Kolberg followed the
development of moral judgment and extended the aegis covered by Piaget I’m and found
out that the process of attaining moral maturity took longer an accord slower than Piaget
had thought.
If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian task) to learn about the cognitive
development of children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg dilemmas). The
case you read in the Activity part of this module was written for this module but was
based on how Kohlberg wrote his dilemmas. Like Piaget, he presented these dilemmas
to the individuals in his research and asked for their responses. He did not aim to judge
whether their responses were right or wrong. He was interested in analyzing the moral
reasoning behind the responses.
From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into
three major levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social-moral
reasoning or perspective of the person.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in six stages:
Level Stage Description
Preconventional Level 1 Punishment/Obedience.
Moral reasoning is based on the One is motivated by fear of punishment period she will
consequence/ result of the act, not act in order to avoid punishment.
on the weather the act itself is good 2 Mutual benefit. One is motivated to work by the
or bad. benefit that one may obtain later period you scratch my
back, I'll scratch yours.
Conventional 3 Social approval. One is motivated by what others
Moral reasoning is based on the expect in behavior-good boy, good girl. The person asks
conventions or “norms” of society. because he/she values how he/she will appear to
This may include approval of others. He/she gives important on what people will think
others, law, and order. or say.
Post-conventional 4 Law and Order. One is motivated to act in order to
Moral reasoning is based on uphold law and order. The person will follow the law
injuring or consistent principles. It because it is the law.
 is not just recognizing the law, but 5 Social Contract. Laws that are wrong can be changed.
the principles behind the law. One will act base on social justice and common good.

6 Universal Principles.
This is associated with the development of One's
conscience. Having a set of standards that drives one to
possess moral responsibility to make societal changes
regardless of consequences to oneself. Example of
persons are Mother Teresa, Martin Luther King, Jr.

APPLICATION
Identify the stage of moral development shown in the following.

Joy allows her classmates to Karen decides to return the

copy her homework so that wallet she found in the
they will think she is kind canteen so that people will
and will like her to be their praise her honesty and
friend. think she's such a nice girl.

Ricky does everything to John decides to return

get passing grades because the wallet he found in
his mom will take his play the canteen because he
station away if he gets bad
believes it's the right
grades.
thing to do.

Civic action group protests the A jeepney driver looks if

use of pills for family planning,
saying that although the
there's a policeman
government allows this, it is a around before he U-turns
murder because the pills are in a no U-turn spot.
abortifacient (causes abortion).

Jinkee lets Hannah copy Lisa volunteers to tutor

during their Math test children-at-risk children in
because Hannah agreed her community for free so
to let her copy during they will learn to love
school and stay in school.
the sibika test.
 Laika wears her ID inside Little Riel behaves so
campus because she well to get a star
likes to follow the school stamp from her
rules and regulations. teacher.

SYNAPSE STRENGTHENERS
1. Read the moral dilemma discussion guide found in
(http://tigger.uic.edu/~1nucci/MoralEd/pratices/practice31indtex.html). Try out these
guidelines with a moral dilemma.
2. Research on the views of Eliot Turiel (Domain Theory) and Carol Gilligan (Moral
Reasoning and Gender). Relate them with Kohlberg’s Theory.

RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research that is related to Kohlberg’s theory. Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!

From the module on Kohlberg’s

Stages of Moral Development, I
realized that…
 Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
- Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD

MODULE “What a child can do in cooperation today,

9 tomorrow he/she will be able to do alone”
– Lev Vygotsky

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Explain why Vygotsky's theory is called “socio-cultural” theory.
• Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky's views on cognitive development.
• Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill
Introduction
The key theme of a Vygotsky theory is that social interaction plays a very important
role in cognitive development. He believed that individual development could not be
understood without looking into the social and cultural context within which development
happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given by the
teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task. Learn more about it as you do the activity.
Activity

As a child, recall a skill that you

wanted to learn and eventually
What made you interested
learned well, through the help of
another person. (swimming, to learn the skill?
riding a bike, playing the piano,
skating)

Describe how you went

Who taught or assisted about learning the skill.
you? Describe what steps or
actions the person did in
order to help you learn.
Analysis
✓ What factors in the environment influenced you to learn the skill?
✓ Did the person who taught or assisted you make use of scaffolding? If yes,
how?

Abstract/Generalization
When Vygotsky was a young boy, he was educated under a teacher who used the
Socratic method. This method was a systematic question and answer approach that
allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of understanding.
This experience, together with his interest in literature and his work as a teacher, led him
to recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in cognitive
development. His theory became known as the socio-cultural theory of
development.

Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between the
1920’s and 1930’s but they had clear differences in their views about cognitive
development. Since Piaget was taken up already in the preceding module, it would be
easier now to see how his views compare with Vygotsky’s.

Piaget Vygotsky
More individual in More social in focus
focus. Did not propose
Believed that there stages but
are universal stages emphasized on
of cognitive cultural factors in
development cognitive
Did not give much development
emphasis on Stressed the role of
language language in cognitive
development
 Social Interaction.
Piaget’s theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was
more social. Piaget’s work on Piagetian’s tasks focused
heavily on how individual’s cognitive development became
evident through the individual’s own processing of the tasks.
Vygotsky, on the other hand, gave more weight on the social interactions that contributed
to the cognitive development of individuals. For him, the social environment or the
community takes on a major role in one’s development.

Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in

social activities, making the social contacts of learning crucial. Parents, teachers and other
adults in the learner’s environment all contribute to the process. They explained, model,
assist, give directions and provide feedback to the learner. Peers, on the other hand,
cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience.

Cultural Factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that

culture played on the cognitive development of children.
Piaget believed that as the child develops and matures, he
goes through universal stages of cognitive development that
allows him to move from simple explorations with senses and
muscles to complex reasoning. Vygotsky, on the other hand, looked into the wide range
of experiences that a culture would give to a child. For instance, one culture’s view about
education, how children are trained early in life all can contribute to the cognitive
development of the child.
 Language. Language opens the door for learners to
acquire knowledge that others already have. Learners can
use language to know and understand the world and solve
problems. It serves a social function, but it also has an
important individual function. It helps the learner regulate
and reflect on his own thinking. Children talk to themselves. Observe preschoolers play
and you may hear, “Gagawin ko itong airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapos ito
ang airport (holding two long blocks).” For Vygotsky, this “talking-to-oneself” is an
indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the child. This will eventually lead
to private speech. Private speech is a form of self-talk that guides the child’s thinking
and action.
Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning. Children learn best
through hands-on activities that when listening passively. Learning by doing is even made
more fruitful when children interact with knowledgeable adults and peers.

Zone of Proximal Development

When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately
proficient at it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level of competency. We refer to
this as the zone of actual development. However, with the guidance of a More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO), competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child can
perform at a higher level of competency. The difference between what the child can
accomplish alone and what she can accomplish with the guidance of another is what
Vygotsky referred to as zone of proximal development. The zone represents a learning
opportunity where an knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more
advanced peer can assist the child's development. See the illustration on the next page.
The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot
accomplish independently is called “scaffolding”. Scaffolding is not about doing the task
for the child while he watches. It is not about doing shortcuts for the child. Unzipping the
lunch bag, opening the food container, and putting straw in the child’s tetra pack juice
for him is not scaffolding. Scaffolding should involve the judicious assistance given by the
adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of proximal
development. When the adult unzips the zipper an inch or two, and then holds the lunch
bag still so that the child can continue to unzip the lunch bag is still scaffolding. Loosening
the food container lid just a bit and letting the child open the lid himself is scaffolding.
Leading the straw to the hole and letting the child put the straw through the tetra pack
hole is scaffolding.
The examples given above shows how a right amount of assistance can allow the
child to accomplish the task. The instructor should scaffold in such a way that the gap is
bridged between the learner’s current skills levels and the desired skill level. As learners,
become more proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could not initially
do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn. This is called “scaffold and fade-
away technique”. Scaffolding, when done appropriately can make a learner confident and
eventually he can accomplish the task without any need for assistance.
When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:
1. I do, you watch. 3. You do, I help.
2. I do, you help. 4. You do, I watch.
Learning will depend in the skill of the MKO, and the learners readiness and ability
to learn and the difficulty of the skill being learned.
Application
An exercise in scaffolding:

Choose a skill you are good in. Teach the skill to the individual.

Identify an individual to whom you can Determine how you will use
teach this skill. Somebody who will scaffolding. Describe the specific
benefit from scaffolding. actions you will do to scaffold.

Break down the steps you will take Describe how the learning activity
in teaching the skill. went.

Research Connection
Read a research that is related to Vygotsky’s theory. Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!

From the module on Vygotsky’s

Socio-cultural theory, I realized that…
 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
- Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD

MODULE
“Children need people in order to become human.”
10 - Urie Bronfenbrenner

Learning Outcomes
At end of this module, you should be able to:
• Describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model.
• Identify factors in one’s won life that exerted influence on one’s development.
• Use the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the factors that affect a
child and adolescent development.

Introduction
Bronfenbrenner came up with a simple yet useful paradigm showing the different
factors that exert influence on an individual's development. It points out the ever-
widening spheres of influence that shaped every individual, from his or her immediate
family to the neighborhood, the country, even the world.

Activity

“Looking Back”
Read the following questions. Recall your childhood. You may also
ask your parents for some information. Write your answers on the
graphic organizer below. Answer the following sentence completion
items.
 1. When I was 5 years old, my parents ____________________________________.
2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were _____________________________.
3. When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show ____________.
4. When I was growing up, we went to church in ____________________________.
5. I cannot forget my teacher who _______________________________________.
6. When I was growing up, I was away from ________________________________.
7. When I was in high school, I was close to ________________________________.
8. As a child, I can recall this big news about ________________________________.
9. The most serious challenge our family experienced was _____________________.
10. The most important thing that I learned from my elementary school was _______.

Analysis
Write each answer you gave n the Activity on the circle where it belongs.

Culture subculture
Social class

Extended Family

Family, church,
school

Me!
Abstraction
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the “Bioecological Systems” theory
presents child development within the context of relationship systems that comprise the
child's environment. It describes multipart layers of environment that has an effect on
the development of the child. Each layer is further made up of different structures. The
term “bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts as a key
factor in one’s development.

Through the child’s growing and developing body and the interplay between his
immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers
his development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers.
To study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate
environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment

The Microsystem.
❖ Is the layer nearest the child. Comprises structures which
the child directly interacts with. Such as, one’s family,
school, and neighborhood.

❖ Microsystem covers the most basic relationships and

interactions that a child has in his/her immediate
environment.

❖ Does the child have strong and nurturing relationships with

the parents and family? Are his/her needs met? In this layer,
relationships effects happen in two directions – both away
from the child and toward the child. This means that the child
is affected by people whom he interacts, and in turn these
people are also affected by the child.

❖ For example, a mother's deep affection for the child moves

her to answer to the baby's needs and keep the baby safe.
In turn the baby’s smiles and coos bring the mother feelings
of warmth and an affirmation that indeed she is a good
mother. The child is affected by the behavior and beliefs of
the parents; however, the child also affects the behavior and
believes of the parents. Bronfebrenner calls these bi-
directional influences, and he shows how they occur
among all levels of environment. This is quite similar to what
Erikson termed as “mutuality” in this psychosocial theory.
 ❖ Bronfenbrenner’s theory looks into interaction of
structures within a layer and interactions of structures
between layers.

❖ At the microsystem level, the child is most affected by

these bi-directional influences. However, interactions at
outer layers still influence the structures of the micro
system.

The Mesosystem.
❖ This layer serves as the connection between
the structure of the child's microsystem.

❖ For example, the message system will include

the link or interaction between the parents
and teachers, or the parent and health
services or the community and the church.

The Exosystem.
❖ This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the
child does not function directly.

❖ This includes the city government, the workplace, and

the mass media.

❖ The structures of this layer may influence the child's

development by somehow affecting some structure in
the child's microsystem.

❖ This includes the circumstances of the parents work like

the location, schedules.

❖ We see a change in the children's routine when for

example the mother works in a call center. That was seen
in that burger chain commercial where the mom and the
children meet up at the fast food for breakfast just before
the children go to school and the mom going home from
work in a call center. The child may not interact directly
with what is in the exosystem, but he is likely feel the
positive or negative impact this system creates as it
interacts with the child zone system.
The Macrosystem.
❖ This layer is found in the outermost part in the
Child’s environment.

❖ It includes the cultural values, customs, and laws.

❖ The belief system contained in one's macrosystem

permits all the interactions in the other layers and
reaches the individual.

❖ For example, in Western countries like the US,

most of the young people are expected to be more
independent by the time they end their teen-age
years, while in Asian countries like ours, parents
are expected to support or at least want to support
their children for a longer period of time. It is not
uncommon to see even married children still living
with their parents.

❖ In China and also in other parts of the world, sons

are more valuable than daughters. This may pose
challenges for girls as they are growing up.
Because of differences in beliefs and customs,
children from different parts of the world
experienced different child-rearing practices and
therefore differences in development as well.
The Chronosystem.
❖ Covers the elements of time as it relates to the child's
environment. It involves “patterns of stability and
change” in the child's life.

❖ It involves whether the child’s characterized by an

orderly predictable pattern, or whether the child is
subjected to sudden changes in routine.

❖ We can also look into the pace of the child’s everyday

life. Is it a hurried or relaxed pace?

❖ This system can affect or influence the child externally,

like the timing of other siblings coming or the timing of
parental separation or even death.

❖ Effect can also be internal, like in the bodily changes

that occur within the developing child, like the timing of
menstrual onset for girls.

❖ As children get older, they may react differently to

environmental changes. The children may have also
acquired the ability to cope and decide to what extent
they will allow changes around them to affect them.
 No longer NATURE versus NURTURE, but NURTURING nature!
The long debate may be coming to an end. For decades, if not for centuries, there
was a long-drawn debate on which had more impact on child development, nature or
nurture. Another way of putting it is, is it heredity or environment that influences child
development more. More and more research now point out that both a child's biology
and his environment play a role in the child's growth and development. Development
theories now stress on the role played by each and the extent to which they interact in
ongoing development. See module 3.

The ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the child’s
environment. Bronfenbrenner pointed out that as a child develops, the interplay within
the layers of environment systems becomes more complex. This dynamic interaction of
the systems happens meantime, while the child’s physical and cognitive structures also
grow and mature. This bioecological theory helps us determine how the different
circumstances, conditions and relationships in the world affect the child as he/she goes
through the more or less predictable sequence of natural growth and development.

The ROLE
OF
SCHOOLS
AND
TEACHERS

Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start, the publicly funded early childhood

program in the US. He concluded that the “instability and unpredictability of family life is
the most destructive force to a child’s development”. Researches tell us that the absence
or lack of children’s constant mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects
on their development. According to bioecological theory, “If the relationships in the
immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore other
parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations that should be present in
the child/parent relationship look for attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies
show themselves especially in adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline,
and inability to provide self-direction.”
Bronfenbrenner’s theory reminds the school and the teachers of their very
important role. If there is a lack of support, care and affection from the home, if there is
a serious breakdown of the basic relationships in a child’s life, what can the school, the
teachers in particular do? This theory helps teachers look into very child’s environmental
systems in order to understand more about the characteristics and needs of each child,
each learner. The schools and the teachers can contribute stability and long-term
relationships, but only to support and not to replace the relationships in the home.
Bronfenbrenner believes that, “the primary relationship needs to be with someone who
can provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be
fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the child’s influence.”
Schools and teachers’ crucial role is not to replace the lack in the home if such
exists, but to work so that the school becomes an environment that welcomes and
nurtures families. Bronfenbrenner also stressed that society should value parents,
teachers, extended family, mentors, work supervisors, legislators.

Application
Looking at your answers in the ACTIVITY
phase of this module. Describe how these
people or circumstances have influenced your
Your thoughts!
attitudes, behavior, and habits. Write your
thoughts inside the heart shape.
Research Connection
Read a research or study related to Bronfenbrenner’s theory. Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
 PART II – DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS AT VARIOUS STAGES
UNIT 1 – PRE-NATAL PERIOD

Pre-Natal Development
MODULE - Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD
11

“The history of man for nine months preceding his birth

would probably, be far more interesting, and contain
events of greater moment than all three scores and ten
years that follow it.”
- Samuel Taylor Coleridge
English Poet, Essayist, 19th Century
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Trace the course of the pre-natal developmental process that you went through.
• Explain the most hazards to prenatal development.
• Become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti-abortion stand.

Introduction
All the developmental theories which we lengthily discussed dwelt on the
developmental process after birth. None of them was concerned with what development
went on before birth. To make the description of human development complete, it may
be good to understand the beginnings of the child and the adolescent, the learners.

In Unit 1, Module 1 you met Naschielle and Kenn. You were asked what they were
before they have become what and who they are at present. This is the concern of this
Unit and module – pre-natal or antenatal development.
Activity
Life Before Birth
The Development of the unborn child
The development of human life
in the womb was once a
mystery, but science and
medicine have changed that.
Abortion advocates still try to
dehumanize the developing
baby in the womb by speaking
of the child as a “blob of tissue”
or “uterine contents.” But
ultrasound images, prenatal surgery and other advances in obstetrics are shattering the
blob-of-tissue myth.

Dr. Paul Rockwell, a New York physician, made these profound observations after
his amazing encounter with a tiny unborn baby boy: “Eleven years ago while I was giving
an anesthetic for a raptured ectopic pregnancy (at two months gestation), I was handed
what I believe was the smallest living human ever seen. The embryo sac was intact and
transparent. Within the sac was a tiny human male swimming extremely vigorously in the
amniotic fluid, while attached to the wall by the umbilical cord.”

This tiny human was perfectly developed, with long, tapering fingers, feet and
toes. It was transparent, as regards the skin, and the delicate arteries and veins were
prominent to the ends of the fingers. “The baby was extremely alive and swam about the
sac approximately one time per second, with a natural swimmer’s stroke. This tiny human
did not look at all like the photos and drawings and models of “embryos” which I have
seen, nor did it look like a few embryos I have been able to observe since then, obviously
because this one was alive!
 “When the sac was opened, the tiny human immediately lost its life and took on
the appearance of what is accepted as the appearance of an embryo at this stage (blunt
extremities, etc)”
“It is my opinion that if the lawmakers and people realize that this very vigorous
life is present, it is possible that abortion would be found more objectionable than
euthanasia.”

The point at which Dr. Rockwell witnessed this unborn baby -- 8 weeks after
conception -- is during the period that a majority of abortionists describe as most
desirable for performing an abortion.

1. What are your reactions and feelings about what you read?
2. Do you agree that which is developing in the womb is a mere “blob of tissue” or
“uterine contents” as abortionists claim? Share your explanation.
3. Why are pregnant mothers advised not to smoke, not to drink alcoholic drinks, not to
take medication without doctor’s advice? Share your answers thru virtual.

Analysis
Her are questions for further discussion.
1. Is it more reasonable to believe that which is
developing in the mother's womb is a human
being?
2. What are proofs that which is developing in the
mother's womb is a living human being?
3. Has any realization from today's discussion
change your stand on abortion? Explain.
4. What are the effects of alcohol, caffeine, and
nicotine on the developing embryo or fetus?
Abstraction
The Stages of Pre-natal Development

Germinal Period. (First 2 weeks after conception)

➢ This includes the a) creation of the zygote, b) continued cell division
and, c) the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. The following
are the details of development during this period:
a) 24 to 30 hours after fertilization – the male (sperm) and female
(egg) chromosome unite
b) 36 hrs. – the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2); 2 cells
c) 48 hrs. (2 days) – 2 cells become 4 cells
d) 72 hrs. (3 days) – 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32
cells
e) 96 hrs. (4 days) – hollow ball of 64-128 cells
f) 4-5 days – inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g) 6-7 days – blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus
h) 11-15 days – blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes
implanted in it (implantation)
➢ In the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as
inner and outer layers of the organism are formed. The blastocyst,
the inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period,
develops later in the embryo. The trophoblast, the outer layer of cells
that develops also during the germinal period, later provides nutrition
and support for the embryo (Nelson, Textbook of Pediatrics, 17th ed.,
2004).
Embryonic Period. (2-8 weeks after conception) – in this stage, the name
of the mass cells, zygote, become embryo. The following developments
take place:
➢ Cell differentiation intensifies
➢ Life-support systems for the embryo develop and
➢ organs appear

As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells
are formed. The embryo’s endoderm, the inner layer of cells, develops
into the digestive and respiratory systems. The outer layer of cells is
divided into two parts – the ectoderm and the mesoderm. The
ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous system,
sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair). The
mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the circulatory, is skeletal,
muscular, excretory and reproductive systems. This process of organ
formation during the first two months of pre-natal development is called
organogenesis.

As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for the
embryo develop rapidly. These life-support systems are the placenta, the
umbilical cord, and the amnion. The placenta is a life-support system
that consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood vessels
from the mother and offspring intertwined but do not join. The umbilical
cord contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the
placenta. The amnion is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid
in which the developing embryo floats. All these embryo life-support
systems developed from the fertilized egg and not from the mother's body.
 Fetal Period. (2 months to 7 months after conception) – growth and
development continue dramatically during this period. The details of the
developmental process are as follows (Santrock, 2002):
a) 3 months after conception - fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs
about 1 ounce; fetus has become active, moves its arms and legs,
opens, and closes its mouth, and moves its head; The face,
forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can now be distinguished and also
the upper arms, lower arms, hands and lower limbs; The genitals
can now be identified as male or female.
b) 4 months after conception - fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs
4 to 7 ounces; growth spurt occurs in the body's lower parts;
Prenatal reflexes are stronger; Mother feels arm and leg
movements for the first time.
c) 5 months after the conception - fetus is about 12 inches long;
weighs close to a pound; structures of the skin (fingernails,
toenails) have formed; fetus is more active.
d) 6 months after conception - this is about 14 inches long and weighs
1 and half pound; how eyes and eyelids are completely formed;
Find layer of head covers the head; Grasping reflex is present and
irregular movements occur.
e) 7 months after conception - fetus is about 16 inches long and
weighs 3 pounds
f) eight and nine months after conception – fetus grows longer and
gains substantial weight, about 4 pounds.

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. A
teratogen is that which causes birth defects. It comes from the Greek word “tera” which
means “monster”.
Below are clusters of hazards to pre-natal development:
1. Prescription and nonprescription drugs - these include prescription as well as
nonprescription drugs. Antibiotic is an example of prescription drugs that can be
harmful. Examples of harmful nonprescription drugs are diet pills, aspirin, and coffee.

Remember the thalidomide tragedy in 1961? Many pregnant women took in

thalidomide, a tranquilizer, to alleviate their morning sickness that gave rise to several
deformed babies.

Cocaine exposure during prenatal development is associated with reduced birth

weight, length and head circumference (Hurt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002),
impaired motor development (Arendt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002), impaired
– information processing (Singer, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002) and poor
attention skills ( Bandstra, 2000 cited by Santrock, 2002) .

2. Psychoactive drugs - These include nicotine, caffeine, and illegal drugs such as
marijuana, cocaine and heroin.

Researches found that pregnant women or drank more caffeinated coffee were more
likely to have preterm deliveries and newborns with lower birthweight where do their
counterparts who did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi, et al, 1999 quoted by
Santrock, 2002)

Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so called, fetal alcohol syndrome
(FAS) which is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the children of mothers who
drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. It includes facial deformities, and defective
limbs, face and heart (Santrock, 2002). Most of these children are below average in
intelligence and some are mentally retarded (Olson, 2000 and Burgess, 1996 quoted
by Santrock, 2002).
 On the average, maternal heroin addicts deliver smaller than average size babies with
more incidence of toxemia, premature separation of placenta, retained placenta,
hemorrhaging after birth, and breech deliveries.
(http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1980/5/80.05.03.x.html1#f)

3. Environmental hazards – These include radiation in jobsites and X-rays,

environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged exposure to heat in saunas and
bathtubs. Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher among the
offspring of fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their occupants (Schrag and
Dixon, 1985 cited by Santrock, 2002). Radiation from X-rays also can affect the
development embryo and fetus, with the most dangerous time being the first several
weeks after conception when women do not yet know that they are pregnant (
Santrock, 2002). Researchers found that toxic wastes such as carbon monoxide,
mercury and lead caused defects in animals exposed to high doses. For instance, early
exposure to lead affects children’s mental development. (Markowits, 2000 cited by
Santrock, 2002). Remember the action of the U.S.A for the children’s toys with high
lead content manufactured in China?

Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot tubs raises the mother’s
body temperature creating fever that endangers the fetus. The high temperature due
to fever may interfere with cell division and may cause birth defects or even fetal
death if the fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged periods of time (Santrock, 2002).

4. Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis, genital

herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age, (too early or too late,
beyond 30)

A rubella (German measles) in 1964-65 resulted in 30, 000 pre-natal and neonatal
(newborn) deaths add more than 20,000 affected infants who were born with
malformations, including mental retardation, blindness, deafness and heart problems
(Santrock, 2002).

Syphilis damages organs after they have formed. These damages include eye lessons,
which can cause blindness, and skin lesions. when syphilis is present at birth, other
problems involving the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract, can develop.

About 1/3 of babies delivered a herpes-infected birth canal die; another 1/4 become
brain-damage.

A mother can infect her child in three ways; 1) during gestation across the placenta,
2) during delivery through contact with maternal blood or fluids, and 3) postpartum
(afterbirth) through breast feeding.

Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to premature birth and
reduce birth weight. Other studies have shown that increased stress during pregnancy
is related to ADHD even schizophrenia later in life.
(familyanatomy.com/2009/04/20/the-effects-of-stress-during-pregnancy)

Admittedly, more research on the effects of emotional States and stress needs to be
conducted for more conclusive findings.

It is recognized that maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may result to inadequate

growth in the fetus….If a fetus does not receive enough nourishment, the rate of cell
division is seriously hampered. An extremely deprived fetus may have 20% fewer
brain cells than normal. If an infant has been malnourished both in utero and infancy,
the brain may be as much as 60% smaller than that of the normal child.
 (Vore, David. Prenatal Nutrition and Postnatal Intellectual Development, Merrill-
Palmer Quarterly, 1973, 19:253-260 cited in
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1980/5/80.05.03.x.htm1#f)
Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid can reduce the risk of having
a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and spinal cord, called the ‘neural
tube’. A baby with spina bifida, the most common neural tube defect is born with a
spine that is not closed. The exposed nerves are damage, leaving the child with
varying degrees of paralysis and sometimes mental retardation.
(http://www.squidoo.com/folicacidpregnant)

As maternal age increases, the risks for numerical chromosomal abnormalities

increase. (https://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Maternal_age_effect)
the mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born
to mothers in their twenties.

A baby with Down syndrome rarely is born to mother under age 30 but the risk
increases after the mother reaches 30. By the age 40, the probability is slightly over
one in 100, and by age 50 it is almost 1 in 10. The risk is also higher before age 18.
(Santrock, 2002)
5. Paternal factors- fathers’ exposure to lead, graduation, certain pesticides and Petro
chemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases such
as childhood cancer.
Ask in the case of older mothers, older fathers also may please their offspring at risk
for certain defects. (Santrock, 2002)

Human Life Begins at Conception

That which is in the mother's womb is indeed a developing human being. Unborn
baby of 8 weeks is not essentially different from one of 18 weeks or the 28 weeks. From
conception the zygote, the embryo and the photos are undeniably human life.
 Human life begins from the moment of conception. All that we have an old that
we have been there at the moment of conception! the fact that you have brown eyes and
black, straight or curly hair and the fact that you will turn bald at age 50 have been there
already at the moment of conception. What were added in the process of development
is nutrition.
I remember the film on a version that I once saw,” The Silent Scream”. The mother
submitted herself to a medical doctor for abortion in her third month of pregnancy. When
the abortionist inserted his scalpel into the woman's womb to crush the head of the
photos, very clearly that in film, the factors had his/her mouth open like he was screaming
for help as he evaded the deadly scalpel of the abortionist. That's why the film was given
the title “The Silent Scream”. This only means that the developing being in the womb is
a human being not just a conglomeration of cells or tissues.

Based on these facts, it is wrong to do abortion. The woman is supposed to be the

safest of all places for human development. Unfortunately, however, with the scourge of
abortion, it has become a tomb!

The development that takes place in three stages proves that the developing embryo in
a mother's womb is truly a human being.

Application
A letter for my unseen Mother.
Pretend you are “Junior,” 4 months old in the womb.
Your Mother is concentrating on doing abortion. Write
her a letter convincing her that you are a human being
developing contrary to what she and other pro-
abortionists are thinking. Describe to her the
development that has already taken place in four
 months. Reflect what you learned on prenatal development in this module. Give
your letter this title “A Letter from Junior” (or you may want to write your name).

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Here are 3 boxes for you to write the stages of pre-natal development.

2. Give some hazards of pre-natal development. Use the given graphic organizer.

Prenatal
Development
- Zygote,
Embryo,
Fetus
Research Connection
Read a research that is related to one of the big ideas on prenatal development. Fill out
the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!
Look at yourself! You are perfectly made. The cells of your lips are at your lips, your
mouth is close to your nose. You can breathe normally. Did it ever occur to you that it
could have been otherwise? Any feeling of gratitude? Write down your real reflexions
here.

Write down your real reflections here.

 Unit 2 – INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD
- Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD

Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

MODULE
12 “A baby is God’s opinion that life should go on.”
- Carl Sandburg
American Historian, Poet & Novelist

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Trace the physical development that you have gone through as infants and
toddlers.
• Identify factors that enhance/impede the physical development of infants and
toddlers
• Present your own or others’ research on the physical development of infants and
toddlers
• Draw implications of this principles and processes to childcare, education and
parenting.

Introduction
We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We shall continue to
trace the developmental process by following the infant or the baby who is just born up
to when he reaches age 2. The period that comes after prenatal or antenatal stage is
infancy which, in turn, his followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the
first two years of life.
 ACTIVITY
Look closely at the changes in the sizes of the human body parts as a person
grows.

Analysis
Guide Questions:

What do you notice about the Does physical development

size of the head in relation to begin from the top or below?
the other parts of the body as From the side to the center?
a person grows older? Explain your answer.

Abstraction
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
As you learned in unit 1, module 1, the Cephalocaudal trend is the post Natal
growth from conception to five months when the head
grows more than the body. This Cephalocaudal trend
of growth that applies to the development of the fetus
also applies in the first months after birth. Infants
learn to use their proper limbs before their lower limbs.
The same pattern occurs in the head area because the
top parts of the head-the eyes and the brain-grow faster than the lower parts such as
the jaw.
The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal
growth from five months to birth when the fetus
grows from the inside of the body outwards. This also
applies in the first months after birth as shown in the
earlier maturation of muscular control of trunk and
arms, followed by that of the hands and fingers. When
referring to motor development, the proximodistal
trend refers to the development of motor skills from the center of the body outward.

HEIGTH AND WEIGHT

▪ It is normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10% of their body weight
within a couple of weeks of birth. That is due to the baby’s adjustment to
neonatal feeding. Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing, and digesting,
they grow up rapidly

▪ Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the
first six months. After six months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than
battle fed babies.

▪ In general, an infant's length increases by above 30% in the first five

months.
▪ A babies sweet usually triples during the first year but slows down in the
second year of life.

▪ Low percentage is not cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a
natural curve of steady development.

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

▪ Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years are
the spreading connections of dendrites to each other.

▪ Remember neurons, dendrites, axon, synapses? You discussed them in

your General Psychology class.
 MYELINATION or MYELINIZATION is The process by which the axons are
covered an insulated by layers of fat cells, begins prenatally and continues after
birth. The process of myelination or myelinization increases the speed at
which information travels through the nervous system.
▪ At birth, the newborn's brain is about 25% of its adult weight. By the 2nd
birthday, the brain is about 75% of its adult weight.

▪ Shortly after birth, a baby's brain produces trillions more connections

between neurons that it cannot possibly use. The brain eliminates
connections that are seldom or never used (Santrock, 2002). The infant's
brain is literally waiting for experiences to determine how connections are
made.

▪ A study on rats conducted by mark in 1969 revealed that the brains of rats
that grew up in the “enriched environment” developed better than the
brains of the animals reared in standard or isolated conditions. The brains
of the enriched animals weighed more, had thicker layers, had more
neuronal connections and had higher levels of neurochemical activity.
Such finding implies that enriching the lives of infants who lived in
impoverished environment can produce positive changes in their
development (Santrock, 2002).

▪ Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a

depressed environment (Circhetti, 2001, cited by Santrock, 2002)

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

This aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to
gross motor skills and fine motor skills.

REFLEXES
▪ The newborn has some basic reflexes which we are, of course automatic
and serve as survival mechanisms before they have the opportunity to
learn. Many reflexes which are present at birth will generally subside within
a few months as the baby grows and matures.

▪ There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that
babies have are:

A. SUCKING. is initiated when something touches the roof of an infant’s mouth.

Infants have strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they can latch onto a
bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some infants, and they may
need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.
 B. ROOTING. Is most evident when an infant's cheek is stroked. The baby
responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch an opening their
mouth for feeding.

C. GRIPPING. Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The strength
of this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight in their
grip.

D. CURLING. When the inner sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant responds
by curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of the baby's foot is stroked, the
infant will respond by spreading out their toes.

E. STARTLE/MORO. infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by

throwing their arms and legs out and throwing their heads back. Most infants will
usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their bodies.

G. GALANT. Shown when an infant middle or lower back is stroked next to the
spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his or her body toward the side
which is being stroked.

H. TONIC NECK. Is demonstrated in infants who are placed on their abdomens.

Whichever side the child's head is facing, the limbs on that side will strengthen,
while the opposite limbs will curl.
(http://www.mamashealth.com/child/inreflex.asp)

GROSS MOTOR SKILLS

Study te figure below. See how you developed in your gross motor skills
 It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in the
infant's first year of life. This dramatic motor development is shown in babies unable to
even lift their heads to being able to grab things of the cabinet, to chase the ball and to
walk away from parent.

FINE MOTOR SKILLS

▪ are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles controlling the
hand, fingers, and thumb. The development of these skills allows one to
be able to complete tasks such as writing, drawing, and buttoning.

▪ The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involved activities that involve precise
eye-hand coordination. The development of reaching and grasping
becomes more refined during the first two years of life. Initially, infants
show only crude shoulder an elbow movement, but later they show wrist
movements, hand rotation.

What are some research findings regarding newborns visual perceptions?

Can newborn, see?
❖ Newborn’s vision is about 10 to 30 times lower
than normal adult vision. By six months of age, vision
becomes better and by the 1st birthday, the infant's
vision approximates that of an adult. (Banks & Salapatek,
1983 cited by Santrock, 2002)
❖ Infants look at different things for different
lengths of time. In an experiment conducted by Robert
Fantz (1963 cited by Santrock, 2002), it was found out that infants preferred
to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles rather than a color
or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that “pattern perception
has an innate basis” (Santrock, 2002). Among the first few things that
babies learn to recognize is their mothers face, as mother feeds and nurses
them.
 Can Newborns hear?
❖ The sense of hearing in an infant develops much
before the birth of the baby. When in the womb, the
baby hears his/her mother's heart beats, the grumbling
of his/her stomach, the mother's voice, and music.
How soothing it must have been for you to listen to
your mother's lullaby.
❖ Infant sensory threshold is somewhat higher
than those of adult which means that stimulus must be louder to be heard by a
newborn than by an adult.

Can Newborns differentiate odors?

❖ In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975)
“young infants who were breastfed showed a clear
preference for smelling their mother’s breast pad when
they were six days old. This preference did not show
when the babies were only two days old. This shows that
it requires several days of experience to recognize their
mother’s breast pad and odor”.

Can Newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch?

❖ They do feel pain. Newborn males show a
higher level of cortisol (an indicator of stress) after a
circumcision than prior to the surgery (Taddio, et al,
1997 cited by Santrock, 2002).
❖ Babies respond to touch. In the earlier part of
this module in motor development, you learned that a
newborn automatically sucks an object placed in his/her
 mouth, or a touch of the cheek makes the newborn turn his/her head toward the
side that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck.

Can Newborn distinguish the different tastes?

❖ In a study conducted with babies only two hour-old,
babies made different facial expressions when they tasted
sweet, sour, and bitter solutions (Rosentein and Oster,
1988, cited by Santrock, 2002).
❖ When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a
near-term fetus, increased swallowing was observed.
❖ This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be present
before birth.

Do infants relate information through several senses? In

short, are infants capable of intermodal perception?
❖ Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect
and integrate information about two or more sensory
modalities such as vision and hearing.
❖ In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it
was found out that as early as at 3 ½ months old, infants
looked more at their mother when they also heard her voice and longer at their
father when they also heard his voice.
❖ This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information coming
through various modes gets sharpened considerably through experience.

A SUMMARY OF WHAT INFANTS AND TODDLERS CAN DO PHYSICALLY

DOMAIN: Physical Health, Well-being and Motor Development
PHYSICAL HEALTH
Standards 1: The child demonstrate adequate growth (weight, height, head
circumference).
Standards 2: The child has adequate sensory system to participate in daily activities.
0 - 6 months
✓ Startles to loud sounds
✓ Visually follows a moving object from side to side
✓ Visually follows a moving object up and down
✓ Reacts to pain by crying
✓ Withdraws or cries when in contact with something hot
✓ Withdraws or reacts with surprise when in contact with sth cold
✓ Reacts with pleasure/smiles or relaxed expression when he/she tastes something
delicious.
✓ Reacts by making a face/frowns/grimaces when he/she tastes sth. He/she does
not like
7 - 12 months
✓ Reacts with pleasure when he/she smells something nice
✓ Reacts by making a face when he/she smells something foul
13 - 18 months
✓ Plays without tiring easily, able to keep pace with playmates
✓ Participates actively in games, outdoor play and other exercises
19 - 24 months
✓ Sustains physical activity (dancing, outdoor games, swimming) for at least 3-5
minutes

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (GROSS MOTOR SKILLS)

Standards 1: The child grows control and coordination of body movements involving
large muscle groups.
✓ Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
✓ Holds head steadily
✓ Moves arms and legs equally to reach at dangling object
✓ Rolls over
✓ Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on legs
✓ Sits with support
✓ Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this
7 - 12 months
✓ Sits alone steadily without support
✓ Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of moving around
✓ Stands without support
✓ Stands from a sitting position without any help
✓ Stands from standing position with ease
✓ Squats from standing position with ease
✓ Bends over easily without falling
✓ Stands from a bent position without falling
✓ Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of crib or furniture (cruises)
✓ Walks with one handheld
13 - 18 months
✓ Walks without support
✓ Walks backwards
✓ Walks up the stairs with handheld, 2 feet on each step
✓ Walks down the stairs with handheld, 2 feet on each step
✓ Jumps in place
✓ Climbs onto a steady elevated surface (bed, adult chair or bangko)
✓ Kicks a ball but with little control of direction
✓ Throws a ball but with little control of direction’
✓ Throws a ball but with little control of speed
✓ Runs without tripping or falling
 ✓ Maintains balance (walking on a low, narrow ledge; between 2 lines) without
assistance
✓ Moves with music when he hears it
✓ Can move body to imitate familiar animals
✓ Can move body to imitate another person/TV character
19 - 24 months
✓ Walks up the stairs with alternating feet, without help
✓ Walks down the stairs with alternating feet, without help
✓ Kicks a ball with control of direction
✓ Throws a ball with control of direction
✓ Throws a ball with control of speed

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (FINE MOTOR SKILLS)

Standards 1: The child can control and coordinate hand and finger movements.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on the and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
✓ Hands open most of the time
✓ Brings both hands together towards dangling object/toy
✓ Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp objects
✓ Uses all 5 fingers in a raking motion to get food/toys placed on a flat surface
✓ Grasps objects with the same hand most of the time (hand preference emerging)
7 - 12 months
✓ Pulls toys by the string
✓ Bangs 2 large blocks together
✓ Picks up objects with thumb and index fingers
✓ Grasps and transfers objects from hand to hand
✓ Grasps objects with the same hand all the time (definite hand preference
established)
13 - 18 months
✓ Puts small objects in/out of container
✓ Unscrews lids
✓ Unwraps candy/food
✓ Holds thick pencil or crayon with palmar grip
✓ Scribbles spontaneously
19 - 24 months
✓ Colors with strokes going out of the lines

PERSONAL CARE AND HYGIENE (ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING)

Standards 1: The child participates in basic personal care routines.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
✓ Sucks and swallows’ milk from breast/bottle
✓ Begins to take complementary or semi-solid foods by the end of 6 months
✓ Keeps reasonably still while being dressed, undress bathed and while diaper is
being changed.
7 - 12 months
✓ Holds a feeding bottle by himself
✓ Helps hold cup for drinking
✓ Chews solid foods well
✓ Feeds self with finger foods
✓ Scoops with a spoon with spillage
13 - 18 months
✓ Feeds self with assistance
✓ Feeds self-using fingers to eat rice/viands with spillage
✓ Feeds self-using spoon with spillage
✓ No longer drinks from feeding bottle
 ✓ Drinks from cup unassisted
✓ Participates when being dressed by lifting arms or raising legs
✓ Pulls down gartered short pants/underpants or panties
✓ Removes shoes/sandals
✓ Informs caregiver of the need to move his bowels so he/she can be brought to
comfort room
✓ Takes a bath with assistance
✓ Brushes teeth after meals with assistance from adult
✓ Washes and dries hands under adult supervision
✓ Washes and dries face with the assistance of an adult.
19 - 24 months
✓ Gets drink for self-unassisted
✓ Removes loose sando and removes socks
✓ Informs caregiver of the need to urinate
✓ Goes to the designated place to urinate but sometimes wets his/her pants
✓ Goes to designated place to move his/her bowels but sometimes still soils his/her
pants
✓ Goes to the designated place to move his/her bowels but needs help with wiping
and washing
✓ Brushes teeth after meals and washes and dries face under supervision
(Source: The Philippines Early Learning and Development Standards formulated by the Child and Welfare Council now merged with
the Early Childhood Care and Development Council)

Application
1. Which statement on physical development of infants and toddlers is true? Analysis
The Cephalocaudal Growth pattern shows _____________ .
a. development of the upper limbs before the lower limbs
b. development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs
c. simultaneous development of the upper and lower limbs
d. development of muscular control of trunk and arms before the fingers
2. As a normal infant and toddler, which physical development did you go through? –
Application
a. Development of motor skills from the body outward to the center
b. development of motor skills from the center of the body outward
c. development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs
d. simultaneous development of the limbs and trunk body
3. which factor according to research can impede the physical development of infants
and toddlers? – Understanding
a. depressed environment
b. early brain stimulation
c. being the only child
d. being a member of a big family
4. For healthy physical development of a toddler which should parents do? – Application
I. Encourage your child to sit when eating.
II. Encourage free play as much as possible to develop motor skills.
III. Check toys for loose or broken parts.
a. II and III c. I and II
b. I and III d. I, II, and III
Research Connection
Read a research that is related on physical development of infants and toddlers. Fill out
the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions
How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!
Having learned the physical development of infants and toddlers and Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs, as a future parent or as caregiver of children, reflect on:
✓ what you should do more often for infants and toddlers
✓ what you should refrain from doing to facilitate their growth and development

Write down your real reflections here.

 Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers
- Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD

MODULE

13 “Infants and toddlers are born ready to learn. They learn

through listening to language, trying out sounds, tasting
foods and exploring their environment in countless ways
every day.”
- Khalil Gibran

Learning Outcomes
In this module, you are challenged to:
• Trace the cognitive development of infants and toddlerd.
• Identify factors that enhance/impede the cognitive development of infants and
toddlers.
• Present your own or others' research on the cognitive development of infants and
toddlers.
• Draw implications of cognitive development concepts to child care, education and
parenting.

Introduction
Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in a way a baby thinks. This
includes his/her language, communication, and exploration skills. Examples of cognitive
activities include paying attention, remembering' learning to talk, interacting with toys
and identifying faces.

Activity
Read the story of Laurent, Lucienne and Jacqueline, three children of Piaget whom he
observed. For reading and re-reading, make a summary outline of the behaviors of the
three children separately. Don't forget to indicate the age of each child. This can help you
in the next activity.
LAURENT, LUCIENNE AND JACQUELINE
The following provide a glimpse of Piaget's observations of his children's cognitive
development in infancy (Piaget, 1952). These are lifted from Santrock 2002.
❖ At 21 days of age, Laurent finds his thumb after three attempts; once he finds his
thumb, prolonged sucking begins. But, when he is placed on his back, he doesn't
know how to coordinate the movement of his arms with that of his mouth; his
hands draw back, even when his lips seek them.

❖ During the third month, thumb sucking becomes less important to Laurent because
of new visual and auditory interests. But, when cries, his thumb goes to the
rescue.

❖ Toward the end, Lucienne's thrusts her feet at the doll and makes it move.
Afterward, she looks at her motionless foot for a second, then kicks at the doll
again. She has no visual control of her foot because her movements are the same
whether she only looks at the doll and misses, she slows her foot movements to
improve her aim.

❖ At 11 months, while seated, Jacqueline shakes a little bell. She then pauses
abruptly so she can delicately place the bell in front of her foot; then she kicks the
bell hard. Unable to recapture the bell, she grasps a ball and places it in the same
location where the bell was. She gives the ball a firm kick.

❖ At 1 year, 2 months, Jacqueline holds in her hands an object that is new to her: a
round, flat box that she turns over and shakes; then she rubs it against her crib.
She lets it go and tries to pick it up again. She succeeds only in touching it with
her index finger, being unable to fully reach and grasp it. She keeps trying to grasp
it and presses to the edge of her crib. She makes the box tilt up, but in nonetheless
falls again. Jacqueline shows an interest in this result and studies the fallen box.
 ❖ At 1 year, 8 months, Jacqueline arrives at a closed door with a blade of grass in
each hand. She stretches her right hand toward the doorknob but detects that she
cannot turn it without letting go of the grass, so she puts the grass on the floor,
opens the door, picks up the grass again, and then enters. But, when she wants
to leave the room, things get complicated. She puts the grass on the floor and
grasps the doorknob. Then she perceives that, by pulling the door toward her, she
simultaneously chases away the grass that she had placed between the door and
the threshold. She then picks up the grass and places it out of the door's range of
movement.

Do you remember anything

about yourself when you
At what age were your
were two years old? first memories?

It is said that children learn language

faster than adults. Why is this so? Give
your hypothesis.

Analysis
Here are the six substages of the sensorimotor developmental stage (Santrock, 2002)

SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
Is the first of the four stages of cognitive
development.
In this stage, infants construct an
understanding of the world by coordinating
 sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions.
Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it.
An infant progress from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of
symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.
Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages:

Sub-Stage Age Description

1. Simple Reflexes Birth - 6 Coordination of sensation and action through

weeks reflexive behaviors. Three primary reflexes are
described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the
mouth, following moving or interesting objects with
the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object
makes contact with the palm. (palmar grasp). Over
the first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to
become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar
reflex becomes intentional grasping. (Remember
the other reflexes discussed in Module 12)

2. First Habits and 6 weeks Coordination of sensation and two types of

primary circular - 4 schemes: habits (reflex) and primary circular
reactions phase months reactions. Primary reaction because the action
focused on the infant's body. Circular reaction
because it is a repetition of an action that initially
occurred by chance. As an example of this type of
reaction, infants might repeat the motion of
passing their hand before their face. Also at this
phase, passive reactions, caused by a classical or
operant conditioning, can begin. Infants tend to
repeat interesting sensations.
3. Secondary circular 4 to 8 Development of habits. Infants become more
reactions phase months object-oriented, moving beyond self-
preoccupation, repeat actions that bring interesting
or pleasurable results. This stage is associated
primarily with the development of coordination
between vision and prehension. Three new abilities
occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a
desired object, secondary circular reactions, and
differentiations between ends and means.

At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air

in the direction of a desired object, often to the
amusement of friends and family. Secondary
circular reactions, order repetition of an action
involving an external object begin; For example,
moving a switch to turn on our light repeatedly.
This means that a secondary action is focused on
an object outside the body of an infant. The
differentiation between means and ends also
occurs. This is perhaps one of the most important
stages of a child's growth as it signifies the dawn
of logic.

4. Coordination of 8 to 12 Coordination of vision and touch-hand-eye

reactions stage months coordination; of schemes and intentionality. This
secondary circular stage is associated primarily with the development
of logic under coordination between means and
ends. This is extremely important stage of
development, holding what Piaget calls the “first
 proper intelligence”, also, this stage marks the
beginning of goal orientation, the deliberate
planning of steps to meet an objective. The action
is directed towards a goal.

5. Tertiary circular 12 to 18 Infants become intrigued by the many properties

reactions, novelty, and months of objects and by the many things they can make
curiosity happen to objects; They experiment with new
behavior. This stage is associated primarily with the
discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget
describes the child at this juncture as the “young
scientist” conducting pseudo experiments to
discover new methods of meeting challenges.

6. Internalization of 18 to 24 Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols

schemes (invention of months and form enduring mental representations. This
new means through stage is associated primarily with the beginnings of
mental combination) insight, or true creativity. This marks the passage
into the preoperational stage.

Evidence of an internal representational system.

Symbolizing the problem-solving sequence before
actually responding.

By the end of sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the self and
permanent. Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist
even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
 Do all toddlers learn Is it safe to say that memory
language at the same pace? begins at age 3?

Based on the experiences

shared, it is more correct to
say that an infant does not
remember anything during
infancy?

Abstraction
LEARNING and REMEMBERING
Do infants learn and remember?
Yes! Pavlov’s classical conditioning and Skinner’s operant conditioning have been proven
to apply to infants. We will ask you to research on researchers that prove this.

All of us experience infantile amnesia, the inability to recall events that happened
when we were very young (Spear, 1979). Generally, we can remember little or nothing
that has happened to us before the age of about five years, and it is extremely rare for
someone the recall many memories before age three years. Reports on childhood
memories usually involve memories of significant events (birth of a sibling or the death
of a parent). For example, some adults have recalled their own hospitalization or the birth
of a sibling as far back as age 2 years, and the death of a parent or a family moved may
be recalled from as far back as age three years (Usher and Neisser, 1993).

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune into their linguistic
environment with the specific goal of acquiring language. Infants clearly have remarkably
acute language learning abilities even from an early age (Marcus, Vijayan, Bandi Rao and
Vishton, 1999; Pinker, 1997, 1999 cited by Sternberg, Robert, 2003).

Within the first years of life, we humans seem to progress through the following
stages in producing language (Sternberg, 2003).
1. Cooing, comprises largely vowel sounds
2. Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most people's ears,
the babbling of infants growing up among speakers from different language groups
sounds very similar.
3. One-word utterances; these utterances are limited in both the vowels and consonants
they utilize (Ingram, 1999 cited by Sternberg, 2003)
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentence structure (present by about age 4 years) with continuing
vocabulary acquisition

Infant utters his or her first word - followed by one or two more, and soon after, yet
a few more. The infant uses these one-word utterances termed holophrases - convey
intentions, desires and demands. Usually, the words are nouns describe bring familiar
objects that the child observes (example book, ball, baby) or wants (Mama or Dada)

By 18 months of age, children typically have vocabularies of three to 100 words (Siegler,
1986). because the young child's vocabulary is very limited at this point in the
development process, the child overextends the meaning of words in his or her existing
lexicon to cover things and ideas for which a new word is lacking. For example, the
general term for any kind of four-legged animal maybe “DOGGIE”. In linguistics this is
called overextension error.

Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age, children start combining single words
to produce two-word utterances. These two-word or three-word utterances with
rudimentary syntax but with articles and prepositions missing are referred to as
telegraphic speech.

It's clear that no toddler blossoms all of a sudden into one capable of telegraphic
speech. As the five stages above show, the acquisition of language comes in stages
beginning with cooing, then babbling, to one-word utterances, to two-word or three-word
utterances or even more but without articles and prepositions thus called telegraphic
speech.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD)

Noam Chomsky (1 1965, 1972), noted linguist, claims that humans have an innate
language acquisition device. This LAD is a “metaphorical Organ that is responsible for
language learning. Just as a heart is designed to pump blood, this language acquisition
devices preprogrammed to learn language, whatever the language community children
find themselves in.”
Means that we, humans seem to be biologically pre-configured to be ready to
acquire language. Indeed, children seem to have a knack for acquiring an implicit
understanding of the many rules of language structure, as well As for applying those rules
to new vocabulary and new context. this may partly explain why children are said to learn
language fast.
Professor Laura-Ann Petito of Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire and
her colleagues conducted a recent study that concluded that “by five months of age,
babies are already specializing by using the left side of their brains for language sounds
and the right side for expression emotion…. we all speak out from the right side of our
mouths….. babies babble out from the right side of their mouths.”
The right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain while the left
side of the body is controlled by the right side of the brain (connections in the brain are
contralateral or crossed). Babies use the right side of their mouths for babbling, then
babbling is a language function controlled by the left side of the brain.
Application
A SUMMARY OF WHAT INFANTS AND TODDLERS CAN DO COGNITIVELY
Domain: Language, Pre-reading and Pre-math
Language (Receptive Language)
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
❖ Watches primary caregiver intently as she speaks to him her
7 - 12 months
❖ Understands “no”
❖ points to family member when asked to do so
13 - 18 months
❖ points to five body parts on him or herself when asked to do so
❖ follows one-step instructions without need for gestures
19 – 24 months
❖ Points to five named picture objects when asked to do so

LANGUAGE (Expressive Language)

Standards 1: The child can use words and gestures to express his thoughts and feelings
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
❖ Makes gurgling, cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds
❖ uses gestures (stretching his or her arms, pointing) to indicate what he or she
wants
7 - 12 months
❖ repeat sounds produced by others
❖ says meaningful words like Papa, Mama, to refer to specific persons
❖ uses animal sounds to identify animals (meow meow for cat)
 ❖ uses environmental sounds to identify objects or events in the environment
(boom for thunder)
13 - 18 months
❖ Speaks in single words
❖ says yes and no appropriately
❖ uses words accompanied by gestures to indicate what he or she wants
❖ responds to simple questions with single words
19 – 24 months
❖ Uses pronouns
❖ uses possessive pronouns
❖ says what he or she wants without accompanying this with gestures
❖ attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood

PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (MATCHING)

Standards 1.1: The child is able to match identical objects, colors, shapes, symbols.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
7 - 12 months
❖ able to match 2 identical objects (2 spoons and 2 balls)
19 – 24 months
❖ matches identical objects
❖ matches identical pictures
PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (ROTE SEQUENCING)
Standards 1.1: The child is able to recite the alphabet and numbers in sequence.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
19 – 24 months
❖ counts from 1 to 5 with errors, gaps or prompts
Domain: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL
Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity at age-
expected levels.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
❖ Looks steadily at novel stimuli (rattle, dangling toy)
7 - 12 months
❖ Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these (pulling apart)
❖ Looks with interest at picture books
❖ able to sit through an entire meal without fussing
13 - 18 months
❖ May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus
❖ resists interruption while engaged in play

HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT FORMATION)

Standards 1: the child develops basic concepts pertaining to object constancy, space,
time, quantity, seriation, etc. and uses these as the basis for understanding how
materials are categorized in his/her environment.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
❖ experiments with new objects or toys by banging or putting them in his mouth
❖ look in the direction of fallen object
7 – 12 months
❖ looks to partially hidden objects
❖ looks for completely hidden objects
13 - 18 months
❖ can tell whether something is hot or cold
❖ hands over 1 object when asked
19 – 24 months
❖ can tell which is shorter/taller/longer/bigger/nearer of 2 items

HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CAUSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS)

Standards 1: the child is able to understand the cause-effect relationships.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
❖ acts on an object to achieve an objective (shakes rattle)
7 - 12 months
❖ uses an object to get something he/she wants (spoon to reach an object)
19 – 24 months
❖ asks “why” questions
❖ Understands reasons behind daily practices (washing hands before meals)
❖ understands reasons behind safety rules and practices at home (why one must
not play matches)
❖ Knows where to return most of his or her things
MEMORY (memory for experiences: EPISODIC MEMORY)
Standards 1: The child is able to recall people he has met, events, and places that he
has been to.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0 - 6 months
❖ Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met several times
but who does not live in his/her home
13 - 18 months
❖ Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of a familiar place besides his/her home
19 – 24 months
❖ Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there before

MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT-BASED KNOWLEDGE: SEMANTIC

MEMORY)
Standards 1: The child is able to store verbal information in short and long term
memory.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
19 – 24 months
❖ Hums a recognizable tune
❖ Memorizes some gestures of action songs

HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CREATIVE THOUGHT)

Standards 1: the child is able to generate new ideas or concepts, or knew associations
between existing ideas or concepts.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
19 – 24 months
❖ Enjoys constructing objects or structures out of manipulative toys (blocks, clay,
sand, paper)
❖ Uses toys or objects as symbols in play (pretends empty milk can is a drum)
❖ Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (big empty box as house)
 Language Learning
Studies show that when parents, teachers and
caregivers talk more to children and ask any
questions, they create more stimulating language
environments for their children. What
recommendations can you give to parents
for them to provide stimulating language
environment? You may want to do some further research on this.

Research Connection
Read research that is related on cognitive development of infants and toddlers. Give
summary of the research by fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions
How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins… NOW!
Based on Piaget’s sensorimotor stage first year of pre-operational stage of cognitive
development, reflect on how you, as a future mother or nursery teacher can:
1. Enhance infant and toddlers’ cognitive development or
2. impede infants and toddlers’ cognitive development

Write down your real reflections here.

 Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers
- Brenda B. Corpuz. PhD

MODULE
“When you are drawing up your list of life’s miracles, you
14 might place near the top the first moment your baby smiles
at you. ‘Today, she looked right at me, and she smiled. Her
toothless mouth opened, and she scrunched her face up
and it really was a grin. The sleepless nights, the worries,
the crying-all of a sudden it was all worth it. She is no longer
just something we are nursing and carrying along
somewhere inside, part of her knows what is going on, and
that part of her is telling us that she is with us period”
- Bob Greene
Learning Outcomes
In this module, challenge yourself to:
• Describe the socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers.
• Identify factors that enhance or impede the socio-emotional development of
infants and toddlers.
• Draw implications of socio-emotional development concepts to child care,
education and parenting.
Simply put, socio-emotional development has something to do with the development
of a person's ability to master one's emotions and the ability to relate to others. It
necessarily includes temperament, attachments, and social skills.

Activity
Read Nolte’s poem the
answer the following
Do you agree with D. Nolte’s Poem?
questions:
Which line of the poem is the most
meaningful to you? explain
 Children Learn What They Live

If a child lives with criticism, he learns to condemn…

if a child lives with hostility, he learns to fight…
if a child leaves with fear, he learns to be apprehensive…
If a child lives with pity, he learns to feel sorry for himself…
If a child lives with ridicule, he learns to be shy…
If a child leaves jealousy, he learns to feel guilt
BUT
If a child lives with tolerance, he learns to be patient…
If a child lives with encouragement, he learns to be
confident…
If a child lives with grace, he learns to be appreciative…
If a child lives with acceptance, he learns to love…
If a child lives with honesty, he learns what truth is…
If a child lives with fairness, he learns justice…
If a child lives with security, he learns to have faith in
himself and those about him…
If a child lives with friendliness, he learns the world is a nice
place in which to live…
With what is your child living?

Dorothy L. Nolte, Trained Family Counselor

Analysis

Based on Nolte’s poem, which plays a very

important role in the socio-emotional
development of children?

From what kind of home environment do

children who are well adjusted most
probably come? What about maladjusted
children?

State in a sentence what the poem is

saying about a child social emotional
development.

Abstraction
The FORMATIVE YEARS
Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in human
development. They're so-called the formative years that is why, parents and other
caregivers at this stage of human development play a significant role in the development
of infants and toddlers.

As the poem “Children Learn What They Live” express, the kind of home and school
environment that parents and teachers produce -- determines to a very great extent the
quality of the development of children.

Let us discuss those elements that have something to do with the wholesome
socio-emotional development of children.
 Attachment

✓ For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish an

enduring emotional bond characterized by a tendency to seek and
maintain closeness to a specific figure, particularly during stressful in
situation. This is a social phenomenon of attachment.

✓ According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the

beginnings of attachment occur when the first 6 months of a baby's life
with a variant variety of built-in signals that baby uses to keep her
caregiver engaged. The baby cries, gazes into her mother's eyes, smiles,
etc. In the next few months, the baby develops in her degree of
attachment to her parents. She smiles more freely at them that at any
stranger whom she seldom sees. This is what Bob Greene must have
experienced.

Temperament

✓ Is a word that “captures the ways that people differ, even at birth, in such
things as their emotional reactions, activity level, attention span,
persistence, and ability to regulate their emotions” (K. Pasek and R.
Golinkoff, 2003). Every baby expresses personality traits we called
temperament. How a child responds emotionally the objects, events, and
people reflects his individual temperament.
Researches Thomas, Chess, and Birch described 9 different temperament
categories (Honig, 2010, Secure Relationships: Nurturing Infant-Toddler
Attachments in Early Care Settings.). To determine a child’s temperament,
make the following observation: These includes:

ACTIVITY LEVEL.
Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about a lot
and as toddlers, are always on the move. At this stage, they must be
watched carefully.
THE MOOD.
Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely attached
emotionally do their teachers, others have a low-key mood and look
more solemn or unhappy.
CHILD’s THRESHOLD FOR DISTRESS.
Some babies are very sensitive. They become upset very easily when
stressed. Other babies can more comfortably wait when they need a
feeding or some attention.
RHYTHMICITY OF CHILDREN.
Some babies get hungry or sleepy on a fairly regular and predictable
basis. Other babies sleep at varying times, urinate, or have bowel
movements at unpredictable times, and get hungry at different times.
They are hard to put on a “schedule”.
INTENSITY OF RESPONSE IN EACH BABY.
When a baby’s threshold for distress has been reached, some babies
act restless. Others are cranky or fret just a little. Still others cry with
terrific intensity or howl with despair when they are stressed. They
shriek with delight and respond with high energy when reacting to
happy or challenging situations.
APPROACH TO NEW SITUATIONS.
Some infants are very cautious. They are wary and fearful of new
teachers, being placed in different crib, or being taken to visit and you
setting. Other infants approach new persons, new activities, or new
play possibilities with zest and enjoyment.
 DISTRACTION.
Some children can concentrate on a toy regardless of surrounding
bustle or noise in a room. Others are easily distracted.
ADAPTABILITY OF EACH CHILD.
Some children react to strange or difficult situations with distress but
recover fairly rapidly. Others adjust to new situations with difficulty or
after a very long period.
CHILD’s ATTENTION SPAN.
Some children have a long attention span. They continue with an
activity for a fairly long time. Others flit from one activity to another.
Based on these temperament traits, psychiatrist Alexander Thomas and Stella
Chess studied babies’ temperament and clustered temperaments into 3 basic
types: (1) the easy child; (2) the difficult child; (3) the slow-to-warm child and
those that did not fall under any of the 3 basic types. The “easy child” easily
readily establishes regular routines, is generally cheerful, and adapts readily
to new experiences. The “difficult child” is irregular in daily routines, is slow to
accept new experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely to new
things while the “slow-to-warm up child” shows mild, low-key reactions to
environmental changes, is negative in mood, and adjust slowly to new
experiences.

The DEVELOPMENT OF EMOTIONS

Here are the milestones of the baby and toddlers’ emotional development and social
development:

EARLY INFANCY (birth to 6 months)

❖ It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or if adults, using
adult facial expressions as the standard, simply superimposed their own
understanding of the meaning of infant facial expressions.
❖ As infants become more aware of their environment, smiling occurs in response to
a wider variety of contexts. They may smile when they see a toy they have
 previously enjoyed. Laughter, which begins at around three or four months,
requires a level of cognitive development because it demonstrates that the child
can recognize incongruity. That is, laughter is usually elicited by actions that
deviate from the norm, such as being kissed on the abdomen or a caregiver playing
peek-a-boo. Because it fosters reciprocal interactions with others, laughter
promotes social development.

LATER INFANCY MONTHS (7 to 12 months)

❖ During the last half of the first year, infants begin expressing fear, disgust, and
anger because of the maturation of cognitive abilities. Anger, often expressed by
crying, is a frequent emotion expressed by infants. Although some infants respond
to distressing events with sadness, anger is more common.
❖ Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to compare an
unfamiliar event with what they know. Unfamiliar situations or objects often elicit
fear responses in infants. One of the most common is the presence of an adult
stranger, a fear that begins to appear at about seven months. A second fear of
this stage is called separation anxiety. Infants 7 to 12 months old may cry in
fear if the mother or caregiver leaves them in an unfamiliar place.

Socialization of emotion begins in infancy. It is

thought that this process is significant in the
infant’s acquisition of cultural and social codes for
emotional display, teaching them how to express
their emotions, and the degree of acceptability
associated with different types of emotional
behaviors.
Another process that emerges during this stage is social referencing. Infants begin
to recognize the emotions of others and use this information when reacting to novel
situations and people. As infants explore their world, the generally rely on the emotional
expressions of their mothers or caregivers to determine the safety or appropriateness of
a particular endeavor.

TODDLERHOOD YEARS (1 to 2 YEARS)

❖ During the second year, infants’ express emotions of shame or embarrassment
and pride. These emotions mature in all children and adults contribute to their
development.

EMOTIONAL UNDERSTANDING
During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are learning to
verbally express their feelings. this ability, rudimentary as it is during early toddlerhood,
is the first step in the development of emotional self-regulation skills.
In infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their emotional
states. If they are uncomfortable, they may be able to communicate this state by crying
but have little hope of alleviating the discomfort of their own.

EMPATHY, a complex emotional response to a situation, also appears in toddlerhood,

usually by age 2. The development of empathy requires that children read others’
emotional cues, understand that other people are entities distinct from themselves and
take the perspective of another person (put themselves in the position of another).
(source: http://psychology/jrank.org)

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person’s psychosocial development) apply
at the periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why they are discussed below:
HOPE: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)
• Psychosocial crisis: Trust versus Mistrust
• Virtue: Hope
 The first stage of Erik Erikson’s centers around the infants’ basic needs being met by
the parents. The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for food,
sustenance, and comfort. The child's relative understanding of the world and society
come from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child
to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infants view of the world will be one
of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's
basic need a sense of mistrust will resolve. According to Erik Erikson, the major
developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary
caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food,
comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust - those others are dependable and reliable.
If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust - the
world is in an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place.

WILL: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)

• Psychosocial crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• Main question: “Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?”
• Virtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they began to
explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which
the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents’ patience and encouragement
help foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to
instill in that child a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges.
As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become
capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They began to feed themselves, wash and
rest themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior,
toddlers develop a sense of autonomy - a sense of being able to handle many problems
on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform
task of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may
instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems.
(en.wikipedia.org.wiki.Erikson’s-stages-of-pyschosocial-development-)

Application
1. Illustrates what is needed and state your observations.

BABY AND ADULT CAREGIVER

TODDLER AND ADULT CAREGIVER

Your Interpretation in the context of Erik Erikson’s theory.

2. Guide Questions for Ideal Parenting and Caregiving
You must have experienced babysitting or serving as one at present. Determine if your
child care was/is ideal:

How ideal are you as a parent or caregiver? Try to answer these guide questions to find
out. Rate yourself from 1 to 4, 1as the lowest and 4 as the highest.
1 2 3 4
1. Are you generally in good spirits and encouraging when interacting
with the child?
2. Do you smile often at the child?
3. Do you hug the child, pat the child on the back or hold the child's hand?
4. Do you comfort the child?
5. Do you repeat the child’s words, comment on what the child says or
tries to say and answer the child’s questions?
6. Do you encourage the child to talk or communicate by asking questions
that the child can answer easily, such as “yes or no questions”, or asking
about a family member or toy?
7. Do you talk in other ways such as praising or encouraging; teaching by
having the child repeat phrases or naming shapes; Singing songs; And
telling stories?

Additional Activities
Two volunteered students from the class. one will do the rapping and one will do the
singing.
Compose your own version of
Nolte’s “Children Learn What They
Live”. Rap it or sing it.
Research Connection
Read a research that is related on socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers.
Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!
Based on stories you heard from your parents and grandparents about your first two
years in the world, reflect on the kind of micro system as explained by Bronfenbrenner
that you have had as an infant and as a child. How has it affected you?

Write down your real reflections here.

 UNIT 3 – EARLY CHILDHOOD (The Preschooler)

Preschoolers’ Physical Development

- Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD

MODULE
15
“A child reminds us that playtime is an essential part
of our daily routine.”
- Anonymous

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• describe preschool children's physical growth.
• Identify the different gross and fine motor skills.
• Draw implications on these concepts on physical development on teaching
preschoolers.

Introduction
The preschooler years is commonly known as the “years before formal schooling
begins.” it roughly covers three to five years of age. Although it is known as the years
before formal school, it is by no way less important than the grade school years. The
preschool years is very important as it lays foundation to later development. At this stage,
preschoolers achieve many developmental milestones. As such, pre-service teachers who
might be interested to teach and care for preschoolers need to be knowledgeable about
them to be truly an intentional and effective teacher.
This module on the physical development of preschoolers focuses on the
acquisition of gross and fine motor skills, artistic expression, proper nutrition and sleep,
and what teachers and caregivers you do to maximize the preschoolers’ development.
Activity
Examine the pictures below. Think about the physical characteristics of preschoolers. Put
a caption for the pictures.
Analysis

From the captions you wrote for the

pictures, what physical characteristics of
preschoolers came out? Write them here!
Abstraction/Generalization
From the activity, you were able to see a glimpse of preschoolers’ physical
development. They love to move. They enjoy being active. They are also interested to
work with their fingers, like with blocks. They have a more balance stance than toddlers.
Read on an you will learn more about the typical physical development of preschoolers,
the important concerns an issues, and how teachers and caregivers can help maximize
the preschoolers’ growth and development.

BIG IDEAS ABOUT THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOLERS

1. There are significant changes in physical growth of

preschoolers.
2. The preschoolers’ physical development is marked by the
acquisition of growth and fine motor skills.
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very
early age.
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very
important for the preschoolers.
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximising the
growth and development of preschoolers.
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms
can thrive well with the appropriate adaptations made in
the classroom, materials and activities.
SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN PHYSICAL GROWTH

Physical growth increases in the preschool years,

although it is much slower in base than in infancy and
toddlerhood. At around 3 years of age, preschoolers move, from
the remaining baby like features of the toddler, toward a
slenderer appearance of a child. The trunk, arms and legs
become longer.

✓ The center of gravity refers to the point at which body-weight

is evenly distributed. Toddlers have their center of gravity at
a high level, about the chest level. Therefore they have
difficulty doing sudden movements without falling down.
✓ Preschoolers on the other hand, have their center of gravity
at the lower level, right about near the belly button. This
gives them more ability to be stable and balanced than the
toddler.
✓ The preschooler moves from the unsteady stance of
toddlerhood to a steadier bearing. They no longer “toddle”
that wobbly way that toddlers walk. This allows the
preschooler to move more “successfully” than the toddler.
✓ Some say that the later part of the preschooler years at
around 5:00 or six is the best time to begin learning skills
that require balance like riding a bike or skating.
 By the time the child reaches three years old, all primary
or deciduous, or what are also called “baby or milk” teeth are
already in place. The permanent teeth which will begin to come
out by ages 6 are also developing. The preschooler years are
there for a time to instill habits of good dental hygiene.

GROSS AND FIN MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Gross Motor development refers to acquiring skills that involves the large
muscles. These gross motor skills are categorized into three:
✓ LOCOMOTOR skills are those that involve going from one place to another
like walking, running, climbing, skipping, happy, creeping, galloping, and
dodging.
✓ NON-LOCOMOTOR ones are those where the child stays in place, like
bending, stretching, turning, and swaying.
✓ MANIPULATIVE skills are those that involve projecting and receiving
objects, like throwing, striking them a bouncing, catching, and dribbling.

Fine Motor Development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller
muscles in the arm, hands, and fingers Purposefully. Some of the skills included
here are picking summer squeezing, pounding, and opening things, holding,
and using a writing implement. It also involves self-help skills like using the
spoon and fork when eating, buttoning, zipping, coming and brushing
A QUICK LOOK AT WHAT PRESCHOOLERS CAN DO: (PHYSICAL SKILLS)
This bulleted list all preschoolers physical skills is lifted from the physical domain
component of the Philippine Early Learning and Development Standards (ELDS). This set
of standards was based on a study commissioned by UNICEF and the Child Welfare
Council (CWC). This is now adopted for use by the Early Childhood Care and Development
Council.
Gross Motor: 36-48 months
• Hops 1 to 3 steps on preferred foot
• Skips (with alternating feet)
• Jumps and turns
• Stands on one leg without falling for at least 5 seconds
• Throws a ball overhead with control of direction
• Throws a ball overhead with control of speed
• Kicks a ball with control of speed
Fine Motor Skills:
36-48 months
• Consistently turn pages of a picture or story book one page at a time, looking at
pictures with interest
• purposefully copies diagonal lines
• purposefully bisects a cross
• purposefully copies a square/triangle
• cuts with scissors following a line
49-60 months
• Copies a simple pattern of different basic shapes
• Draws a human figure (head, eyes, mouth, trunk, arms, legs, etc) without prompt
• Draws a house without prompts using geometric forms
• Colors with strokes staying within the lines
PERSONAL CARE AND HYGIENE (Self-Help Skills)
36-48 months
• Pours from pitcher without spillage
• Feeds self using spoon without spillage
• Dresses without assistance except for buttons and tying laces
• Puts on socks independently
49-60 months
• Feeds self using fingers without spillage
• Prepares own food
• Dresses without assistance, including buttoning and tying
• wipes or cleans him or herself after a bowel movement
• brushes teeth after meals without having to be told
• Washes and rice face independently without having to be told
• takes a bath independently without having to be told

For all preschoolers:

a) Engage preschool children in simple games that involve running and walking.
b) Provide them with toys for catching and throwing such us soft large bowls and
bean bags.
 c) Have balancing activities for preschoolers. Use low balance beams and lines on the
classroom floor or playground. Montessori schools have blue or red lines on their
preschool classroom floors.
d) Allow opportunities for rough and tumble play like in a grassy area or soft mats.
Keen observational and monitoring is expected to keep them safe from injury.
e) Ensure that preschoolers get enough rest and sleep. Setting a routine for bedtime
is ideal.
f) Model good eating habits to preschoolers. Encourage more fruits, vegetables,
water and fresh juices, rather than processed foods, sugary snacks and sodas.
For 3-year-olds
g) Encourage development of hand eye coordination by providing large buttons or
old beads to string on a shoe lace.
h) Play ball. Show children how to throw, catch, and kick balls of different sizes.
i) Show children how to hop like a rabbit, tiptoe like a bird, waddle like a duck, slither
like a snake, and ran like a deer.
j) Encourage free expression in art projects. Avoid asking “what children are
drawing”. Three-year-old may not know or care, but simply enjoy the process of
drawing.
k) Provide a variety of art experiences. Make play dough. Create collages from
magazine pictures, fabric, wallpaper, and newsprint. Encourage children to
experiment with new media like wire and cork, soda straws, string, or yarn. Teach
children to mix different colors with paint.
For Four-year-old
l) Encourage physical development. Play follow the leader. Pretend to walk like
various animals.
m) Set up an obstacle course indorse with challenges such as crawling, climbing,
leaping, balancing, and running across stepping stones.
n) Encourage walking with a bean bag on the head.
For Five-year-old
o) Encourage body coordination and sense of balance by playing follow the leader
with skipping, galloping, and hopping. Skip or jump rope to music, teach folk
dances and games, provide a balance beam, a tree for climbing, and knotted rope
suspended from a sturdy frame.
p) Teach sack-walking and twist-em, statue, or free games to provide an outlet for
their drive for physical activity.
q) Play games that can teach right and left directions, like “hokey-pokey,” “Looby-
Loo”, and “Simon Says”
r) Help children learn to use a pair of scissors by letting them cut out coupons.

Application
1. Research on the recommended Food Guide for preschoolers or young children.
Interview a mother about what her preschooler eats in a week. Write down the types of
food and compare it with the recommended Food Guide.

Write here!
2. Surf the net. make a collection of gross motor and fine motor activities for preschoolers
that caregivers and teachers can use to support their development.

Write here!

Research Connection
Read a research that is related to one of the big ideas on the physical development of
preschoolers. Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions
How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!
From this module on the physical development of preschoolers, I realize that

Write down your reflections here.

 Cognitive Development of the Preschoolers
- Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD
- Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD
MODULE
16
“There are children playing in the street who could solve
some of my top problems in physics, because they have
modes of sensory perception that I lost long ago.”
- J. Robert Oppenheimer

Learning Outcomes
In this module, you should be able to:
• Describe the cognitive development that takes place among preschoolers.
• Apply concepts on preschoolers’ cognitive development in preschool teaching and
in child care.
• Take an informed stand or position on current preschool teaching practices.

Introduction
Someone once wrote in his journal: “Childhood is a world of miracle an wonder;
As if creation rose, bathed in light, out of darkness, utterly new, fresh and astonishing.
The end of childhood is when things cease to astonish us. When the world seems familiar,
when one has got used to existence, one has become an adult.”
Early childhood (preschool age) is just one stage of childhood. Do you remember
how you were as a preschooler? What do you remember most as a preschooler? What
did you enjoy doing?

Activity
below are behaviors or remarks from children. Your early childhood experiences may help
you arrive at the correct answer. Put a check ✅ on the item that is true of preschoolers
and an ❌ on the item does NOT apply to preschoolers.
______ 1. “Someone switched on the thunder”, a child remarked.
______ 2. Child silently nods on the telephone to answer his father who is on the other
side of the phone inquiring if Mom is around.
______ 3. “That tree pushed the leaf and it fell down”, says a child.
______ 4. A child is presented with two identical beakers each filled to the same level
with liquid. The child is asked if these beakers have the same amount, and she says yes.
The liquid from one beaker is bored into a third beaker, which is taller and thinner than
the first two. The child is then asked if the amount of liquid in the tall, thin beaker is
equal to that which remains in one of the original beakers. The child says yes.
______ 5. Child asks a series of “why” questions.
______ 6. child is strongly influenced by the features of the task that stand out, such as
the flashy, attractive clown.
______ 7. Child pays attention to the more relevant dimensions of the task such as
directions for solving a problem and not on the prominent clown, for instance.
______ 8. June does not realize that the juice in each glass can be poured back into the
juice box from which it came.
______ 9. Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his younger sister. Mikey's
younger sister was sick. Mike concludes that he made his younger sister got sick.

Analysis
Give reasons for your answers. Bring in your childhood experiences as you share your
answers. Try to arrive at a consensus.
1. Which items are true of preschool children?
2. Which items are not true of preschool children?
Answering the item above made you think about your own views or assumptions
about the preschoolers’ cognitive development. You were also once in that world of
bursting curiosity wanting to know about the world around you read through the module
and you will surely understand the way preschoolers think and learn. You will also learn
about how as a future teacher or parent, you can best contribute to the preschoolers’
cognitive development.
Abstraction
Preschoolers Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking
All the behaviors and the remarks above exact items #4 and #7 are true of
preschool children. They are considered immature aspects or limitations of preschool
children's preoperational thought according to Piaget
There are two substages of Piaget’s preoperational thought, namely symbolic
substage and intuitive substage. In the symbolic substage, preschool children
show progress in their cognitive abilities by being able to draw objects that are not
present, by their dramatic increase in their language and make-believe play. In the
intuitive substage, preschool children begin to use primitive reasoning and ask a litany
of questions. The development in their language ability facilitates their endless asking of
questions. While preschool children exhibit considerable cognitive development, their
improved cognitive processes still show some aspects of immaturity or limitations.
Items #1 “Someone switched on the thunder” and #3 “That tree pushed the
leaf off and it fell down”, for example, indicate limitation on preschool children's
symbolic thought process.
The remarks indicate that preschool children believe that inanimate
objects have “lifelike” qualities and are capable of action. This is referred
to as animism (Santrock, 2002).

Preschool children who use animism fail to distinguish the appropriate

occasions for using human and non-human perspectives.

However, the fact that they attribute the falling of the leaf and a thunder
to a “cause” proves that preschool children realized that events have
causes, although the perceived causes are not correct.

Item #2, “Child silently nods on the telephone to answer his father who is on
the other side of the phone inquiring if Mom is around.” is another limitation in
preschool children's symbolic thought.
Piaget calls this egocentrism, the inability to distinguish between one's
own perspective and someone else perspective (Santrock, 2002)

The child thinks that his father can see him just as he can see himself.
Items #4
should apply to preschool children who had the child answered “no” when
asked if the amount of liquid in the tall, thin beaker was equal to that
which remained in the original beakers.

Preschool children are quite limited in their intuitive thought process.

The amount of liquid that was transferred to the third beaker which was
taller but thinner than the original beaker remains unchanged.

In this case, the focus is only the height of the beaker to the exclusion of
the width of the beaker which is clearly another factor that should be taken
into consideration. This is also referred to as unidimensional thought. This
is also evidence of preschool children’s lack of conservation, the awareness
that the basic property of an object or a substance is conserved (is not
changed or altered) even if its appearance is changed.

Items #5 “Children asks a series of why questions”.

Preschool children asked a barrage of questions. This signal the
emergency show of the preschool children's interest in reasoning and in
figuring out why things are the way they are. They are asking questions
is a function of their unsatiable curiosity coupled with the dramatic
increase in language.

Items #6 and #7 have something to do with preschool children's attention.

Between items #6 and #7 fine, #6 (strongly influenced by the features of
the task that stand out, such as the flashy, attractive clown) applies to
preschool children.

Because the preschool child pays more attention to the strikingly

conspicuous peripherals, they missed the more relevant and more
important features needed in problem solving or in task performance.

This is obviously manifested when between two wrapped gifts, one with a
big, colorful ribbon and the other without, a preschool child chooses the
one with a prominent ribbon.
 Items #8 “Child did not realize that the juice in each glass can be poured back
into the juice box from which it came.”
Indicates irreversibility, Piaget’s term for a preoperational child failure
to understand that an operation can go in two or more directions. Once
Jun can imagine restoring the original state of the water by pouring it back
into the other glass, he will realize that the amount of water in both glasses
must be the same.

Unfortunately, however, in this developmental stage he is not yet capable

of reversible thinking. He's not yet capable of working backwards.

Items #9 “Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his younger sister.
Mikey's younger sister was sick. Mike concludes that he made his younger sister
got sick.”
Shows that preschool children do not use deductive or inductive
reasoning; Instead, they jump from one particular to another and see
cause where none exists. That is transductive reasoning.

Application
1. Surf the net and research the role of caregivers (parents and teachers) in the
cognitive development of preschoolers.

THE ROLE OF CAREGIVERS IN THE COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOLERS

FOR FOR FOR

THREE-YEAR-OLD FOUR-YEAR-OLD FIVE-YEAR-OLD
 2. Describe the behaviors to illustrate the preschooler’s: (Just give the best thought
you could describe each behavior. No need to write the whole definition.)

Animism Egocentrism Centration

Lack of Irreversibility Transductive

Conservation Reasoning

Assignment
1. Read this excerpt from Albert Einstein's biography. Examine Albert Einstein's preschool
development in the light of in early childhood as discussed. How different was his
childhood from the average childhood? (Language development, Einstein's lifelong
memory of that compass, parents’ and teachers’ underestimation of his cognitive
ability?)
2. Critics argue that too many preschools are academically oriented and stressful for
young children. Do you agree? Explain
3. Does preschool matter? Doesn't preschool rob the child of his irretrievable childhood?
Defend your stand.
4. Explain the meaning of the quote beneath the title of this module.

Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!
From the module on the of preschooler, I realized that….

Write down your reflections here.

 Socio-Emotional Development of the Preschooler
- Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD

MODULE
17 “One test of the correctness of educational
procedure is the happiness of the child.”
- Maria Montessori

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Explain Erikson’s crisis of early childhood, initiative versus guilt.
• Explain the development of the preschoolers’ sense of self and self-esteem.
• Discuss how children develop gender identity.
• Describe the stages of play and how it impacts socio-emotional development.
• Have discussed the different caregiving styles and their effect on preschoolers.
• Describe how significant relationships with parents, siblings and peers affect the
preschooler.

Introduction
Socio-Emotional Development is crucial in the preschool years. We hear a lot of
parents on teachers and preschool administrators say that attending preschool is more
for “socialization” than for formal academic learning. There is wisdom in this. During the
preschool years, children learn about their ever-widening environment. Preschoolers now
discover their new rules outside their home. They become interested to assert themselves
as they relate with other people. A lot of a lot of very important social skills they will learn
during the preschool years will help them throughout life as adults. These skills can even
determine the individuals later social adjustment and consequent quality of relationships
in adult life.
Activity
Observe preschooler’s classroom playing in the playground or inside the classroom. (but
due to pandemic, just try to remember the last time you have been to preschooler’s
classroom). Note the following:

✓ Is there a conversation going on? Describe the

conversation that takes place among and
between the children. What are they talking
about?
✓ Describe what they are playing/what the play is
about?
✓ Describe the children's interaction. Indicate if
they are on their own, working together or if
there is conflict.
Analysis
Answer the following questions:

1. Were the children playing on their own or alone even when they
were with others?

2. Were there some children playing together with agreed upon rules
and rules? Describe.

3. If you observed conflicts between or among children, how were

they resolved? Did an adult intervene? Or did they manage to
resolve it by themselves?

4. What were the children polite? What polite words (thank you, sorry,
etc) or gestures did you observe?

Abstraction/Generalization
The observation you did provided, you have a glimpse of the world of preschoolers.
You were once in that world of wonder and fascination. Read through this module and
you will surely understand more why they manifest that the social behaviors that you
have observed.

Big Ideas on Preschoolers’ Socio-emotional Development

➢ The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler.
➢ A healthy self-concept is needed for preschoolers to interact with others.
➢ Environmental factors influence gender identity in young children.
 ➢ Preschoolers’ social development is shown through the stages of play.
➢ The care giving styles of parents and teachers affect the preschooler’s socio-
emotional development.
➢ Preschoolers are interested in building friendships.

Preschoolers’ Initiative
❖ Erikson's view of initiative aptly portrays the emotional
and social changes that happen during the preschool
years. As discussed in module 7, preschoolers deal with a
psychological conflict of initiative versus guilt.
❖ Erickson believed that healthy preschoolers develop
initiative, the tendency of preschoolers to want to take
action an assert themselves.
❖ They will yearn to create, invent, pretend, take risk and engage in lively and
imaginative activities with peers.
❖ As preschoolers go through the conflict of initiative versus guilt, they show so
much energy in doing imaginative play activities. Every place becomes a
playground to explore, every single thing an interesting piece to tinker with.
❖ Adults sometimes get exasperated over this behavior and begin to see the
preschooler as naughty or “makulit”.
❖ Some parents and teachers then become overly restrictive, resorting to threats,
intimidation and other scary tactics that disrespect the preschooler just to establish
“control.”
❖ Consequently, the child may develop excessive guilt. Although a good amount of
guilt helps in making children take responsibility for their behavior, excessive guilt
hampers emotional growth.
❖ Preschoolers who are always punished and criticized end up constructing a view
of themselves as being “salbahe” (bad) “bobo” (dumb) or even “walang kwenta”
(worthless). This is really sad because childhood years should be happy years. One
 poster says, “you don’t have to hit to hurt”. The message emphasizes that even
the things we say and the way we deal with preschoolers can already hurt them
at this vulnerable stage.
❖ The key thing to remember is to apply “judicious permissiveness.” This involves
setting realistic boundaries that keep preschoolers safe and respectful of self and
others, while allowing the greater opportunity to explore, take risks to engage in
creative processes. Preschoolers will develop a healthy sense of initiative in an
affirming, encouraging and stimulating environment.

Self-Concept and the Preschooler

By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that they are
a separate and distinct person. With their ability to make representations, they can now
think and reflect about themselves. Self-concept refers to the way one sees himself, a
general view about one's abilities, strengths and weaknesses. The preschoolers’ self-
concept mainly focuses on observable characteristics and his or her usual beliefs,
emotions and attitudes. One will hear a preschooler say, “Kaya ko na!" (I can do it), “Ako
lang nagsuot ng shoes ko.” (I wore my shoes all by myself). An important aspect of self-
concept is self-esteem, which specifically refers to one's judgments about one's worth.
Preschoolers are naturally positive. Usually, they will tend to evaluate their skills high an
underestimate the tasks. They are confident to try again even if they don't succeed with
something. However, they may become negative because of repeated frustration and
disapproval. Preschoolers need a lot of patience and encouragement from adults.

Environment Factors and Gender in the Preschoolers’ Socio-emotional

Development
As the preschoolers’ ability to create schemas develop, they become capable of
gender typing, the process of forming gender roles, gender-based preferences and
behaviors accepted by society. They come to form gender stereotypes. Preschoolers
begin to associate certain things like toys, tools, games, clothes, jobs, colors or even
actions or behaviors as being “only for boys” or “only for girls.” Consequently, they formed
their own gender identity, the view of oneself as being masculine or feminine.
Gender typing and gender identity are influenced by environmental factors
such as family, teachers, peers, and the mass
media. This is where Bronfenbrenner's model
comes into play. Different spheres of influence
determine the preschoolers’ development of a
gender schema. Differences in parental
expectations and behavior the towards
daughters and sons affect gender typing and
gender identity. More often, boys are expected to show more emotional control
and be more competitive while girls are expected to be warm and soft and
demure. Parents also expect their children to play with toys that are right for their
gender. The expectations of other people in the preschoolers lives also influenced their
gender schema. This includes their relatives, teachers, classmates and other playmates.
Mass media and ICT which include televisions, movies, the Internet, computer
games also offer various images of what it means to be a boy or girl. In the US, there is
growing debate about lesbian-gay-bi-sexual-transgender issues which is collectively
known as LGBT issues. Schools are in a tight situation or have to do a balancing act on
how to deal with these issues with children so that schools are still able to be on the side
of respect for diversity without necessarily confusing children who are at the stage of
forming their own gender schemas.
Preschool teachers should think thoroughly on how to present notions of what
boys and girls can do especially in a discussion about occupations or community helpers.

Parten’s Stages of Play

Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. It has a social dimension. As the
preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates increases. Mildred Parten, in
the 1930s did a study on children’s play behavior which led to Parten’s stages of play.
Since then, numerous studies have followed
using these stages as framework. The stage is
described the play development of children and a
gradual increase of social interaction as they go
through these stages. It begins with a very young
child's unoccupied stage, then solitaire play, then
parallel play, associative and cooperative play.
Becomes an important venue for the child's development of social skills like entering
rejoining a play situation, taking turns, sharing, helping, saying sorry, and working
together. Play is indeed the child's major business!

Parten’s Stages of Play

Unoccupied The child appears not to be playing but directs his

attention on anything that interests him.

Onlooker The child spends time watching others play. He may talk to
them but does not enter into play with them.

Solitary Play The child starts to play on his own. He seems not to notice
other children playing nearby.

Parallel Play The child plays with toys similar to those near him, but only
plays beside and not with them. No interaction takes place.

The child plays with others. There is interaction among them,

Associative Play but no task assignment, rules and organization are agreed
upon.

The child plays with others bound by some agreed upon

cooperative rules and roles. The goal is maybe to make something,
play a game, or act out something.
Friendship in Preschool

As they continue to grow, preschoolers become interested in having friends. This

should be encouraged in the preschool years as friendships benefit the preschooler’s
development by providing stimulation, assistance, companionship, social comparison and
affection (Kostelnik, 2010). Through friendships, preschoolers are able to practice
different social roles like being a leader, a follower, someone who takes risks and
someone who helps out and comforts. Friendships are very important because they
provide a dead sense of belongingness and security. In the preschool years, parents and
teachers must expose children to experiences that help them learn skills in establishing
friendships, maintaining positive relationships and resolving conflicts. Parents and
teachers, when seeing preschoolers in a fight, should not just say “Tama na…ano ba
yan..isa pa ha…tam ana…friends na kayo…say sorry na…” responses like those do not
foster social skills among preschoolers. Parents and teachers need to take time and
process with children how to resolve conflicts.

Caregiving Styles
Caregiving styles affect the socio-
emotional development of the children.
Caregivers here refered to both parents
and teachers and even adults that care
for the child. Baumrind gave a model
that describes the different types of
caregiving styles. This was based on a longitudinal study that looked into the adult
authority and the development of children that Baumrind conducted which began in the
1960s. Decades later she identified varying degrees of demandingness an responsiveness
as determinants of four styles of caregiving. Marion (2007) expounded on these
determining factors.

Responsiveness reference to caregiver behaviors that pertain to expression of

affection and communication. It refers to how warm, caring and respectful the adult is to
the child. It involves openness in communication and the willingness to explain things in
ways that the child will understand. Demandingness refers to the level of control and
expectations. This involves discipline and confrontation strategies.

Authoritative Permissive
high Low
demandingness/high demandingness/high
responsiveness responsiveness

Authoritarian Negligent
High Low
demandingness/low demandingness/low
responsiveness responsiveness
 Baumrind’s Caregiving Styles
And their effects on Children

Caregiving style Descripcion Effect on the preschooler

caregivers/Parents/teachers with this
caregivers style has the ff
description:
Authoritative • expect behavior appropriate • makes the
(high to the age of the child preschooler feel
demandingness, • maintain reasonable and fair safe and secure
high limits • teaches the child to
responsiveness) • closely monitor the activities take responsibility
of the child for his or her
• warm and nurturing actions
• have realistic expectations of • develops good self-
the child control
• Communicate messages in a • develops a realistic
kind, firm, and consistent view of oneself
manner • builds the child's
• discipline approach focuses capacity for
more on teaching than empathy
punishing • lead to aggressive
• set subjective or unreasonable behavior of the
limits child
• strive to have strong • brings about poor
psychological control self-control
punishment, sarcasm, • results in poor self-
withdrawal of love, threats esteem
 • not able to teach children a
better way to behave
authoritarian • permits the preschoolers to • has difficulty
(high regulate their own behavior controlling his/her
demandingness) and make their own decisions impulses
even when preschoolers are • tends to be
not yet ready to do so dependent
• do not set rules or very few if • tends to be
any demanding of their
• do not demand good behavior caregivers
or task accomplishment • tends not to persist
• may lack confidence in their or easily gives up
ability to influence the child on a task
• maybe disorganized and • does not easily
ineffective in managing the follow
family and household/class • may be rebellious
• shows undemanding, • does not handle
indifferent and rejecting frustration well
action towards the child • has inadequate
• has little commitment do their emotional control
roles as parents or caregivers • difficulties in school
performance

when parents’ behavior is

to the extreme or if child
experiences this style
early, the child may have:
• Attachment
problems
 • Delete cognitive
development
• poor social and
emotional skills
• delinquent behavior
later in adolescence

The ROLE OF CAREGIVERS IN THE SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF

THE PRESCHOOLER
1. Greet each child images with his or her names each day. Be sincere and
respectful to each child.
2. Read story books that deal about friendships and different feelings.
3. Develop routines in the home or school that encourage working together and
getting along.
4. Help children learn to make rules and play simple games by providing
opportunities for them to play in small groups.
5. Play games that involve social interaction and teamwork.
6. Observe how a child plays with other children. Teach him to request, bargain,
negotiate, and apologize.
7. Help children understand and cope with strong feelings by giving them words
that they can use to express how they feel. “I can see you are sad about your
pet, angry at your sister……”
8. Use dolls, puppets, or pictures to demonstrate to children how to express
feelings appropriately.
9. Acknowledge how the child feels. For example, one can say “you seem sad that
you did not go to the party”. When we do this, we are able to model to the
preschooler that it is important to listen and that having feelings, even negative
ones, are OK…
10. Read story books that deals about friendships.
 11. For teachers, have develop routines that encourage working together an getting
along.

Application
1. The best caregiving style is the
authoritative style period from all that you
have learned from this module, make a list
of 10 qualities that an authoritative
preschool teacher should have:

AUTHORITATIVE QUALITIES
1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5. 10.

Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins….. NOW!
From the module on the Socio-emotional Development of Preschooler, I realized that….

Write down your real reflections here.

 UNIT 4 – MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (The Primary Schooler)
- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, PhD
Physical Development of Primary Schoolers

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

18 In this module, challenge yourself to:
• describe the different physical characteristics of early
school-aged children in your own words.
• enumerate ideas on how you can apply the concepts in
this module in the teaching-learning process.
• discuss several ways on how to encourage an age-appropriate active physical lifestyle
to primary school children.

INTRODUCTION
Physical development involves many different factors: height, weight, appearance,
visual, hearing and motor abilities. Primary school children undergo many different
changes as they go through this stage of development. This could be caused by different
factors, both natural and environmental.

Activity
Paste a picture of yourself when you were an early-
school age child (around Grade 1 to 3). Write a
description on the given areas.

Height
Weight
Body Shape
Activities you
could do
Analysis

Based on the observation you

have made, what can you What do you think are the
conclude are the general necessary skills that will help
physical characteristics of them to be physically ready
children in their primary for primary schooling?
school years?

Abstraction
Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this
stage, physical development involves: (1) having good muscle control and coordination,
(2) developing eye-hand coordination, (3) having good personal hygiene and (4) being
aware of good safety habits.

In this developmental stage, children will have

started their elementary grades, specifically their
primary years - Grades 1 to 3.

These children are extremely active. Because

most of the activities in traditional schools are
sedentary, they often release their unusual amount of
energy in some forms of nervous habits including
fidgeting, nail biting and pencil chewing.

Primary-school age children get fatigued more easily because of physical and
mental exertions both at home and in school. Hence, activities should be alternated
between strenuous one and relaxing or quiet activities (example: storytelling time after
the Math period).
Height and Weight
This period of gradual and steady growth will give children time to get used to the
changes in their bodies. An average increase in height of a little over two inches a year
in both boys and girls will introduce them to many different activities that they can now
do with greater accuracy.

Weight gain averages about 6.5 pounds a year. Most

children will have slimmer appearance compared to their
preschool years because of the shifts in accumulation and
location of their body fat, although girls tend to develop
additional fat cells relative to muscle cells. A child's legs are
longer and more proportioned to the body than they were
before.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much changes
in the body will take place:
= Genes = exercise
= Food = medical conditions
= Climate = diseases / illnesses

Bones and Muscles

Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years - bones grow longer and
broader. This is the best time for parents and teachers to educate children of good dietary
and exercise habits to help them have strong, healthy bones throughout their lives.
Replacement of primary teeth, also known as baby teeth, with permanent teeth occur
around ages 6 to 7 years and up until age 12, most children will have all their primary
teeth replaced. Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can substantially
influence the increase of bone mass during childhood.
 Because children's bones have proportionately more water and protein-like
materials and fewer minerals than adults, ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly
help them in strengthening bones and muscles.

Large muscle control is at bigger play over fine motor. Some may still have
difficulty holding a pencil properly or coloring inside the lines. We have to limit writing
time, since children may develop a negative attitude towards writing. Bone and muscle
growth are still not complete during this stage. Most activities which use heavy pressure
will be very difficult for growing bones, muscles and ligaments. If students are engaging
in too much strenuous activities to test their strengths, teachers may suggest or provide
more coordinated physical activities or competition or rotate players during sports or
games.

Motor Development
Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major muscles of their
bodies. Most children have a good sense of balance. They like testing their muscle
strength and skills. They enjoy doing real life tasks and activities. They pretend and
fantasize less often because they are more in tune with everything that is happening
around them.

Children during this stage love to move a lot - they run, skip, hop, jump, tumble,
roll and dance. Because their gross motor skills are already developed, they can now
perform activities like catching a ball with one hand and tying their shoelaces. They can
manage zippers and buttons.
 Performing unimanual (requiring the use of one hand) and bi-manual (requiring
the use of two hands) activities becomes easier. Children's graphic activities, such as
writing and drawing, are now more controlled but are still developing. They can print
their names and copy simple designs, letters and shapes. They hold pencils, crayons,
utensils correctly with supervision. Motor
development skills include coordination,
balance, speed, agility and power.

Let us look into the definitions of the

different motor skills. Coordination is a series
of movements organized and timed to occur in
a particular way to bring about a particular
result (Strickland, 2000). The more complex
the movement is, the greater coordination is
required. Children develop eye-hand and eye-
foot coordination when they play games and sports. Balance is the child's ability to
maintain the equilibrium or stability of his/her body in different positions. Balance is a
basic skill needed especially in this stage, when children are very active. During this time,
children have improved balancing skills. Static balance is the ability to maintain
equilibrium in a fixed position, like balancing on one foot. Dynamic Balance is the ability
to maintain equilibrium while moving (Owens, 2006). Speed is the ability to cover a great
distance in the shortest possible time while agility is one's ability to quickly change or
shift the direction of the body. These skills are extremely important in most sports. Power
is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.

All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and sports.
Development of these skills may spell the difference between success and failure in future
endeavors of the child.
 Large scale body movements are key in this stage. Most of the time, boys develop
motor skills slightly faster than girls except for skills involving balance and precise
movements.

Here are some motor milestones of primary school-age children: (Bergin and Bergin, Child
and Adolescent Development in Your Classroom, Third Edition: 2018, Boston, MA, USA)

Fine Motor Skills Gross Motor Skills

• Zip zippers and lace shoes • Hop
• Able to learn piano or violin • Skip on alternating feet
• Control pencil with the finger and • Jump rope
thumb. Movement comes from the • Walk on a balance beam Throwing,
elbow. catching, and kicking become
• Write and draw with more control, smoother
but writing looks choppy and • Begin to participate in organized
uneven. Letters are getting smaller. games (e.g. hopscotch) and sports
Uppercase letters are somewhat (e.g. basketball)
mastered, but lowercase letters • Skate, ski, bike and other
continue to be challenging through specialized skills with training
3d grade, especially letters with
slants and curves.
Some Issues Affecting Physical Development

Obesity
This is becoming a major concern for parents and health care
providers, since it seems it becoming a trend.

According to the World Health Organization - Western Pacific

Region, "... the Philippines is not spared from this scenario, and
the results of national nutrition surveys are showing slow but
increasing childhood overweight and obesity rates.

Prevalence of overweight among children 5-10 years old has risen

from 5.8% in 2003 to 9.1% in 2013."
 Childhood Nutrition
Malnutrition remains a major health issue in the Philippines. This
has been proven to have serious effect on the physical and
mental development of children.

For most Filipino children, poverty is the chief reason why they
do not get the nutrients and energy required for their age.

School-age children's diet should include a good supply of

vitamins, minerals and protein found in most fruits and
vegetables to combat the trend of eating out and eating too
much which puts children at risk of increased consumption of
soft drinks, sugary and salty snacks like crackers and chips.

Study the illustration below presented on the 7th National

Nutrition Survey, Food and Nutrition Research Institute in 2008.
 Sleep
Primary school-age children need 9 to 11 hours of
sleep every day (including daytime naps).
Sometimes, due to their schedule in school, midday
naps or siesta is not possible anymore. Because of
this, children may need to go to bed earlier rather
than nap.
Children's increased sports affiliation, extra-
curricular activities, TV, internet, computers and
sometimes, intake of caffeinated products could
result to difficulty in falling asleep, disruptions in
their sleep and sometimes even nightmares.

Implications to Child Care, Education and Parenting

Two major ways to help primary school-age children to be physically healthy is to
(1) provide them with good nutrition and (2) involve them in coordinated and age-
appropriate physical activities. Specifically, health care providers, teachers and parents
must do the following:
✓ Encourage children to join or enroll them in related programs during summer or
their free time, if children show interest in a particular activity or sport.
✓ Advocate better nutrition in foods provided in the school canteen by providing
healthier options and accessible healthier products.
✓ Provide a balance between rigorous physical play activity and quiet activities in
designing classroom activities.
✓ Create an exercise plan for children. Not only does it promote motor skills but also
improves strength and endurance, builds healthy bones and muscles, and
increases positive emotions,
✓ Maintain a daily sleep schedule and consistent bedtime routine
 ✓ Make children's bedroom conducive for a peaceful sleep. If possible, keep
computers and TV out of the bedroom.

Application
Before the discussion, find a learning partner and write your product of collaboration on
the provided space.
a) What are the general physical characteristics of children in the primary school-
age?

b) What are the factors affecting physical development?

 c) Compare the motor skills of a preschool child with a primary school-age child.
Preschool Child Primary School-Age Child
Fine Motor Skills

Gross Motor Skills

Research Connection
Research on the advocacy with a #hangryabouthunger. Fill in the matrix below.
#hangryabouthunger
What is the advocacy What programs are they What are your insights
about? doing to move the about this advocacy?
advocacy?
Reflection
To ensure that you are promoting your students’ physical well-being, ask yourself the
following questions:

1. Do I understand the children have different physical needs in

order to develop properly?

2. Do I provide a stress-free environment in the classroom by

being adaptive and accommodating?

3. Do I balance my activities between active and quiet ones?

4. Do I appreciate the physical milestones that happened in this

stage of physical development?

5. Do I model healthy eating and encourage my learners to do

so?

6. Do I advocate maintaining are consistently being routine an

inspire my students to do the same?

7. Am I an excellent example of someone who lives a healthy

and active lifestyle that my students can emulate?

 UNIT 4 – MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (The Primary Schooler)
- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, PhD

Cognitive Development of Primary Schoolers

MODULE
19

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this Module, you should be able to:
• describe the characteristics of children in the concrete operational stage
• explain the importance of information-processing skills and how they affect the
child's cognitive development
• state the different cognitive milestones in primary schoolers.

INTRODUCTION
Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist on cognitive development. According to him,
intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring
balance in the relations between the person and the
environment. Everything that a person experience
is a continuous process of assimilations and
accommodations. Piaget described four main
periods in cognitive development. For Piaget,
intellectual ability is not the same at different
stages.
Activity
Look at the semantic map below. Write down words which come to your mind when
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT is mentioned. Find a partner and compare your answers.

Discussion Questions:
1. What ideas regarding cognitive development were common?
2. Are there new ideas regarding cognitive development which you found intriguing?
3. With the advent of the computer age, do you think cognitive development is
affected? Explain your answer

ABSTRACTION
Jean Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage
Concrete operation is the third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
It spans from age 7 to approximately 11 years old. During this time, children have better
understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin to think logically about concrete
events, particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty understanding abstract or
hypothetical concepts, thus most of them still have a hard time at problem-solving.
❖ Logic
Concrete operational thinkers, according to Piaget, can already make use of inductive
logic. Inductive logic involves thinking from a specific experience to a general principle.
But at this stage, children have great difficulty in using deductive logic. or beginning with
a general principle leading to specific event.
❖ Reversibility
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of
reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able
to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. (For example in
arithmetic, 3 + 4 = 7 and 7-4 = 3).

Example:
Teacher: Jacob, do you have a brother?
Jacob: Yes.
Teacher: What's his name?
Jacob: Matthew.
Teacher: Does Matthew have a brother?
Jacob: Yes.

Cognitive Milestones
Elementary-aged children encounter
developmental milestones. This is the stage when
they leave behind egocentric thinking and start to
develop a more mature way of looking at things,
which greatly enhances children's problem-solving
skills, Piaget calls this process DECENTRATION.
They develop certain skills within a particular time
frame. The skills they learn are in a sequential manner, meaning they need to
understand numbers before they can perform a mathematical equation. They can already
take on complex, sequential. and symbolic-based tasks. At this stage, reasoning is still
immature, they have ease in identifying the here and now. Each milestone that develops
is dependent upon the previous milestone they achieved. Up until age 8, a child learns
new skills at a rapid pace. Once they reach the age of 8, the skills they learn start to level
off so there is a steady increase of new skills.

Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell left from right. Their
ability to speak and express themselves develops rapidly. In school, they share about
themselves and their families. During play, they practice using the words and language
they learn in school. They start to understand time and days of the week. They enjoy
rhymes, riddles, and jokes. Their attention span is longer. They can follow more involved
stories. They are learning letters and words. By six, most can read words or combinations
of words.

Information-Processing Skills
Several theorists argue that like the computer, the human mind is a system that
can process information through the application of logical rules and strategies. They also
believe that the mind receives
information, performs operations to
change its form and content, stores and
locates it and generates responses from
it.

Implications to Child Care, Education and Parenting

 Children have varying intelligence profiles. These profiles may be based on
influences of learning and achievement. Parents, child care providers and teachers should
be able to recognize these by:
• helping children draw on their strengths and promote growth in their weaknesses;
• planning lessons that cater to multiple intelligences based on instructional objectives;
• encouraging children to read more every day to increase their vocabulary;
• bringing children to museums, art exhibits and historical landmarks to widen their
perspective about the world and people; and
• lessening children's screen time and increasing their personal and face-to-face
interactions.

Application
Research on the differences in the cognitive development of boys and girls. Write some
major points in their respective development.

Reflection
To ensure that you are promoting your students’ cognitive well-being, ask yourself the
following questions:

1. Do I acknowledge that my students have different levels of

intelligence?

2. Do I prepare properly for my lessons to accommodate these

different levels of intelligence?

3. Do I Motivate my students enough to read everyday to improve

their vocabulary and language?

4. Do I Offer my students different activities for different

intelligences?
 UNIT 4 – MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (The Primary Schooler)
- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, PhD

Socio-Emotional Development of Primary Schoolers

MODULE
20

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Identify the different characteristics of primary school-aged children in this stage of
development.
• Discuss the different factors that affect the social-emotional growth of the primary-
schoolers.

Introduction
The developmental theorist, Erik Erickson, formulated eight stages of man
psychosocial development. Each stage is regarded as a psychosocial crisis which arises
and demands resolution before the next stage can be achieved.
Preschool children belong to the fourth stage of Erikson's psychosocial stages.
Here, children have to resolve the issue on Industry versus Inferiority.

ACTIVITY
In Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development, primary schoolers are in the
fourth stage. This involves industry versus inferiority.
1. Read on how Erik Erikson defines these two terms. Write them down below.
3. Paste some pictures of primary schoolers or surf on the internet. Discuss important
points and observation with the following:
a. behavior during play b. communication with their peers
c. facial expressions, gestures and body language

Analysis
Discuss Questions:
1. What were your common observations among these children when it comes to:
a. behavior during play?
b. communication with their peers?
 c. facial expressions, gestures and body language?
2. Were there difficulties that the children encountered while they were at play?

ABSTRACTION
Erik Erickson’s Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development
Industry vs. Inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to resolve in
this stage.
❖ Industry refers to a child's involvement in situations where long, patient work is
demanded of them, while
❖ inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a feeling of failure when they
cannot finish or mastered their schoolwork.

In this stage, children, will most likely, have begun going to school. School experiences
become the priority, with children so busy doing school work. The encouragement of
parents and caring educators helps to build a child's sense of self-esteem, confidence and
ability to interact positively in the world.

What does the comic strip depict? How does this relate to Erikson's fourth stage?

Understanding the Self

One’s self-concept is the knowledge about the self, such as beliefs regarding
personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals and roles.
 It also involves a sense of belonging and
acceptance, a sense of belonging and
acceptance, a sense of good and a sense of
being capable of being good.
Having a healthy self-concept does not
mean that a child thinks he/she is better than
others. It means that he/she likes
himself/herself; feels accepted by his/her family
and friends and believe that he/she can do well.
Primary school children self-concept is influence not only by their parents, but also
by growing number of people they begin to interact with, including teachers and
classmates. Children have a growing understanding of their place in the world. They
already know that they can please their parents and teachers. They are comfortable and
show confidence in doing things they are good at, but also show frustration in things that
they find difficult.

School Years
In the transition from pre-elementary to
primary school, children tend to become
increasingly self-confident and able to cope up
with social interactions. They are not focused on
themselves anymore but are also aware of the
needs and desires of others. The issues of
fairness and equality become important to
them as they learn to care for people who are not
part of their families. Characteristics like loyalty
and reliability are being considered as well as responsibility and kindness.
Building Friendships

“What is a friend? “A single soul dwelling in two bodies.”

- Aristotle

Making friends is a crucial but very important part of children social and emotional
growth. As soon as they are able to walk and top, they will tend to show natural inclination
to be around other children.
Children, during this stage, most likely belong to a peer group. Beer groups are
characterized by children who belong approximately to the same age group. It is found
along the stages of childhood through
adolescence. But for children, until the age of 7 or
8, they think of themselves more than others.
They may play well with groups but may need
some time to play alone.
Primary school children prefer to belong to
peer groups of the same gender. Many children
will use their surroundings to observe and mingle
with other children. Some will see this as an opportunity to make friends while others
remain a bit of a loner.

Antisocial Behavior
Some adults may perceive that
some children's behavior towards other
children as antisocial. When children poke,
pull, hit or kick other children when they
are first introduced, it is fairly normal.
Remember that children at this stage are
still forming their own world views and
other children may seem like a curiosity that they need to explore. Parents and teachers
can help children make friends.
You can consider the following:
• Expose the children to kid-rich environments (e.g. playgrounds, park).
• Create a play group in your class and let the children mingle with their classmates.
• When your children hit other children, remind them that their behavior hurts others.
• Coordinate with the parents and other teachers so that the children will have greater
opportunity to interact with other children.

Self-Control
Once children reach school age, they
begin to take pride in their ability to do things
and their capacity to exert effort. They like
receiving positive feedback from their
parents and teachers. This becomes a great
opportunity for parents and teachers to
encourage positive emotional responses from
children by acknowledging their mature,
compassionate behaviors.
Implications to Child Care, Education and
Parenting
Primary school children’s socio-emotional competency should be viewed in the context of
child’s developmental age. Health-care providers, teachers and parents should be able
to:
• Gain understanding of their child’s socio-emotional strengths and weaknesses by
observing the child’s behavior at home.
• Work collaboratively with the child’s parents and health-care provider to expand
one’s insights on the child’s development.
 • Provide a supportive setting where children have opportunities to practice
emotional regulation and social skills with peers.
• Give children activities when they can practice taking turns, sharing and playing
cooperatively.
• Be a role model of healthy emotions and expressing these emotions appropriately.
• Demonstrate calmness and staying in control of one’s own feelings.

APPLICATION
Study the situations given below. If you were the teacher, how will you help these
learners cope with their socio-emotional difficulties?

Dear Teacher,

I am really heart broken. My 8-year-old daughter is feeling lonely,

isolated and friendless. It seems that she has felt this way quite a while.
She says that she mostly spends time alone – that she has no friends
because no one wants to play with her.

She tags along, but is usually left out eventually. She can become angry if
things don’t always go her way and also teary. I don’t know where to turn
to help her thought that she finds school so painful is heartbreaking.

Sincerely,
Worried Mother
 Dear Teacher,

I am really proud parent. My little boy is in primary grade and he is doing

a lot better than his classmates. He sometimes becomes restless in school – he
says he knows what the teacher is talking about. Some teachers even suspects
that he is gifted. But there seems to be a problem,

He is bossy. He always orders people around – his classmates and people

at home. How could I help him be comfortable in school and lessen his
bossiness?

Sincerely,

Worried Mother

Research Connection
See the video on https://www.virtuallabschool.org/school-age/social-emotional/lesson-2
and write down important points for discussion.
1. According to the video, what are some of the important aspects of school-age
children’s socio-emotional development?
• ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
• ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
• ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What suggestions or practice did the teachers in the video mention that you find
most helpful when dealing with children’s socio-emotional development?
• ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
• ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
• ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Reflection
To ensure that you are promoting your students’ socio-emotional well-being, ask yourself
the following questions:

1. Do hi acknowledge my own feelings and help my students

identify their own feelings?
2. Do I show interest in my student’s emotional experiences by
having a positive facial expression, relaxed body
posture and speaking in a calm tone?
3. Do I see my students’ emotional experiences ask
opportunities to teach them how to manage their emotions
specially overwhelming ones such as anger or fear?
4. Do I remind my students that although it is okay to feel anger
and sadness, inappropriate behaviors such as hurting
others, hurting themselves or destroying property is not an
acceptable response?
5. Do I give my students space to resolve their own social
conflicts and difficulties but still ready to help if they
require it?
6. Do I provide my students situation to practice their social
skills?
7. Do I acknowledge positive social behavior when I see my
students displaying them?
 UNIT 5 – LATE CHILDHOOD (The Intermediate Schooler)
- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, PhD

Physical Development of Intermediate Schoolers

MODULE
21

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Identify the different physical characteristics of intermediate schools.
• Discuss ways and practices which will aid children in successfully developing
physically.
• Design exercise program appropriate for Intermediate school children.

INTRODUCTION
Late childhood is generally defined as ages 9 through 12. (picture of children in their late
Others may call this stage as preteens. Physical changes childhood)

during this stage are fairly unpredictable among children in this

age group.
The steady and gradual changes happening in children
at this age, especially with their increasing familiarity with
school work and other possible activities provide them with a
greater opportunity to develop their motor skill functioning.
ACTIVITY
Activating Prior Knowledge! Student will chat the answer during the discussion. Whoever
got the correct answer has a points.
❖ Weight and height changes in intermediate pupils
a) What are your general ideas on how tall and how
heavy do intermediate children stand and weight?
b) What are the factors affecting their height and
weight?

❖ Differences in physical appearance between girls and boys

a) What are the differences in their body appearance?
b) What are the differences in the activities they do?

❖ Changes in nutrition, diet and sleep of intermediate pupils

a) What are the nutritional needs of
intermediate pupils?
b) How long do these children need
to sleep and rest?
ANALYSIS

1. Based on the insights that you

wrote, what do you think are the
general physical characteristics of
children aged 9 to 12 years?

2. What are the common physical

activities these children do to help
them develop physically?

3. In what aspect do girls and boys in

the late childhood stage differ?

ABSTRACTION
Intermediate schoolers have more control over their bodies than they have when
they were in primary school. They become more active and have greater liberty to choose
the hobbies or sports that they want to get involved in.
Children in their late childhood stage always seem to be in a hurry-they get so
busy with their schoolwork, interacting with their friends, exploring other possible
activities, but this period of physical development seems to take on a leisurely pace.
This may also be the stage when puberty may begin. Puberty is the period in which
the body undergoes physical changes and become capable of sexual reproduction.
Early Puberty
 On the average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of boys in
terms of physical maturity, although these developments may be determined by how
close a child is to puberty. Puberty may begin early period. Budding breasts for girls-
which is the initial sign of puberty. Some girls may also start with their menstrual period
ask early as 8 and some as late as 13.
Puberty’s changes start when the brain triggers the production of sex hormones.
Here are some changes that may happen to both girls and boys during early puberty.

Girls Boys
Breast • small lumps from • may also have
behind the nipple swelling on their
may occur, which chest but tends to
sometime could be go away within a
painful but year or two.
eventually, the pain
goes away.
• It is normal for one
breast to develop
more slowly than
the other
Genitals • the vulva starts in • Subtle increase in
increase a bit. testicle size
• The vagina gets • penis and scrotum
longer. start to grow.
• the uterus gets • semen may be
bigger. released when he is
awake or even
during sleep.
Hair Growth • hair will start to grow • hair will start to grow
in the armpits and and become thicker.
pubic areas. • new hair will also
grow in the armpits
and pubic area
around the genitals.
• May start developing
chest and facial
hair.
Height, Weight and Muscle Development
During late childhood, a child's weight on average, maybe 2.3 to 3.2 kilograms per
year. Weight increase was mainly due to that increase in size of skeletal and muscular
systems as well as several organs. An average of 2 1/2 inches in height and an average
of an inch in head circumference each year. Children during this stage may experience
growth spurts – sudden boosts in height and weight, which are usually accompanied by
increase in appetite and food intake.

Many of the body structures like the liver, muscles, skeletons, kidneys and face
follow a normal curve of development for both girls and boys. Other structures like the
brain, intestines and other organs and bodily systems mature at their own time, thus,
affecting growth patterns. Increase in body fats also occurs in preparation for the growth
that occurs during adolescence. The body fat increase occurs earlier in girls and is greater
in quantity.

Girls appear to be “chubby” while boys tend to have more lean body mass per inch
of height than girls. These are all normal part of development. These differences in body
composition become more significant during adolescence.

Motor Skills
During this stage, movements or the muscles and bones become more
coordinated. At the age of 10 or 11 years, most children will have learned to play sports
like swimming, basketball, volleyball, and running. These physical skills become a source
of pleasure and great achievement to their children. In activities that use large muscle
activities, boys tend to be nimbler then girls.

Although a significant increase in a physical activity may occur in this stage,

children in their late childhood is far from being physically mature. They become
overwhelmed when sitting for standing two long than when running, jumping or playing
actively. This is because they need time to refine their skills, so they prefer active rather
than passive movements.

From age of 8, children show greater coordination in writing. Their fine motor skills
develop gradually which may be evidenced by the size of the letters and numbers. Font
size becomes smaller and are more even. They may even produce good quality crafts or
have greater control in playing instruments like piano or guitar. In this skills, girls usually
surpass the boys.

INSECURITIES
At this stage, children may become very concerned about their physical
appearance. Girls especially, may become concerned about their weight and decide to
eat less. Boys may become aware of their stature and muscles size and strength.

Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must be very
conscious about their dealings with these children. Appropriate activities must be
designed so that children will be guided into the right direction. Children must be given
opportunities to engage themselves in a worthwhile activity that:
• Promote healthy growth
• Give them a feeling of accomplishment, and
• Reduce the risk of certain diseases.

Implications to child-care, education, and parenting

During this stage, children are more physically active however, they still have a lot
of physical maturity to undergo. Here are some points to consider for health-care
providers, teachers and parents.
Provide ample opportunities at home and in school for physical exercises and
sports.
Encourage children to participate in varied worthwhile activities until they are able
to discover the ones they are interested in.
 Develop a strong emotional attachment with your children so as to address any
insecurities and social concerns.
Since children in this stage have more control over their eating habits, provide
them with healthier food choices.

APPLICATION
1. Being healthy physically greatly helps children in their late adulthood to become
successful in their everyday undertakings.
Design a simple exercise program appropriate for children ages 9 to 12. Divide
your program into three parts:
Part 1: Warm up Activities:
• May include breathing exercises and stretching routines
Part 2: Exercise Proper:
• May consist of three to four sets of exercises which may focus on the
following areas: (a) body balance and posture, (b) endurance, (c). muscle
strength and/or (d) agility
Part 3: Cooling Down or Quieting Activity:
• Includes another set of breathing and stretching exercises

___________________________________
Title of Exercise

Part 1: Warm Up Activities

____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
 Part 2: Exercise Proper
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Part 3: Cooling Down or Quieting Activity:

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
2. As a teacher, what ideas can you give in order to help intermediate school children
_____________________________________________________
develop physically?
____________________
➢ _______________________________________________________
Reflection
To ensure that you are promoting your students’ physical well-being, ask yourself the
following questions:

1. Do I understand that each child undergoes physical development at

different paces?
2. Do I appreciate the different physical changes in both girls and boys?
3. Do I maintain a healthy body that my students can get inspiration
from?
4. Do I refrain from taking any form of vices to encourage my students to
live a healthy life, too?
5. Do I provide appropriate physical exercises so that my students may
develop proper physical health?
 UNIT 5 – LATE CHILDHOOD (The Intermediate Schooler)
- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, PhD

Cognitive Development of Intermediate Schoolers

MODULE
22

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Examine the cognitive characteristics of intermediate school children
• Discuss important factors that affect the cognitive development of intermediate
school children
• Enumerate ways on how teachers can promote creativity in the learning
environment, learning activities and instructional materials.

INTRODUCTION
Since children in this stage are already in their late childhood, rapid development
of mental skill is evident. According to Jean Piaget, concrete operational thinkers can now
organize thoughts effectively, although they can logically perceive the immediate
situation. They can apply what they have learned to situations and events that they can
manipulate.
Thus, their reasoning and logical thinking are still very limited. But with proper
guidance and nurturance from parents, teachers and the rest of the community, these
children can easily succeed in their intellectual endeavors.
ACTIVITY
Write your understanding of the following statement.

Intelligence
is…
➢ The ability to create an effective product or offer a service
that is valued in a culture;
➢ A set of skills that makes it possible for person to solve
problems in life;
➢ The potential for finding or creating solutions for problems,
which involves gathering new knowledge.
- Howard Gardner

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

ANALYSIS
Discuss Questions:
1. What kind of intelligences is being referred to by Howard Gardner?
2. What intelligence do you think is the most evident in this stage of
development?
3. Do these intelligences vary among children in terms of age and gender?

ABSTRACTION

Initial Cognitive Characteristics

Intermediate School children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they can now
utilize more effectively as compared to the thinking skills during their primary years. Their
schoolwork is now more complicated, reading text have become longer problem solving
has become an everyday part of their lives.
Their ability to use logic and reasoning gives them chances to think about what
they want and how to get it. They now become very interested in talking about the future
or even their potential careers. They develop special interest in collections, hobbies and
sports. They are even capable of understanding concepts without having direct hands-on
experiences.

Reading Development
Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word attack. Because of
the presence of previous knowledge, they now have a wide vocabulary which enables
them to understand the meanings of unknown words though context clues – this is the
“Reading to Learn” Stage in reading development. They are no longer into the fairy tales
and magic type of stories but are more interested in longer and more complex reading
materials (e.g. fiction books and series books).
The website www.readingrockets.org listed a few strategies in choosing age-
appropriate books for intermediate schoolers. In choosing books appropriate to their age,
consider the following:
➢ Consider who the child is – his or her personality traits and personal
preferences when choosing a book.
➢ Make a selection with the child in mind; choose an informational book or a
novel in an area of specific interest.
➢ Choose books that encourage discussion and insight-building.

Attention
Older children have longer, and more flexible attention span compared to young
children. Their span of attention is dependent on how much is required by the given task.
In terms of schoolwork, older children can concentrate and focus more for long periods
of hours especially if they are highly interested in what they are doing.
Creativity

“CREATIVITY is not the finding of a thing but making

something out of it after it is found.”
- James Russell Lowell

Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity is innate in
children, they just need a little guidance and support from parents, teachers and people
around them. They are usually at their best when the work is done in small pieces.
Creativity in children is encouraged when the activities:
• Encourage different responses from each child;
• Celebrate uniqueness
• Break stereotypes;
• Value process over product;
• Reduce stress and anxiety in children
• Support to share ideas, not only with the teacher / parent but also
with ither children; and
• Minimize competition and external rewards.

The Impact of Media

“Television viewing is a highly complex, cognitive activity during which children

are actively involved in learning.”
- (Anderson and Collins, 1988)

The dream of having a television unit in every classroom started in the 1950’s. It
was considered as one of the first technological advancements in schools. The impact of
the use of television and other media like computer has gained popularity because
students are given more opportunity to:
➢ Communicate effectively in speech and in writing;
➢ Work collaboratively;
➢ Use technological tools;
➢ Analyze problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for achieving those goals;
and
 ➢ Seek out information or skills on their own, as needed to meet their goals

Media and Aggression

Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the results of media.
According to the Public Health Summit in 2000, the following are some of the negative
results of media:
➢ Children will increase anti-social and aggressive behavior.
➢ Children may become less sensitive to violence and those who suffer from violence.
➢ Children may view the world as violent and mean, becoming more fearful of being
a victim of violence.
➢ Children will desire to see more violence in entertainment and real life.
➢ Children will view violence as an acceptable way to settle conflicts.

The school and the home provide children with unlimited access to media, not only
televisions and computers, but also videos, movies, comic books and music lyrics. The
responsibility now lies with the parents, teachers and the whole community. It should be
a collective effort among the factors working together to support children in every aspect
of development.

Having a role model is extremely important for children at this stage of transition
(from childhood to adolescence). Children need an adult to admire and emulate. Role
models also provide them with motivation to succeed. One of the most important roles
of teachers is to become very good role model to children.

Implications to Child Care, Education and Parenting

Children have varying intelligence profiles. These profiles may be based on
influences on learning and achievement. Parents, child-care providers and teachers
should be able to recognize these through:
➢ Being an eager participant in children’s growth and development;
 ➢ Understanding how to use the children’s natural curiosity to help make the
appropriate developmental leaps in their skills and abilities; and
➢ Creating an atmosphere where risks can be taken and discoveries made while
children remain safe.

APPLICATION
Write the definitions of the following words based on how you understand them.

a. Concrete Operational Thinkers

_________________________
_________________________

b. “Reading to Learn” stage (in reading

development)
________________________
________________________

c. Attention Span
________________________
________________________

d. Creativity
________________________
________________________
Research Connection
Access the video link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3krHQmOsR44. This
video was uploaded by scholastic and is entitled “Kids Tell Us: Why I Read.” In the video,
you will gain insight on what motivates Intermediate School children read.
Write some of the reasons that you find interesting.

As a teacher, write some concrete steps that you can do in the classroom to encourage
your students to make reading a habit.

Reflection
To ensure that you are promoting your students’ cognitive well-being, ask yourself the
following questions:

1. Do I provide a wide variety of concrete experiences for my students

learning?
2. Do I involve my students in activities that allow conversations about
abstract concepts and operations?
3. Do I provide them with appropriate concrete and manipulative materials?
4. Do I use technology wisely to engage my students in practicing their skills?
5. Do I recognize that students at this age will sometimes test the rules,
regulations and authority?
6. Do I provide opportunities for them to enrich their reading skills?
 UNIT 5 – LATE CHILDHOOD (The Intermediate Schooler)
- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, PhD

Socio-emotional Development of Intermediate

MODULE Schoolers
23

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Identify the socio-emotional characteristics of children in their late childhood stage.
• Determine the qualities of family life that affect older children’s development
including changes in family interactions.
• Interview a parent regarding their child’s socio-emotional development

INTRODUCTION
At this period of socio-emotional development, children are spending less time in
the home. The bulk of their time is spent outside the home, either alone or with other
children, rather than with adults. Other children have already familiarized themselves with
other children. They are already used to interacting with different ages and gender. For
many of them, these social networks are not only sources of social support but also
different forms of learning.
ACTIVITY
Paste a picture of you when you were in grade 4, 5, or 6. Recall a significant event
that happened to you. Write a very brief story of what happened.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

ANALYSIS
Discuss Questions:
As you share your story with a classmate, try to answer the questions below:
1. Why was this event so significant?
 2. What do you think were the factors that contributed to make you react
or feel that way?
3. How do you think this event has affected you socially and emotionally?
4. Thinking about it now, do you think you could have acted or felt
differently?

ABSTRACTION:
Understanding Self-Competence, Self-Identity and Self-Concept
One of the most widely recognized characteristics of
this period of development is the acquisition of feelings of
self-competence. This is what Erik Erikson referred to when
he described the developmental task of middle childhood -
the social crisis industry versus inferiority. Industry refers
to the drive to acquire new skills and do meaningful "work."

The child should have a growing sense of

competence. The child's definitions of self and
accomplishment vary greatly according to
interpretations in the surrounding environment.
Varied opportunities must be provided in order for
children to develop a sense of perseverance. They
should be offered chances to both fail and succeed,
along with sincere feedback and support.

During late childhood, children can now describe themselves with internal and
psychological characteristics and traits. They most likely employ more social comparison
- distinguishing themselves from others. In dealing with other children, they show
increase in perspective taking. This ability increases with age. It enables them to (a)
judge others' intentions, purposes and actions, (b) give importance to social attitudes and
behaviors and (c) increase skepticism of others' claims.
Emotional Development
The same with other areas of development, children in this stage, show improved
emotional understanding, increased understanding that more than one emotion can be
experienced in a single experience. They may also show greater ability to show or conceal
emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine empathy.

Another milestone in this stage is the development of the children's emotional

intelligence (EQ), which involves the ability to
monitor feelings of oneself and others to guide and
motivate behavior. Emotional Intelligence has four
main areas:
• Developing emotional self-awareness
• Managing emotions (self-control)
• Reading emotions (perspective taking)
• Handling emotions (resolve problems)

Building Friendships
As children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in peer interaction
increases. For them, good peer relationships are very important. The approval and
belongingness they receive contributes to the stability and security of their emotional
development. Peer size also increases and less supervision by adults is required. At this
stage, children prefer to belong to same-sex peer groups. There are five types of peer
status:
 Popular
❖ frequently nominated as the best friend and one who is
rarely disliked by peers
Average
❖ receive an average number of positive and negative
nominations from peers
Neglected
❖ very seldom nominated as best friend but is not really
disliked
Rejected
❖ infrequently nominated as a best friend but one who is
also disliked by peers
Controversial
❖ frequently nominated as a best friend but at the same
time is disliked by peers

Popular children have the following skills which peers find very
positive and as a result they become the most favored in the group:
1. They give out reinforcement.
2. They act naturally.
3. They listen carefully and keep open communication.
4. They are happy and are in control of their negative emotions.
5. They show enthusiasm and concern for others.

On the other hand, here are the characteristics of neglected children and why the
group or majority of the peers develop negative feelings toward them:
1. They participate less in the classroom.
2. They have negative attitudes on school attendance.
3. They are more often reported as being lonely.
4. They are aggressive.
 a. In boys:
- They become impulsive; have problems in being attentive and disruptive.
- They are emotionally reactive and slow to calm down.
- They have fewer social skills to make and maintain friends.

Family
Family support at this stage is crucial. If children do not find a supportive family
when they find their interest (e.g. in hobbies like riding a bike or playing a musical
instrument) they can easily get frustrated. If families are a primary support system,
failures and setbacks become temporary and surmountable rather than something that
is attributed to personal flaws or deficits. This time is a critical time for children. to develop
a sense of competence. A high-quality adult relationship, specifically, family relationships
enable them to successfully go through this stage of development.
Big Ideas
This module stresses that:
❖ During late childhood, a wide variety of biological, psychological and social changes
take place across the developmental domains.
❖ As children progress through late childhood, the family environment remains
extremely important, while the community environment - including the school - also
becomes a significant factor in shaping the child's development.
❖ During late childhood, peers have an increasingly strong impact on development; peer
acceptance becomes very important to well-being.

Implications to Child Care, Education and Parenting

Primary school children's socio-emotional competency should be viewed in the
context of the child's developmental age. Health-care providers, teachers and parents
should be able to:
❖ gain understanding of their child's socio-emotional strengths and weaknesses by
❖ Encouraging children to talk about their feelings without doing it forcefully
 ❖ provide opportunities for children to build relationships with teachers and fellow
classmates;
❖ remind children that friendships have their ups and downs and that occasional
conflicts and arguments can be healthy;
❖ design activities that allow children to work on their own and discover activities
and hobbies that they enjoy; and
❖ model healthy relationships.

APPLICATION
A. Study the illustration on the left. It shows some of the factors that may result
in some degree of emotional stress to intermediate school-age children. What can you
say to kids who may be experiencing these things? Write a letter to them.

My dear child,

_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________

https://www.virtuallabschool.org/school-age/social-emotional/lesson-2
 B. Interview a parent or a teacher of an intermediate school-age child. Use the
questions below as your guide. Write your conclusions and insights.

Name of Parent / Teacher (optional):

"Age and Grade Level of the Child:
Gender of the Child:

Questions:
1. What are some marked changes in your child as he/she reached
the intermediate level (Grades 4 to 6)?
2. How can you describe his/her interactions with parents, siblings,
teachers, peers - if any?
3. What can you say about your child's self-confidence and self-
esteem?
4. What activities in the home do you do to help your children
interact with people around him/her

My Insights:
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Research on one of the topics below and find out how intermediate school-aged children
respond to one of the following events in life:
➢ death
➢ parents' separation
➢ rejection from peers

Reflection
To ensure that you are promoting your students' socio-emotional well being, ask yourself
the following questions:

➢
1. Do I have healthy relationships with my students, fellow teachers and
superiors?
➢
2. Do I have a good sense of my self-identity?
➢
3. ➢
Do I encourage my students to be open with their feelings and emotions?
➢
4. Do I provide my students with a non-threatening classroom environment?
➢
5. Do I respect my students' individuality and authority?
➢
6. ➢
Do I foster healthy friendships among my students?
 UNIT 6 – Adolescence (The High School Learner)
- Paz I. Lucido, PhD

Physical Development of High School Learners

MODULE
24

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this Module, you should be able to:
• describe the physical and sexual changes accompanying puberty.
• identify the psychological consequences of early and late physical maturation in
adolescence.
• identify factors that enhance impede the socio-emotional. development of
adolescents.
• identify causes of possible habit disorders and ways of coping with them.
• present an abstract of recent research related to the physical development of
adolescents.
• draw implications of these physical development concepts to high school teaching-
learning, and parenting.

INTRODUCTION
This Module seeks to facilitate the learning in defining/describing the adolescent
along physical development with focus on the major change factor of puberty. Early and
late physical maturation will be discussed, while identifying dangers and opportunities for
the growing teenage child. The impact of social media will be highlighted, to invite
learners to further research on topics as body-image, social media and the adolescent,
and the roles and responsibilities of the family, school and government.
 Adolescence is a stage of human development that coincides with puberty, a
biological development occurring at the average age of 11 for girls and 12 for boys. There
are factors, however, which contribute to early puberty and delayed puberty. These
factors include heredity, diet, exercise and socio-environmental influence. Early and late
maturation in adolescence accompany the cognitive and socio-emotional development of
adolescents. In this situation, the teacher must be an understanding teacher who can
provide guidance and support to adolescent learners in their high school years.

ACTIVITY
Share your real life experiences on these aspects your adolescent period:

Physical or biological growth whether this was slow or

fast, smooth or by spurts;
Any sense of curiosity or concern for incidences of
menstruation for girls and wet dreams for boys.
The effect of biological growth on self-image (possibly as
one is too thin or plump, lanky or short, not so good
looking or attractive, etc.)
Parental relationship (as a teenager you seek privacy,
independence, etc.)

ANALYSIS
Answer the following questions as a group:.
1. Was there anything common in the shared experiences?
2. Was there anything unique to individuals in the group?
ABSTRACTION
Defining adolescence
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive and socio-
emotional changes. The period of adolescence begins with the biological changes of
puberty. The specific ages for this period vary from person-to-person but (i) early
adolescence characterized by puberty may come at the ages of 11 and 12 (ii) middle
adolescence may meet identity issues within the ages of 14 and 16, and (iii) late
adolescence marks the transition into adulthood at ages 17 and 20.
This module is focused on physical development with puberty marking the major
transition manifested by changes in (i) physical appearance (ii) rapid rate of growth (next
to the speed of growth of the fetus in the uterus) known as growth spurts (iii) resultant
feeling of awkwardness and unfamiliarity with bodily changes, and (iv) alterations in
sleeping habits and parent-adolescent relationship possibly accompanying puberty.

Puberty changes
Throughout life, growth hormones condition gradual increases in body size and
weight. Hormone flooding
during adolescence causes an
acceleration known as growth
spurts. Growth spurts include a
change in body dimensions (leg
length, shoulder width, trunk
length). Spurt in height is ascribed
to trunk growth rather than leg
growth.

In girls, the growth spurts

generally begin at age 10 reaching
its peak at age 11 and-a-half, while
slow continual growth occurs for several more years. For boys, growth spurts begin at
age 12 reaching a peak at age 14 and declining at age 15 and a half, while slow continual
growth continues on for several more years.

Among girls, 98% of adult height is generally reached at age 16, while boys do so
at age 17. Growth in height is conditioned by stages in bone maturation. The muscles
also grow in terms of size and strength. Similar growth spurts occur for weight, muscle
size, head and face, maturation, and the reproductive organs.

All muscular and skeletal dimensions appear to take part in the growth spurts during
adolescence.

Factors affecting development

The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is complex. Hormones
are powerful and highly specialized chemical substances that interact with bodily cells.
Hormonal changes in the hypothalamus and pituitary glands signal the entire process of
sexual maturation. The process entails (i) secretion of gonadotropic hormones by
the anterior pituitary at the base of the brain near the geometric center of the head (ii)
Gonads which are the ovaries for the female and the testis for the male are then
stimulated by the gonadotropic hormones, in turn stimulating their own hormones (ii)
this stimulation causes the secretion of testosterone in the male sex organ and of
estrogen in the female ovary.
❖ In the male, testosterone stimulates male characteristics comprised by (i)
spermache enlargement of the testis gland that produces sperm in the scrotum,
growth of the penis male organ for copulation (ii) capacity for ejaculation of male
sperms (iii) voice change (iii) facial hair development or beard growth, and
continuing growth of pubic hair. Occurring late in puberty, the lowering of the
voice caused by enlargement of the larynx and double lengthening of the vocal
cords is viewed to be the most obvious aspect of adolescent development
 ❖ In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast enlargement,
appearance of pubic hair, widening of the hips, and menarche or first
menstruation. The elevation of the female breast is the first external sign of
puberty in girls, accompanied by growth of the uterus and vagina. Generally, girls
achieve menarche beginning age 11 until age 13. There are ethnic differences such
as African American and European American girls exhibiting secondary sex
activities as early as 8 and 9 years; menarche as early as 11 and 12 years,
respectively.

In contrast with menarche, spermache signals the first sign of puberty and sexual
maturity in boys. The need to discharge semen mixed with a sticky fluid produced by the
prostate gland-occurs periodically. Discharge of semen occurs during sleep caused by
sexual dreams. It may also occur during conscious manipulation of the male sexual organ
known as masturbation. Religion strictly prohibits masturbation that is coupled with
sexual fantasies, but science liberally regards masturbation as a normal phenomenon
unless it becomes a habitual aberration that may affect confidence in heterosexual (boy-
and-girl) relationship.

The secular trend

The secular trend is a phenomenon of more rapid physical. maturation during
this century. In the 1800s, girls in industrial societies had their first menstrual period at
age 15-17, and age later in repressed societies. Today boys reach their maximum height
at age 18-20 and 13 14 for girls, but adult height 100 years ago was at 23-25 for boys
and 19-20 for girls. The secular trend is ascribed to varied factors, such as: interaction of
genetic and environmental influences, improved health care and living conditions, and
control of infectious diseases. Better nutrition is a major factor since this provides more
protein and calories for humans from conception upwards. Observably, the secular trend
in industrial countries appears to be levelling off while the experience of secular trends is
just starting in peasant economies of the world.
Sexual identity
Adolescence is a time of sexual
exploration and experimentation with sexual
fantasies and realities of incorporating sexuality
with one's identity quoted by Santrack, 2005
from one's identity (Christopher, 2001)
Adolescents are concerned about their
body image sexual attractiveness how to do sex
and the future of their sexual lives. Most
adolescents manage to develop a mature sexual
identity but a number go through it with much
confusion.

How do adolescents develop a sexual identity?

An adolescent's sexual identity involves sexual orientation, activities, interests, and
styles of behavior (Bugwell & Rosenthal, 1996). Some adolescents are very anxious about
sex and sexually active. Others are. only a ous about sex and are sexually inactive.
Sexual orientation is a person's tendency to be attracted to people of the same
sex (homosexual orientations), of the opposite sex (heterosexual orientation) or of both
sexes (bisexual orientation)

Why does an adolescent develop a specific sexual orientation is at matter of great debate.
It may boil down to the same issue of nature vs. nurture.

In terms of sexual identity, adolescence is the period when most gay/lesbian and
transgenders begin to recognize and make sense of their feelings. Development analyst
Froiden proposed a model for the development of homosexual identity: (i) sensitization
marked by the child's becoming aware of same sex attractions. (ii) identity confusion
when the youth is overwhelmed with feelings of inner turmoil regarding sexual orientation
(iii) identity assumption when adolescents come out of the family and assumes a self-
definition as gay, lesbian or bisexual, and (iv) commitment when the young adult adopts
a sexual identity as a lifestyle. Coming to terms with a positive LGBT (lesbian, gay,
bisexual and transgender) identity is usually difficult for variety of reasons, including
family, race and religious cultures. Risks to the homosexual adolescent are real amid a
heteronormative environment and LGBTs may suffer ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even
violence.

Self-esteem
A major aspect of identity formation during the period of adolescence is self-esteem.
Self-esteem is defined as one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and
identity. Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire across all genders
and ages to maintain, protect and enhance self-esteem. There is no significant drop in
self-esteem over the period of adolescence. Baseline self-esteem is stable across
adolescence, but a barometric (unstable) self-esteem may fluctuate rapidly to cause
severe distress and anxiety. Girls enjoy self-esteem through supportive relationship with
friends or others who can provide social and moral support. In contrast, boys are more
prone to assert independence in defining their relationships, deriving self-esteem from
their ability to successfully influence others.

The lack of romantic competence failure to meet the affection of the opposite sex-
can be a major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys. In a Meyer study, the
end of a romantic relationship can affect both boys and girls, but girls are twice as likely
to experience depression, while boys are three to four times more likely to commit suicide.
Implications for child care, education and parenting

To meet the physical development of adolescent children, parents

need to be aware of manifestations of behavioral patterns that
require closer communication, guidance and support. The teen is
especially addictive to modern gadgets for music listening, video
games, mobile phone communication, and social media posting.
These activities cause shorter sleeping time that may contribute
to increased levels of daytime drowsiness, sleeping problems and
depression. In school, teachers need to be aware of the possible
drop in self-esteem among adolescent learners. . The teacher's
support is crucial to protect adolescent learners against severe
distress and anxiety over their school work and social
relationships.

Body image and the adolescent

Consciousness about body image is strong during the adolescent period. It is
important that adolescents feel confident about how they look, but the physical features
of the human body (facial looks, body size, color of skin, etc.) depend on genetic heritage
which must be respected. However, there is more to body image than physical looks and
these concern good habits in relation to:
cleanliness and grooming,
proper wearing of clothes according to current styles,
erect body posture,
eye contact while communicating, and
decorum (good form and confidence) and decency.
APPLICATION
1. Cite at least 5 ideas from this module, then give a reason why each of these
ideas is important for the positive growth or development of an adolescent..

Big Ideas from the Reasons why these ideas are important. for
Module the development of adolescents

1
2
3
4
5

RESEARCH CONNECTION
Write brief summaries of published research articles, such as, among others:
❖ The adolescent brain
❖ Puberty plateaus
❖ Adolescent behavioral inhibitions
Share your findings with the class.

Reflection
To ensure your understanding and practical grasp of the adolescent's physical
development, ask yourself the following questions:

1. ➢
What were significant experiences during my own adolescent years in high school?

2. ➢
Did my physical features affect my self-esteem?
3. ➢
Was/were my parent/s particularly aware of how I was developing physically?
4. Did my teachers recognize changes in my teen years and were they particularly
supportive?
5. How were my teen years different from the teen learners today when social media
affect their lives, schooling and relationship?
6. What competencies do I need as a teacher for teens in this millennium?
 In the Philippines as in other countries, problems exist such as teenage pregnancy,
abortion, early marriage, and child trafficking. Major pubertal and biological changes
during adolescence call for social management at home school and society.

Write a personal journal on your experiences

as an adolescent and how you were able to
overcome issues related to the period, such
as self-esteem, body image, boy-girl
romantic relationship, etc.
 UNIT 6 – Adolescence (The High School Learner)
- Paz I. Lucido, PhD

Cognitive Development of High School Learners

MODULE
25

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• describe the cognitive development of adolescents in the light of Piaget’s and
Siegler’s cognitive development theories.
• explain the consequences of the adolescents’ cognitive development on their
behavior.
• define overachievement and underachievement and propose solutions to
underachievement.
• present an abstract of recent research related to cognitive development of
adolescents.
• draw implications of these cognitive developmental concepts to high school
teaching-learning and parenting.

INTRODUCTION
Adolescence is a time for rapid cognitive development. At this stage of development,
there is a decrease in egocentric thoughts, while the individual’s thinking takes more an
abstract form. This allows the individual to think and reason in a wider perspective.
Behavioral studies also show the development of executive functions comprised by
cognitive functions that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behavior.
Adolescence is therefore a period of human development that has great influence on the
individual’s future life through character and personality formation.

ACTIVITY
Share your
experiences about ❖ The grades you received (and possible awards and

the following recognition) and their effect at home and school

which relate to ❖ Any involvement in projects (e.g. IT research,
cognitive workshops, planning, discovering, organizing, etc.) and
development:
what cognitive processes were involved in these

❖ Memorable field study and how this helped you develop

cognitively

ANALYSIS
1. After answering the activity, have you progressed from simple memory of facts to
higher types of learning (understanding, applying, analyzing, assessing, etc.)?
2. How did your school learning relate to actual life at home and in the community?
For example, were mathematical subjects (Algebra, Trigonometry, etc.) really
helpful and applicable in your life?
3. Do you think you need to develop your cognitive or thinking skills more so that
you can be a planner, an organizer, or a leader?

ABSTRACTION
Similarly remarkable as the physical changes during adolescence are changes in
thinking patterns. These changes are marked by the acquisition of new cognitive skills
due to brain’s increasing in weight and refining synaptic connections (technically known
as corpus collosum) which join and coordinate the two hemispheres of the brain.
Another brain development is the process of correlated temporal and parietal areas
(technically known as myelination). This second development covers the brain systems
whose executive functions relate to attention, verbal fluency, language and planning.
Through brain scanning, three peaks in brain maturation have been identified
by neurological scientists and these are at age 12, age 15, and age 18.5 coinciding with
operational thinking processes for logical reasoning. Accompanying brain changes in
cognitive ability, the adolescent begins to acquire spatial awareness and formulate
abstract or general ideas involving numbers, order, and cause-effect. All these changes
the world of possible and universal ideas (e.g. general ideas about the good, true and
beautiful).

Piaget’s Formal Operational Thinker

Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking which demonstrates how
the cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows him/her to go beyond the sensible and
concrete in order to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical and possible. In this realm of
thought, the adolescent begins to attain subtlety in thinking, entering the sphere of
possibles and futuribles. More specifically, formal operational thinking consists in:

Proportional thinking—making Relativistic thinking—

assertions outside visual subjectively making an opinion
evidence, and stating what may on facts—involving one’s own
be possible in things not seen bias, prejudice of distortion of
by the eyes (for example, facts which may be either right
whether an unseen object is red or wrong (for example, arguing
or green, big or small, flat orReal vs. possible – examining afor or against the superiority of
round). the races, whether white,
situation and exploring thebrown, yellow or black).
possible in terms of situations
or solutions (e.g. possible
success in implementing a
student project or a school
policy.)

A new capacity known as Hypothetic-Deductive Reasoning emerges in the

adolescent reasoning from general facts / situations to a particular conclusion. The school
pendulum experiment is an example of deducing from variables and generating and
recognizing a truth, expressed by the transitional process of deriving a conclusion from a
hypothesis.

Scientific evidence shows that while adolescents may obtain the capacity for formal
operational thinking, only experience and education will allow them to practice it. School
math and science activities such as performing Physics-type problems (balance scales,
pendulums, projections of images and shadows, etc.) certainly help in actualizing formal
operational thinking.

Outside formal operational thinking through mathematical and science studies, the
adolescent enters into a new capability which makes him a problem-solving thinker. This
involves identifying problem and seeking new and creative solutions for them. The
problem-finding thinker is one who is able to rethink and recognize ideas and ask
questions, even defining totally new problems not previously seen.

The adolescent may further experience an increase in depth of thought. Thus

he/she is able to bring what is logically “best” for everyday life, whether or not this may
be the objectively correct solution or response to a situation or problem.

Siegler’s Information Processing Skills

As in information-processing theories, Robert Siegler views the influence of the

environment on thinking. He sees cognitive growth, not as stages of development, but
more of a sequential acquisition of specific knowledge and strategies for problem-solving.
He observes the quality of information the adolescent processes that influences him/her
in facing tasks at hand through strategies or rules.

In his experiments, Siegler used rule models in relation to balance, weight,

distance, conflict-weight, conflict-distance, and other conflict balance problems. He
examined the correct and wrong answers to each of problems, drawing out rule models
on thinking and working.

Thereupon, adolescents may show; (a) speed in information processing, coupled

with greater awareness and control and acquired knowledge base—a more efficient kind
of thinking compared with that of the child (b) complexity by way of considering longer-
term implications and possibilities beyond the here-and-now, and (c) increased volume
of information processing coupled with longer memory span.

Metacognition

Among the cognitive advances in

adolescence is metacognitive which is
the ability to identify one’s own
thinking processes and strategies
inclusive of perception, memory,
understanding, application, analysis,
assessment and innovation. The
adolescent is able to state “I know that”
among the memory data stored in his
mind; also able to state recall through the use of mnemonic device. The adolescent may
also such questions as what, why, where and how. All these are demonstrations of higher
order thinking adolescence.

Another important development is the ability of the adolescent for information

processing. Information theorist Robert Siegler sees a sequential acquisition of specific
knowledge and strategies for problem solving. He observes the quality of information
processes that facts tasks at hand through strategies and rules. Rules relate to balance,
weight, distance, conflict weight, conflict distance and conflict balance problems.
Thereupon the adolescent shows (i) speed in information processing coupled with
awareness and control (ii) complexity by way of considering longer-term implications and
possibilities beyond the here-and-now, (iii) increased volume of information processing,
coupled with longer memory span along many areas or domains of knowledge. The
adolescent thus transforms from being a novice to becoming a near-expert.
Overachievement

During adolescence, he/she can achieve very high

academic grades, in spite of not getting IQ grades
that are at the top 3 or 5 percent of the bell curve.
The case of overachievers is a reminder that the
Intelligence are other factors such as motivation
interest, work habits, and personality development.
Beyond statistical achievement in curricular subjects
(English, Math, Science, Araling Panlipunan, etc.) the
overachieving adolescent may demonstrate superior
work habits, greater interest in school work, more
consistency in doing assignments, and more grade/
performance consciousness and planning compared with “normal” achievers.

Characteristics of overachievers are:

Positive self- value (self-esteem, confidence, optimism);

Openness to authority (responsive to expectations of parents and
teachers);
Positive interpersonal relations (responsive and sensitive to
feelings of others);
Less conflict on the issue of self-autonomy (feels freedom to
make right choices, initiates and leads activities);
Academic orientation (disciplined work habits, high motivation to
discover and learn, interest in study values and varied fields of
study);
Goal orientation (efficiency and energy in organizing, planning,
setting target, prioritizing long-term goals over short-term
rewards); and
Control over anxiety (well composed and relaxed performance of
organized tasks).
Underachievement

The adolescent may perform below the

standards set. Possible potentials do not cope
with the opportunity to learn and score in the
top quarter of measured academic achievement.
Underachievement may become more
pronounced when high school class work
becomes more demanding. Withdrawn
underachievers refer to those who .docile.
They follow the path of no resistance, not reacting to given assignments and school
regulations. Generally quiet, they do not participate in class activities. Aggressive
underachievers are those who tend to be talkative, disruptive and rebellious.

Behavior and adolescent cognitive growth

There are behavioral tendencies which may accompany cognitive growth during
adolescence. These are:

Egocentrism.
➢ This is the adolescents’ tendency to think too much of themselves, while being
too sensitive to social acceptance of their appearance, actions, feelings, ideas,
etc.
➢ Egocentrist teens feel they are being watched like an actor on stage; keep an
imaginary audience who are strict critics of dress, behavior of performance.
➢ One egocentric strain is exaggerated feeling of self- importance which may lead
to murky early boy- girl relationships, dangerous escapades and adventures.
Idealism.
➢ This refers to imagining the far- fetched and less ideal situations at home, in
school, and in society.
➢ The teen may imagine a utopia or heaven on earth leading to discouragement
when social realities become harsh (e.g. unexpected low grades, family discord,
etc.)

Increased argumentativeness.
➢ Teens enjoy learning through the use of group dynamics including role play,
debate, and drama.
➢ Strict imposition of the use of English in the campus has been the strategy by
premiere schools to develop argumentative students who later on transform into
leaders in politics, business and other top professional fields.

Implications to adolescent care, education, and parenting

Parents and teachers must be able to recognize the

cognitive development paths among adolescents and create
situations that will foster higher thinking skills through:

Activities at home e.g. asking teenage children for

suggestions on family matters—house physical
arrangements, things to buy, places to go to family
outing, etc.
Allowing more independence e.g. use of school
allowances, choice on what to wear, etc.
Activities in school that allow participation, such as
projects, filed trips, joint internet research, etc., and
Develop reading skills through magazine articles, Internet
blogs.
Developing occupational skills

Senior High School Grades 11 and 12 were designed to provide attention to

occupational skills that are absent even among college graduates. The Department of
Labor and Employment reports that there is mismatch between employable school
graduates and potential jobs or employment. Theorist John Holland has identified basic
personality factors that match with attitude and work preferences:

Realistic- This personality type prefers practical tasks,

including those requiring physical labor and motor
coordination, and less of interpersonal skills (e.g. carpentry,
driving, etc.)

Investigative- This prefers tasks that are conceptual such as

in the fields of science and technology as chemists, scientists,
technologists, etc.

Conventional- This prefers structured tasks that cater to the

needs of others, such as in office jobs and manual labor.

Enterprising- This prefers independence and innovation in

business and other enterprises that reflect autonomy and
personal initiative.

Artistic- This prefers unstructured tasks that show ability for

self- expression such as from artists, musicians, and
performers
 Adolescents may also show capability for multitasking, later on becoming
professionals such as doctors who are at the same time business entrepreneurs. Early
on adolescents may show abilities for gainful work, later on becoming self- supporting
in college, by entering the service sector as fast-food employees, sales clerks, office
messengers, and utility personnel. These adolescent attitudes and abilities
demonstrate:

• self- reliance- working independently without stress;

• money management- not spending money on luxuries, much less on alcohol and
drugs;
• mature work orientation- pride in work and quality of work;
• personal responsibility- assuming tasks independently and competitively; and
• positive attitude to work- work is seen as a gainful wholesome activity and not
burden.

APPLICATION
Read and discuss the cognitive competence of highly known intelligent leaders, among
others: WHO ARE THEY?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
 UNIT 6 – Adolescence (The High School Learner)
- Paz I. Lucido, PhD

Socio-emotional Development of High School

MODULE Learners
26

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the Module, you should be able to:
• describe the socio-emotional changes in adolescents.
• describe how self-image develops among teens.
• discuss causes and solutions to socio-emotional problems. of teenagers such as
gender and identity, autonomy and attachment, peer group, friendships, dating,
juvenile delinquency, depression and suicide.
• draw implications of these socio-emotional developmental concepts to high school
teaching-learning and parenting.

INTRODUCTION
During adolescence the teen develops social cognition in the context of family
structure, the school, the community, and media. He also manifests emotions which need
to be regulated for success in school as well as for his/her own emotional well-being. In
the classroom, the teacher has the mandate for creating a positive learning environment,
while facilitating the students' sound moral judgment. This Module will describe the
adolescent age trend in social behavior as the student interacts with the school, the
community and the larger social environment.
ACTIVITY
Think of the experiences of high school recalling activities which showed socio-emotional
change: e.g. partying, intimate friendship with same sex or opposite sex, etc. and how
these provided learning for your socio-emotional growth: Write briefly the experience and
learning:

Experiences during Teen Years SOCIO-EMOTIONAL GROWTH

Learnings along self-knowledge,
self-identity, social relationships
etc.
Partying

Keeping intimate friends, same or

opposite sex

Others.....
ANALYSIS
Based on the sharing

1. What do you think makes the adolescent differ

from those who have not yet reached the age of

puberty?

2. What social activities do you think are (i) good

for teens (ii) not good or that prevents socio-

emotional growth?

3. As a future teacher, what would be your

attitude to teens in your class?

ABSTRACTION

Human emotions
Generally
Positive emotions
and negative are commonly known as human feelings that
emotions
are manifested by varied conscious or unconscious moods. A more
Emotions function by focusing attention, motivating and enabling
accurate description is that it is a subjective reaction to internal or external
the individual
stimulus. to face aphysical
that involves situationchange,
in life or withdraw
action and runThus,
or appraisal. awaythefrom it.
child
reacts to inner
Positive hunger like
emotions for food or comfort
interest frommotivate
and joy surrounding
the environment.
individual to
continue his/her behavior. On the other hand, negative emotions may
The unique patterns of emotions are (i) event that is strong or
cause withdrawal from what changes
important (ii) physiological may be perceived as badrate,
in heart pulse or dangerous. For
brain activity,
hormone Darwin
Charles levels and
therebody
are temperature (iii) readiness
six basic emotions, namelyforinterest,
action often
joy/
described as "fight or flight" (iv) dependence of the emotion on how the
happiness, sadness, anger, disgust and fear. Other scientists expanded the
stimulus is appraised or interpreted.
list to include love, pride, hope, gratitude, compassion, jealousy and
anxiety.
Social emotions
Social emotions start to emerge as early as the toddler years (15-
24 months) comprised by such feelings as envy, embarrassment, shame,
guilt and pride. Observable emotions during these years may not be
accurate, but they can be a problem if not controlled. Even among early
learners, emotions affect learning, since learners pay more attention to
things with emotional significance.
Emotions can also organize recall, such that learners tend to
remember details of emotionally strong experiences. In time, emotional
competence can be developed by the child, and this means he/she gains
the ability to regulate emotions and understand the emotions of other
people.
Social emotions
Girls are more skilled in regulating emotions, but they are more likely
than boys to be anxious, and twice as likely to be depressed. Adolescent
girls are more likely than boys to have both negative and positive
interactions with family and friends.

Adolescents especially feel stress, usually from relationships with

parents, friends, sweethearts, also from pressure of school work. Thus
adolescents are stereotyped as moody and negative, poor emotion control.
Some studies argue against stereotyping adolescents pointing at other
emotions among teens such as feeling bored, tired, sleepy, social
discomfort like awkwardness and loneliness. Generally, adolescents are
seen to tend to emotions from social evaluation such as feeling
embarrassed when being looked at, also only fairly happy most of the time.
Other observations are that most adolescents are not moody, while some
are frequently angry, anxious or sad. An important lesson for high school
teachers is: you should not simply dismiss emotional negativity as a normal
phase, but should address the needs of teenagers who are chronically
unhappy or moody.

The adolescent and social media

On the present-day profusion of media, the adolescent has easy
access to the culture of various media and social media, inclusive of
computers, cell phones, video games, music iPods, FM radio and cable
television. Almost all household have television sets and about three
quarters of adolescents' homes have access to the Internet.

The total media exposure of the whole populace has greatly

increased, even as adolescents have the highest rates of use of video
games, texting, social networking through Facebook, and portable gadgets
for music, mobile communication and virtual reality games.
 The adolescent and social media
Findings indicate that electronic communication negatively affects
adolescents’ social development. As face-to-face communication is
replaced, social skills are impaired sometimes leading to unsafe interaction
with those who use social media to exploit others financially or sexually
Girls are particularly vulnerable to online socializing, while boys socializing
in Internet cafes lower their academic work and achievement. Socially
insecure teens become victims rather than beneficiaries of the modern
gadget’s innovations of the digital age.

Implication to adolescent care education and parenting

The overall implication is that emotional skills influence the adolescent

learner's success in class work. Learners who are able to regulate their

emotions tend to be happier, better liked and better able to pay attention and

learn. Interventions by the teacher and the school can reduce learner's

emotional distress, while raising test scores and grades. The teacher plays a

most important role in promoting positive changes for the adolescent. As the

teen is susceptible to peer pressure, the negative influence of social media,

drug use and addiction, early romantic sexual adventurism, the teacher and

the school can conduct interventions to assist the youths with focus on risky

and inappropriate behavior while promoting positive development among

APPLICATION
Video making!

Choose a demonstration/performance that display varied

emotions through: to be passed on our gclass.
a. Dance
b. Pantomine (dramatic movement without words)
c. Short skit
d. Song
Make sure your performance are as follows:
a. most artistic, b. most effective, and
c. most inspiring.

Reflection

Through a reflection journal, relat the concept of maturation of

feelings and growth of self image do what you see as the best
theory on human emotions. You may answer the following
questions:
1. how was I emotionally affected by my own beliefs, bias, or
prejudice about people?
2. How was the physical environment at home or school
affected by emotions - positively or negatively?
3. How did people affect my emotional maturity, e.g. parent,
teacher, friend?
 Part III Revisiting the 14-Learner-Centered Psychological Principles in
Relation to the Learner's Developmental Stage

Synthesis of the Physical, Cognitive and Socio-Emotional

Development of Pre-Natal Period

MODULE - Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD

27

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Summarize key features of the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional
development during the pre-natal period
• Apply pedagogical principles in the development process during the pre-natal
period

SYNTHESIS
Give a summary of the key characteristics of pre-natal development by filling out the
table below.
KEY FEATURES OF PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical Development

__________________

Cognitive Development Socio-Emotional

_____________________ Development
______________________
The Pedagogical Principles As Applied to Pre-natal Development
You studied the 14 pedagogical principles in Part 1, Unit 1. Cite and explain at
least one pedagogical principle that applies to pre-natal filling out the table below. You
may choose only those principles that are relevant.

LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE IN

PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
Cluster 1- Principle referring to Cognitive and How is this principle applied in pre-
Metacognitive Factors natal development?

(State the relevant learner-centered principle

here).
Cluster 2 - Principle referring to Motivational How is this principle applied in pre-
and Affective Factors natal development?

(State the relevant learner-centered principle

here).
Cluster 3-Principle referring to Developmental How is this principle applied in pre-
and Social Factors natal development?

(State the relevant learner-centered principle

here).
Cluster 4- Principle referring to Individual How is this principle applied in pre-
Differences Factors natal development?

(State the relevant learner-centered

principle here).
BOARD EXAM TICKLERS
1. Which statement on brain development is CORRECT?
A. Most of the neurons in the adult brain are produced before
birth.
B. Most of the neurons in the adult brain are produced at birth
C. Most of the neurons in the adult brain are produced after birth.
D. Brain development stops at childhood

2. Is the brain capable of learning before birth?

A. Yes.
B. No.
C. Depends on mother's nutrition
D. Depends on baby's health condition

3. Which term refers to the explosive growth of synapses during pre-natal development?
A. Myelination.
B. Spermatogenesis
C. Synaptogenesis
D. Oogenesis

4. Which process increases the connections between areas of the brain during pre-natal
development?
A. Synaptogenesis
B. Myelination
C. Spermatogenesis
D. Oogenesis
5. When infants are born, they immediately begin to observe the world and make sense
of it through sucking, grasping and looking in which stage is this, according to the
Piaget's theory of cognitive development?
A. Pre-operational stage
B. In between sensorimotor and preoperational stages
C. Pre-sensorimotor stage
D. Sensorimotor stage

6. It is observed that there is brief delay between pinching a finger and infant's crying.
Which can explain this?
A. Brain is not yet fully functioning.
B. Sense of touch is not yet fully developed.
C. This is due to incomplete myelination.
D. Infants are less sensitive to pain.

7. Which term refers to one's inability to remember things from infancy to one's first
memories?
A. Childhood amnesia
B. Decay
C. Retrieval failure
D. Interference

8. What is an indicator of separation distress between 1 and 2 years of age?

A. Children cry at the sight of strangers,
B. Children cry and cling when their attachment figure tries to leave.
C. Children aren't bothered by temporary disappearance of mother.
D. Children are comfortable with strangers,
9. Which characteristics apply to children with secure attachment?
I. Readily soothed
II. Emotionally open
III. Afraid of people

A. I and II C. I only
B. II only D. III only

10. Infants are directly influenced by their mothers' emotional expressions. Which term is
explained?
A. Empathic distress C. Affective perspective-taking
B. Emotion contagion D. Social referencing
 Synthesis of the Physical, Cognitive and Socio-
Emotional Development of Toddlers
- Brenda B. Corpuz, PhD
MODULE
28

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Summarize key features of the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional
development of toddlers
• Apply pedagogical principles in the teaching-learning process for toddlers

SYNTHESIS
Give a summary of the key characteristics of toddlers' development by filling out the table
below.
KEY FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF TODDLERS

Physical Development

__________________

Cognitive Development Socio-Emotional

_____________________ Development
______________________
The Pedagogical Principles As Applied to Toddlers' Learning and Development
You studied the 14 pedagogical principles in Unit 1. Cite and explain at least one
pedagogical principle that applies to the teaching-learning process of TODDLERS by filling
out the table below. You may choose only those principles that are relevant.
You studied the 14 pedagogical principles in Part 1, Unit 1. Cite and explain at
least one pedagogical principle that applies to pre-natal filling out the table below. You
may choose only those principles that are relevant.

LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE IN

THE TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS
OF TODDLERS
Cluster 1- Principle referring to How is this principle applied in the
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors teaching- learning process of toddlers?
(State the relevant learner-centered
principle here). e.g. Make the classroom or home
environment safe and nurturing for
e.g. Cognitive and metacognitive factors toddlers to learn by ensuring their safety
Context of learning-Learning is while they climb the stairs, jumps,
influenced by environmental factors, explores, etc. Make the environment
including culture, technology and conducive by talking to them, reading to
instructional practices. The classroom them, playing matching games with them,
environment, the degree to which it is taking field trips together. to the garden,
nurturing or not, can have significant park, to the bus ride. Give them toddler
impact on toddlers' learning. learning toys appropriate to
their developmental stage.

Cluster 2-Principle referring to How is this principle applied in the

Motivational and Affective Factors teaching-learning process of toddlers?
(State the relevant learner-centered
principle here).

Cluster 3- Principle referring to How is this principle applied in the

Developmental and Social Factors teaching-learning process of the toddler?
(State the relevant learner-centered
principle here).

Cluster 4-Principle referring to How is this principle applied in the

Individual Differences Factors teaching-learning process of the toddler?
(State the relevant learner-centered
principle here).

BOARD EXAM TICKLERS

1. In which stage in Erickson's psychosocial stage are toddlers supposed to assert their
independence?
A. Autonomy versus shame and doubt
B. Trust versus mistrust
C. Initiative versus guilt
D Industry versus inferiority

2. When are toddlers developed too negatively or are ignored which do they develop?
A. Mistrust
B. Shame
C. Total dependence
D. Inferiority

3. In which Piagetian stage of development is the toddler?

 A. Pre-operational
B. Concrete operational
C. Sensorimotor
D. Formal operational

4. What is meant by sensorimotor stage of toddlerhood?

A. Children rely on senses and behavioral schemes to acquire knowledge
B. Children imitate an action that was observed in the past
C. Children are able to have one thing represent another
D. Children know that objects that are out of view continue to exist

5. By the end of the sensorimotor period, the toddler understands object permanence.
What does object permanence mean? The understanding that objects:
A. continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
B. don't exist when they are no longer seen.
C. never change.
D. change in shape and in color.

6. The toddler's speech is usually telegraphic. What does this mean?

A. Two to three-word utterances with articles and prepositions
B. Short and long utterances
C. Incomprehensible language
D. Mispronounced words

7. With Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device (LAD), what is TRUE of toddlers?

A. Learn language slowly
B. Learn language fast
C. Can't pronounce words well
D. Can pronounce words well.
8. Which CORRECTLY explains infantile amnesia?
A. Ability to recall events that happened when the person was very young
B. Ability to imagine events that happened in toddlerhood
C. Inability to recall events that happened when the person was very young
D. Inability to understand events that happened when the person was very young

9. A toddler is capable of creative thought. Which proves this?

I. Can use the same toy in more than one way
II. Pretends empty milk can is a drum
III. Constructs objects out of manipulative toys
A. I, II
B. I, II and III
C. II and III
D. I and II

10. To test a toddler's logical reasoning, what must you find out? If the child can:
A. make new things out of old toys
B. pronounce words correctly
C. reason out why something happens
D. distinguish father from other men
 Synthesis of the Physical, Cognitive and Socio-
Emotional Development of Preschoolers
- Maria Rita D. Lucas, PhD
MODULE
29

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Demonstrate knowledge of characteristics of preschoolers.
• Apply pedagogical principles in planning learning activities for preschoolers
• Choose strategies that are developmentally appropriate for preschoolers

SYNTHESIS
Fill out the boxes with the characteristics and skills of preschoolers as you studied
them in the past three modules. This will reveal your basic knowledge of the preschool
learner.

Physical Development

__________________

Cognitive Development Socio-Emotional

_____________________ Development
______________________
Application of Pedagogical Principles
1. Connecting with Learner-Centered Principles. Choose one principle each for
each of the four clusters. Refer to the complete listing of the 14 principles in Unit 1. Based
on your knowledge and understanding of preschool learners, elaborate on how this
principle can be applied in all aspects of the teaching-learning process involving
preschoolers

LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLE Elaboration of the Principles for

Preschool Learners

Cluster 1 Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

Principle:

Cluster 2 Motivational and Affective Factors

Principle:

Cluster 3 Developmental and Social Factors

Principle:

Cluster 4 Individual Differences Factors

Principle:
BOARD EXAM TICKLERS
1. Abby is four and a half years old, In comparison with preschoolers who are three,
Abby is likely to be able to acquire the skill of ______.
A. copying a simple pattern of different basic shapes
B. purposely copying a square
C. purposely copying a triangle
D. turning a page of a story book

2. Playing games that teach right and left directions is best for ______________.
I. Five-year olds
II. Three-year-olds
III. Two-year olds
A. I B. II C. III D. I, II, III

3. All can be expected to be performed by a three-year-old EXCEPT ____________.

A. pouring from pitcher without spillage
B. feeding self using a spoon
C. taking a bath independently
D. putting on socks

4. Having activities that involve balancing is good for ____________.

A. three-year-olds
B. four-year-olds
C. five-year-olds
D. three to five-year-olds

5. The amount of sleep preschoolers get, affects all EXCEPT ______________.

A. level of brain activity
B. obesity
 C. level of regained energy
D. release of growth hormones

6. Preschoolers lean towards animism. As such, they will be interested in stories

where________.
A. lead characters are superheroes
B. the plot involves pet animals
C. inanimate objects like the sun or the bus talk
D. scenes involve a lot of movement

7. The most appropriate activity for three-year-olds to develop counting skills is _____.
A. a well-designed worksheet on counting up to 25
B. counting objects of interest around the environment
C. working with counting flashcards
D. identifying numerals repeatedly until mastered

8. Teachers and caregivers can best help develop the emotional skills of preschoolers
by all EXCEPT ______.
A. using dolls, puppets or pictures to demonstrate how to express feelings.
B. calmly telling children to control their feelings
C. doing mirror talk or paraphrase reflection
D. modeling words that children can use to express strong feelings

9. Teachers and caregivers can best help develop the emotional skills of preschoolers
by all EXCEPT _________.
A. greeting each child by name
B. developing routines at home and school that encourage working together
C. play games that involve social interaction
D. emphasizing strict adherence to routine
10. An authoritative teacher is one who does all, EXCEPT______.
A. expects behavior appropriate to the age level
B. demonstrates high responsiveness and high demandingness
C. ensures having strong psychological control over the preschooler
D. models to the child how to take responsibility for one's actions
 Synthesis of the Physical, Cognitive and Socio-
Emotional Development of Primary Schoolers
- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, PhD
MODULE
30

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Summarize key features of the physical cognitive and socio emotional development
of primary schoolers
• Apply pedagogical principles in the teaching-learning process for primary schoolers

SYNTHESIS
Give a summary of the key characteristics of primary schoolers development by filling out
the table below.
KEY FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY SCHOOLERS

Physical Development

__________________

Cognitive Development Socio-Emotional

_____________________ Development
______________________
The Pedagogical Principles As Applied to Primary Schoolers' Learning and
Development

You studied the 14 pedagogical principles in Module __. Cite and explain at least
one pedagogical principle that applies to the teaching-learning process of PRIMARY
SCHOOLERS by filling out the table below. You may choose only those principles that are
relevant.

LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE IN

THE
TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS OF
TODDLERS
(State the relevant learner How is this principle applied in the
centered principle here). teaching-learning process of the primary
schoolers?

Cluster 1- Principle referring to

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

Cluster 2-Principle referring to

Motivational and Affective Factors

Cluster 3-Developmental and Social

Factors

Cluster 4- Individual Differences Factors

BOARD EXAM TICKLERS
1. In which Piagetian stage is the primary school child?
A. Concrete operational
B. Post-operational
C. Pre-operational
D. Between concrete and post-operational stage

2. If the primary school child is in the concrete operational stage, which is he/she
capable of doing?
A. Able to conserve
B. Skilled at abstract thinking
C. Able to perform in post-operational stage
D. Can reason in hypothetical-deductive manner

3. Which statement about middle childhood is CORRECT?

A. Children at middle childhood stage can easily distinguish logical from non-logical
statements.
B. Children at middle childhood stage have greater long-term memory than do
preschoolers.
C. Physical growth stops.
D. Physical growth gets stunted.

4. In which developmental stage do the following apply? Learning physical skills for
playing games; developing school-related skills such as reading, writing, and
counting, developing conscience and values and attaining independence.
A. Middle childhood
B. Early childhood
C. Early Adulthood
D. Adolescense
5. Primary school children fantasize less often because _______.
A. they are more attuned to happenings around them
B. they are less imaginative
C. they are not creative
D. they have become more cynical

6. Primary schoolers overcome some of the egocentrism of pre thinkers? How is this
manifested? They are better at:
A. understanding the views of others.
B. classifying objects.
C. ordering objects.
D. expressing their thoughts

7. Primary schoolers are better at arranging objects according to increasing or

decreasing length. Which ability is described?
A. Classification
B. Egocentrism
C. Seriation
D. Abstraction

8. The primary schoolers' ability to separate a pile of cardboard circles into one group
of white and another group of black is a proof of as a logical operation.
A. Seriation
B. Classification
C. Abstraction
D. Generalization
9. Primary schoolers have improved ability to infer a relationship between two objects
based on knowledge of their relationship with a third object. Which ability is
explained?
A. Seriation
B. Classification
C. Abstraction
D. Transitivity

10. A primary schooler comes up with this conclusion: "You should gather your crop
before it gets dark" if he is asked to interpret "Make hay while the sun shines." This
means that the primary schooler interpret sayings______.
A. figuratively
B. literally
C. realistically
D. creatively
 Synthesis of the Physical, Cognitive and Socio-
Emotional Development of Intermediate Schoolers
- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, PhD
MODULE
31

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Summarize key features of the physical cognitive and socio emotional development
of intermediate schoolers
• Apply pedagogical principles in the teaching-learning process for intermediate
schoolers

SYNTHESIS
Give a summary of the key characteristics of intermediate schoolers’ development by
filling out the table below.

KEY FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS’

Physical Development

__________________

Cognitive Development Socio-Emotional

_____________________ Development
______________________
The Pedagogical Principles As Applied to Primary Schoolers' Learning and
Development

You studied the 14 pedagogical principles in Module __. Cite and explain at least
one pedagogical principle that applies to the teaching-learning process of INTERMEDIATE
SCHOOLERS by filling out the table below. You may choose only those principles that are
relevant.

LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE IN

THE
TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS OF
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS
(State the relevant learner How is this principle applied in the
centered principle here). teaching-learning process of the
intermediate schoolers?

Cluster 1- Principle referring to

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

Cluster 2-Principle referring to

Motivational and Affective Factors

Cluster 3-Developmental and Social

Factors

Cluster 4- Individual Differences Factors

BOARD EXAM TICKLERS
1. Which statement holds TRUE to intermediate schoolers?
A. On the average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of boys in
terms of physical maturity.
B. Boys physically mature earlier than girls in the intermediate grades.
C. There is no physical growth because this is before the "growth spurt".
D. They are past "growth spurt".

2. What are signs of the early onset of puberty among intermediate girls?
I. Budding breast for girls.
II. Onset of menstrual period.
III. Change of voice.
A. I B. II and III C. I and II D. III

3. Which term refers to girls' first menstrual period?

A. Menarche
B. Oogenesis
C. Puberty
D. Spematogenesis

4. Which is one of the most widely recognized socio-emotional or cognitive

characteristics of the intermediate schooler?
A. The acquisition of self-competence
B. The skill of highly abstract reasoning
C. Conservation
D. Decreased ability in perspective taking

5. Which should homes and schools do to help the intermediate schooler

prevent the development of inferiority?
 A. Provide opportunities to experience success on challenging tasks
B. Not be overly controlling
C. Help them develop identity
D. Inspire them to contribute to the welfare of others

6. Which teacher's practice can help promote intermediate pupils' positive self-concept?
I. Meets with students periodically during each grading period to help them
monitor their learning progress?
II. Make students get to know one another.
III. Make students compete against one another.
A. I only B. II only C. III only D. I and II

7. What does Grade VI teacher encourage when she encourages students to think about
the motives and feelings of their group mates in the group projects?
A. Egocentrism
B. Understanding
C. Perspective-taking
D. Conservation

8. Are intermediate schoolers more able to conceal their emotions compared to

toddlers?
A. Yes
B. Somewhat
C. No
D. Depends on family upbringing

9. What is an intermediate schooler capable of doing with perspective taking?

A. Blaming others
B. Judging others' intentions, purposes and actions.
 C. Self-reflection
D. Abstraction
10. Seen in older elementary schools is conventional intermediate schoolers ethics. This
means that _________.
A. conform to the rules and conventions of society
B. violate societal norms
C. behave for fear of punishment
D. do good for the sake of a reward S
 Synthesis of the Physical, Cognitive and Socio-
Emotional Development of Adolescents
- Paz I. Lucido, PhD
MODULE
32

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Summarize key features of the physical cognitive and socio emotional development
of adolescents
• Apply pedagogical principles in the teaching-learning process for adolescents

SYNTHESIS
Give a summary of the key characteristics of adolescents’ development by filling out the
table below.

KEY FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENTS’

Physical Development

__________________

Cognitive Development Socio-Emotional

_____________________ Development
______________________
The Pedagogical Principles As Applied to Primary Schoolers' Learning and
Development

Refer to the 14 pedagogical principles in Unit 1. Cite and explain at least one
pedagogical principle that applies to the teaching-learning process of ADOLESCENTS by
filling out the table below. You may choose only those principles that are relevant.

LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE IN

THE
TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS OF
ADOLESCENTS
Cluster 1-Principle referring to What is an application of this principle in the
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors teaching-learning process of dolescents?
(State the relevant learner-centered
principle here).
Cluster 2- Principle referring to What is an application of this principle in the
Motivational and Affective Factors teaching-learning process of adolescents?

(State the relevant learner-centered

principle here).
Cluster 3- Principle referring to What is an application of this principle in the
Developmental and Social Factors teaching-learning process of adolescents?

(State the relevant learner-centered

principle here).
Cluster 4- Principle referring to What is an application of this principle in the
Individual Differences Factors teaching-learning process of the
(State the relevant learner-centered adolescent?
principle here).
BOARD EXAM TICKLERS
1. Which is a characteristic of adolescence?
A. Stunted growth
B. Growth spurt
C. Slow physical growth
D. End of physical growth

2. Which statement is TRUE of adolescence?

A. Growth spurt starts earlier in boys.
B. Growth spurt starts earlier in girls.
C. Growth spurt takes place in boys and girls at the same time.
D. There is no growth spurt in adolescence.

3. Testosterone is to boys as ____ is to girls.

A. ptyalin
B. progesterone
C. hormones
D. estrogen

4. Menarche is to girls as ____ is to boys

A. heterosexuality
B. spermache
C. masturbation
D. puberty

5. Which is TRUE of adolescents?

A. Stop growing
B. Don't desire an "ideal" body
C. Lack sleep
 D. Occupied with play

6. Adolescents are in the formal operational stage, according to Piaget. What are they
capable of doing?
I. Abstract thinking
II Systematic thinking
III. Hypothetical thinking
A. I, II B. II and III C. I only D. I, II and III

7. If adolescents are capable of abstract thinking, how will they interpret "Make hay while
the sun shines"
A. Gather your crop before it gets dark.
B. Seize an opportunity when it exists.
C. Gather your hay while it is not yet raining.
D. Weave materials out of hay at day time.

8. Which question do adolescents ask to show hypothetical thinking?

A. What resulted from World War II?
B. What if your heart were near your anus?
C. What is wrong with the student's reasoning process?
D. Why did the main character in the movie die?

9. In which life-span stage is the adolescent based on Erikson's theory of psychosocial

development?
A. Intimacy vs. isolation
B. Identity vs. confusion
C. Generativity vs. stagnation
D. Industry vs. inferiority
10. Which is the most essential need of adolescents?
I. Firm and caring teachers who empathize with them
II. Teachers who provide the security of clear limits for acceptable behavior
III. Teachers' sensitivity to reach out to them
A. I and II B. I and III C. II and III D. I, II and III