Gas compressor

A single stage centrifugal compressor

A small stationary high pressure breathing air compressor for
filling scuba cylinders
impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to
the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. An air com- pressure energy. They are primarily used for continu-
pressor is a specific type of gas compressor. ous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries,
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas pro-
[1][2][3]
pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through cessing plants. Their application can be from 100
a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also horsepower (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With
reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively in- multiple staging, they can achieve high output pressures
compressible; while some can be compressed, the main greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids. Many large snowmaking operations (like ski resorts) use
this type of compressor. They are also used in internal
combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers.
1 Types of compressors Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbine
engines or as the final compression stage of medium sized
The main types of gas compressors are illustrated and dis- gas turbines.
cussed below:

1.2 Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors

Main article: Mixed flow compressor

Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to cen-

trifugal compressors, but have a radial and axial velocity
component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is of-
ten used to turn diagonal flow to an axial rather than radial
direction.

1.1 Centrifugal compressors

1.3 Axial-flow compressors
Main article: Centrifugal compressor
Main article: Axial-flow compressor
Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller
in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compres-

1
2 1 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

A motor-driven six-cylinder reciprocating compressor that can

An animation of an axial compressor. operate with two, four or six cylinders.

sors available, and are typically larger, and more costly

sors that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to progressively
than comparable rotary units.[6] Another type of recipro-
compress the working fluid. They are used where there is
cating compressor is the swash plate compressor, which
a requirement for a high flow rate or a compact design.
uses pistons moved by a swash plate mounted on a shaft
The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs: (see axial piston pump).
one rotating and one stationary. The rotating airfoils, also
Household, home workshop, and smaller job site com-
known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The sta-
pressors are typically reciprocating compressors 1½ hp
tionary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes, decelerate
or less with an attached receiver tank.
and redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for
the rotor blades of the next stage.[1] Axial compressors
are almost always multi-staged, with the cross-sectional 1.4.1 Ionic liquid piston compressor
area of the gas passage diminishing along the compres-
sor to maintain an optimum axial Mach number. Beyond Main article: Ionic liquid piston compressor
about 5 stages or a 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable ge-
ometry is normally used to improve operation.
An ionic liquid piston compressor, ionic compressor or
Axial compressors can have high efficiencies; around ionic liquid piston pump is a hydrogen compressor based
90% polytropic at their design conditions. However, on an ionic liquid piston instead of a metal piston as in a
they are relatively expensive, requiring a large number of piston-metal diaphragm compressor.[7]
components, tight tolerances and high quality materials.
Axial-flow compressors can be found in medium to large
gas turbine engines, in natural gas pumping stations, and 1.5 Rotary screw compressors
within certain chemical plants.

1.4 Reciprocating compressors

Main article: Reciprocating compressor

Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a
crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable, can
be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric
motors or internal combustion engines.[1][4][5] Small re-
ciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp)
are commonly seen in automotive applications and are
typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating com-
pressors well over 1,000 hp (750 kW) are commonly Diagram of a rotary screw compressor
found in large industrial and petroleum applications. Dis-
charge pressures can range from low pressure to very high Main article: Rotary screw compressor
pressure (>18000 psi or 180 MPa). In certain applica-
tions, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating
compressors are said to be the most efficient compres- positive-displacement helical screws to force the gas into
1.8 Diaphragm compressors 3

a smaller space.[1][8][9] These are usually used for contin-

uous operation in commercial and industrial applications
and may be either stationary or portable. Their applica-
tion can be from 3 horsepower (2.2 kW) to over 1,200
horsepower (890 kW) and from low pressure to moder-
ately high pressure (>1,200 psi or 8.3 MPa).
Rotary screw compressors are commercially produced in
Oil Flooded, Water Flooded and Dry type. The efficiency
of rotary compressors depends on the air drier, and the se-
lection of air drier is always 1.5 times volumetric delivery
of the compressor.

1.6 Rotary vane compressors

See also: Rotary vane pump

Rotary vane compressors consist of a rotor with a num- Mechanism of a scroll pump
ber of blades inserted in radial slots in the rotor. The rotor
is mounted offset in a larger housing that is either circular
Due to minimum clearance volume between the fixed
or a more complex shape. As the rotor turns, blades slide
scroll and the orbiting scroll, these compressors have a
in and out of the slots keeping contact with the outer wall
very high volumetric efficiency.
of the housing.[1] Thus, a series of decreasing volumes is
created by the rotating blades. Rotary Vane compressors This type of compressor was used as the supercharger on
are, with piston compressors one of the oldest of com- Volkswagen G60 and G40 engines in the early 1990s.
pressor technologies.
With suitable port connections, the devices may be ei-
ther a compressor or a vacuum pump. They can be ei- 1.8 Diaphragm compressors
ther stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged,
and can be driven by electric motors or internal combus- Main article: Diaphragm compressor
tion engines. Dry vane machines are used at relatively
low pressures (e.g., 2 bar or 200 kPa or 29 psi) for bulk
A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane
material movement while oil-injected machines have thecompressor) is a variant of the conventional reciprocat-
necessary volumetric efficiency to achieve pressures up ing compressor. The compression of gas occurs by the
to about 13 bar (1,300 kPa; 190 psi) in a single stage.
movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake
A rotary vane compressor is well suited to electric mo-
element. The back and forth movement of the membrane
tor drive and is significantly quieter in operation than the
is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the
equivalent piston compressor. membrane and the compressor box come in contact with
[1]
Rotary vane compressors can have mechanical efficien- the gas being compressed.
cies of about 90%.[10] The degree of flexing and the material constituting the di-
aphragm affects the maintenance life of the equipment.
Generally stiff metal diaphragms may only displace a few
1.7 Scroll compressors cubic centimeters of volume because the metal can not
endure large degrees of flexing without cracking, but the
Main article: Scroll compressor stiffness of a metal diaphragm allows it to pump at high
pressures. Rubber or silicone diaphragms are capable of
A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and enduring deep pumping strokes of very high flexion, but
scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-like their low strength limits their use to low-pressure appli-
vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and cations, and they need to be replaced as plastic embrittle-
gases. The vane geometry may be involute, archimedean ment occurs.
spiral, or hybrid curves.[11][12][13] They operate more Diaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and com-
smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types of com- pressed natural gas (CNG) as well as in a number of other
pressors in the lower volume range. applications.
Often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits ec- The photograph included in this section depicts a three-
centrically without rotating, thereby trapping and pump- stage diaphragm compressor used to compress hydrogen
ing or compressing pockets of fluid between the scrolls. gas to 6,000 psi (41 MPa) for use in a prototype
4 1 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

A small hermetically sealed compressor in a common consumer

A three-stage diaphragm compressor refrigerator or freezer typically has a rounded steel outer shell
permanently welded shut, which seals operating gases inside the
system. There is no route for gases to leak, such as around motor
shaft seals. On this model, the plastic top section is part of an
compressed hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG)
auto-defrost system that uses motor heat to evaporate the water.
fueling station built in downtown Phoenix, Arizona by
the Arizona Public Service company (an electric utilities
company). Reciprocating compressors were used to com-
press the natural gas. of the system. The motor is designed to operate in, and
be cooled by, the refrigerant gas being compressed.
The prototype alternative fueling station was built in com-
pliance with all of the prevailing safety, environmental The difference between the hermetic and semi-hermetic,
and building codes in Phoenix to demonstrate that such is that the hermetic uses a one-piece welded steel casing
fueling stations could be built in urban areas. that cannot be opened for repair; if the hermetic fails it is
simply replaced with an entire new unit. A semi-hermetic
uses a large cast metal shell with gasketed covers that can
1.9 Air bubble compressor be opened to replace motor and pump components.
The primary advantage of a hermetic and semi-hermetic
Also known as a trompe. A mixture of air and water gen- is that there is no route for the gas to leak out of the sys-
erated through turbulence is allowed to fall into a subter- tem. Open compressors rely on either natural leather or
ranean chamber where the air separates from the water. synthetic rubber seals to retain the internal pressure, and
The weight of falling water compresses the air in the top these seals require a lubricant such as oil to retain their
of the chamber. A submerged outlet from the chamber sealing properties.
allows water to flow to the surface at a lower height thanAn open pressurized system such as an automobile air
the intake. An outlet in the roof of the chamber suppliesconditioner can leak its operating gases, if it is not op-
the compressed air to the surface. A facility on this prin-
erated frequently enough. Open systems rely on lubricant
cipal was built on the Montreal River at Ragged Shutes in the system to splash on pump components and seals.
near Cobalt, Ontario in 1910 and supplied 5,000 horse- If it is not operated frequently enough, the lubricant on
power to nearby mines.[14] the seals slowly evaporates, and then the seals begin to
leak until the system is no longer functional and must be
recharged. By comparison, a hermetic system can sit un-
1.10 Hermetically sealed, open, or semi- used for years, and can usually be started up again at any
hermetic time without requiring maintenance or experiencing any
loss of system pressure.
Compressors used in refrigeration systems are often de- The disadvantage of hermetic compressors is that the mo-
scribed as being either hermetic, open or semi-hermetic, tor drive cannot be repaired or maintained, and the entire
to describe how the compressor and motor drive are sit- compressor must be removed if a motor fails. A further
uated in relation to the gas or vapor being compressed. disadvantage is that burnt-out windings can contaminate
The industry name for a hermetic is hermetically sealed whole systems, thereby requiring the system to be entirely
compressor, while a semi-hermetic is commonly called pumped down and the gas replaced. Typically, hermetic
a semi-hermetic compressor. compressors are used in low-cost factory-assembled con-
In hermetic and most semi-hermetic compressors, the sumer goods where the cost of repair is high compared to
compressor and motor driving the compressor are inte- the value of the device, and it would be more economical
grated, and operate within the pressurized gas envelope to just purchase a new device.
2.2 Minimizing work required by a Compressor 5

An advantage of open compressors is that they can be

driven by non-electric power sources, such as an internal
combustion engine or turbine. However, open compres- δqact − δwact = δqrev − δwrev
sors that drive refrigeration systems are generally not to-
re-arranging:
tally maintenance-free throughout the life of the system,
since some gas leakage will occur over time.

δwrev − δwact = δqrev − δqact

2 Thermodynamics of Gas Com-
pression By substituting the know equation δqrev = T ds into the
last equation and dividing both terms by T:

2.1 Isentropic Compressor

A compressor can be idealized as internally reversible and δwrev − δwact δqact
adiabatic, thus an isentropic steady state device, meaning = ds − ≥0
T T
[15]
the change in entropy is 0. By defining the compression
cycle as isentropic, an ideal efficiency for the process can Furthermore, ds ≥ T and T is [absolute temperature]
δqact

be attained, and the ideal compressor performance can be ( T ≥ 0 ) which produces:

compared to the actual performance of the machine. δwrev ≥ δwact
or
Isentropic efficiency of Compressors: wrev ≥ wact

Isentropic Compressor W ork Ws ∼ h2s − Therefore,

h1 work-consuming devices such as pumps and
ηC = = =
Actual Compressor W ork Wa h2a − compressors
h1 (work is negative) require less work when
they operate reversibly.[16]
h1 is the enthalpy at the initial state
h2a is the enthalpy at the final state for the ac-
tual process 2.2.2 Effect of Cooling During the Compression
h2s is the enthalpy at the final state for the isen- Process
tropic process

2.2 Minimizing work required by a Com-

pressor
2.2.1 Comparing Reversible to Irreversible Com-
pressors

Comparison of the differential form of the energy

balance for each device
Let q be heat, w be work, ke be kinetic energy and pe be
potential energy.
Actual Compressor:

δqact − δwact = dh + dke + dpe

Reversible Compressor:
P-v (Specific volume vs. Pressure) diagram comparing isentropic,
polytropic, and isothermal processes between the same pressure
limits.
δqrev − δwrev = dh + dke + dpe
isentropic process: involves no cooling
The right hand side of each compressor type is equiva- polytropic process: involves some cooling
lent, thus: isothermal process: involves maximum cooling
6 3 TEMPERATURE

By making the following assumptions the required work NOTE: The isentropic assumptions are only applicable
for the compressor to compress a gas from P1 to P2 is with ideal cycles. Real world cycles have inherent losses
the following for each process: due to inefficient compressors and turbines. The real
Assumptions: world system are not truly isentropic but are rather
idealized as isentropic for calculation purposes.

P1 and P2 are the same for each process

All processes are internally reversible 3 Temperature
The gas behaves like an ideal gas with constant
specific heats Main article: Gas laws

Isentropic ( P v k = constant ): Compression of a gas increases its temperature, often re-

ferred to as the heat of compression.

[( )(k−1)/k ] ∫ V2 ∫ V2
kR(T2 − T1 ) kRT1 P2 p1 V1n V −n dV
Wcomp,in = = − 1W = pdV =
k−1 k−1 P1 V1 V1

where
Polytropic ( P v n = constant ):

( )n
p2 V1
[( ) ] =
(n−1)/n p 1 V2
nR(T2 − T1 ) nRT1 P2
Wcomp,in = = − 1or
n−1 n−1 P1

Isothermal ( T = constant or P v = constant ):

p1 V1n = p2 V2n = pV n

and
( )
P2
Wcomp,in = RT ln
P1
p1 V1n
p=
By comparing the three internally reversible processes Vn
compressing an ideal gas from P1 to P2 , the results so
show that isentropic compression ( P v k = constant )
requires the most work in and the isothermal compres-
sion( T = constant or P v = constant ) requires the p1 V1n
least amount of work in. For the polytropic process ( W = (V 1−n − V11−n )
1−n 2
P v n = constant ) work in decreases as the exponent,
n, decreases, by increasing the heat rejection during the in which p is pressure, V is volume, n takes different val-
compression process. One common way of cooling the ues for different compression processes (see below), and
gas during compression is to use cooling jackets around 1 & 2 refer to initial and final states.
the casing of the compressor.[17]
• Adiabatic - This model assumes that no energy
(heat) is transferred to or from the gas during the
2.3 Compressors in Ideal Thermodynamic compression, and all supplied work is added to the
Cycles internal energy of the gas, resulting in increases of
temperature and pressure. Theoretical temperature
Ideal Rankine Cycle 1->2 Isentropic compression in a rise is:[18]
pump
Ideal Carnot Cycle 4->1 Isentropic compression ( )(k−1)/k
p2
Ideal Otto Cycle 1->2 Isentropic compression T2 = T1
Ideal Diesel Cycle 1->2 Isentropic compression p1
Ideal Brayton Cycle 1->2 Isentropic compression in a with T 1 and T 2 in degrees Rankine or kelvins, p2 and p1
compressor being absolute pressures and k = ratio of specific heats
Ideal Vapor-compression refrigeration Cycle 1->2 (approximately 1.4 for air). The rise in air and temper-
Isentropic compression in a compressor ature ratio means compression does not follow a simple
 7

pressure to volume ratio. This is less efficient, but quick. 4 Staged compression
Adiabatic compression or expansion more closely model
real life when a compressor has good insulation, a large
In the case of centrifugal compressors, commercial de-
gas volume, or a short time scale (i.e., a high power level).
signs currently do not exceed a compression ratio of more
In practice there will always be a certain amount of heat
than a 3.5 to 1 in any one stage (for a typical gas). Since
flow out of the compressed gas. Thus, making a perfect
compression generates heat, the compressed gas is to be
adiabatic compressor would require perfect heat insula-
cooled between stages making the compression less adi-
tion of all parts of the machine. For example, even a bi-
abatic and more isothermal. The inter-stage coolers typ-
cycle tire pump’s metal tube becomes hot as you compress
ically result in some partial condensation that is removed
the air to fill a tire. The relation between temperature and
in vapor-liquid separators.
compression ratio described above means that the value
of n for an adiabatic process is k (the ratio of specific In the case of small reciprocating compressors, the com-
heats). pressor flywheel may drive a cooling fan that directs am-
bient air across the intercooler of a two or more stage
• Isothermal - This model assumes that the com- compressor.
pressed gas remains at a constant temperature Because rotary screw compressors can make use of cool-
throughout the compression or expansion process. ing lubricant to remove the heat of compression, they very
In this cycle, internal energy is removed from the often exceed a 9 to 1 compression ratio. For instance, in
system as heat at the same rate that it is added by a typical diving compressor the air is compressed in three
the mechanical work of compression. Isothermal stages. If each stage has a compression ratio of 7 to 1, the
compression or expansion more closely models real compressor can output 343 times atmospheric pressure (7
life when the compressor has a large heat exchang- × 7 × 7 = 343 atmospheres). (343 atm or 34.8 MPa or
ing surface, a small gas volume, or a long time scale 5.04 ksi)
(i.e., a small power level). Compressors that uti-
lize inter-stage cooling between compression stages
come closest to achieving perfect isothermal com-
pression. However, with practical devices perfect 5 Prime movers
isothermal compression is not attainable. For exam-
ple, unless you have an infinite number of compres- There are many options for the "prime mover" or motor
sion stages with corresponding intercoolers, you will that powers the compressor:
never achieve perfect isothermal compression.

For an isothermal process, n is 1, so the value of the work • Gas turbines power the axial and centrifugal flow
integral for an isothermal process is: compressors that are part of jet engines.

( ) • Steam turbines or water turbines are possible for

p2 large compressors.
W = −p1 V1 ln
p1

When evaluated, the isothermal work is found to be lower • Electric motors are cheap and quiet for static com-
than the adiabatic work. pressors. Small motors suitable for domestic elec-
trical supplies use single-phase alternating current.
Larger motors can only be used where an industrial
• Polytropic - This model takes into account both a electrical three phase alternating current supply is
rise in temperature in the gas as well as some loss of available.
energy (heat) to the compressor’s components. This
assumes that heat may enter or leave the system, and
that input shaft work can appear as both increased • Diesel engines or petrol engines are suitable for
pressure (usually useful work) and increased tem- portable compressors and support compressors.
perature above adiabatic (usually losses due to cy-
cle efficiency). Compression efficiency is then the • In automobiles and other types of vehicles (includ-
ratio of temperature rise at theoretical 100 percent ing piston-powered airplanes, boats, trucks, etc.),
(adiabatic) vs. actual (polytropic). Polytropic com- diesel or gasoline engines power output can be
pression will use a value of n between 0 (a constant- increased by compressing the intake air, so that
pressure process) and infinity (a constant volume more fuel can be burned per cycle. These engines
process). For the typical case where an effort is can power compressors using their own crankshaft
made to cool the gas compressed by an approxi- power (this setup known as a supercharger), or, use
mately adiabatic process, the value of n will be be- their exhaust gas to drive a turbine connected to the
tween 1 and k. compressor (this setup known as a turbocharger).
8 8 REFERENCES

6 Applications • Rail and heavy road transport vehicles use

compressed air to operate rail vehicle or road
Gas compressors are used in various applications where vehicle brakes—and various other systems (doors,
either higher pressures or lower volumes of gas are windscreen wipers, engine, gearbox control, etc.).
needed: • Service stations and auto repair shops use com-
pressed air to fill pneumatic tires and power pneu-
• In pipeline transport of purified natural gas from matic tools.
the production site to the consumer, a compressor
is driven by a gas turbine fueled by gas bled from • Fire pistons and heat pumps exist to heat air or other
the pipeline. Thus, no external power source is nec- gasses, and compressing the gas is only a means to
essary. that end.

• Petroleum refineries, natural gas processing plants, In the United States, there were 300 gas compressor man-
petrochemical and chemical plants, and similar large ufacturers in 2011 producing compressors for all of these
industrial plants require compressing for intermedi- uses. Although these factories were classified as small
ate and end-product gases. business, the total 2011 sales for gas and air compressors
was over $9 billion.[21]
• Refrigeration and air conditioner equipment use
compressors to move heat in refrigerant cycles (see
• Diving air compressor in noise reduction cabinet
vapor-compression refrigeration).

• Gas turbine systems compress the intake combustion

air. 7 See also
• Small-volume purified or manufactured gases re-
quire compression to fill high pressure cylinders for 8 References
medical, welding, and other uses.
[1] Perry, R.H. and Green, D.W. (Editors) (2007). Perry’s
• Various industrial, manufacturing, and building pro- Chemical Engineers’ Handbook (8th ed.). McGraw Hill.
cesses require compressed air to power pneumatic ISBN 0-07-142294-3.
tools.
[2] Dixon S.L. (1978). Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of
• In the manufacturing and blow moulding of PET Turbomachinery (Third ed.). Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-
plastic bottles and containers. 08-022722-8.

• Some aircraft require compressors to maintain cabin [3] Aungier, Ronald H. (2000). Centrifugal Compressors A
Strategy for Aerodynamic design and Analysis. ASME
pressurization at altitude.
Press. ISBN 0-7918-0093-8.
• Some types of jet engines—such as turbojets and [4] Bloch, H.P. and Hoefner, J.J. (1996). Reciprocating Com-
turbofans)—compress the air required for fuel com- pressors, Operation and Maintenance. Gulf Professional
bustion. The jet engine’s turbines power the com- Publishing. ISBN 0-88415-525-0.
bustion air compressor.
[5] Reciprocating Compressor Basics Adam Davis, Noria
• In SCUBA diving, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, Corporation, Machinery Lubrication, July 2005
and other life support devices, compressors put
[6] Introduction to Industrial Compressed Air Systems
breathing gas into small volume containers, such as
diving cylinders.[19][20] [7] New developments in pumps and compressors using Ionic
Liquids
• In surface supplied diving, an air compressor fre-
quently supplies low pressure air (10 to 20 bar) for [8] Screw Compressor Describes how screw compressors
work and include photographs.
breathing.
[9] Technical Centre Discusses oil-flooded screw compres-
• Submarines use compressors to store air for later use sors including a complete system flow diagram
in displacing water from buoyancy chambers to ad-
just depth. [10] Mattei Compressors

• Turbochargers and superchargers are compressors [11] Tischer, J., Utter, R: “Scroll Machine Using Discharge
Pressure For Axial Sealing,” U.S. Patent 4522575, 1985.
that increase internal combustion engine perfor-
mance by increasing the mass flow of air inside the [12] Caillat, J., Weatherston, R., Bush, J: “Scroll-Type Ma-
cylinder, so the engine can burn more fuel and hence chine With Axially Compliant Mounting,” U.S. Patent
produce more power. 4767293, 1988.
 9

[13] Richardson, Jr., Hubert: “Scroll Compressor With Orbit-

ing Scroll Member Biased By Oil Pressure,” U.S. Patent
4875838, 1989.

[14] Maynard, Frank (November 1910). “Five thousand

horsepower from air bubbles”. Popular Mechanics: Page
633.

[15] Cengel, Yunus A., and Michaeul A. Boles. Thermody-

namics: An Engineering Approach. 7th Edition ed. New
York: Mcgraw-Hill, 2012. Print.

[16] Cengel, Yunus A., and Michaeul A. Boles. Thermody-

namics: An Engineering Approach. 7th Edition ed. New
York: Mcgraw-Hill, 2012. Print.

[17] Cengel, Yunus A., and Michaeul A. Boles. Thermody-

namics: An Engineering Approach. 7th Edition ed. New
York: Mcgraw-Hill, 2012. Print.

[18] Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook 8th edition Perry,

Green, page 10-45 section 10-76

[19] Millar IL; Mouldey PG (2008). “Compressed breathing

air – the potential for evil from within.”. Diving and Hy-
perbaric Medicine. (South Pacific Underwater Medicine
Society) 38: 145–51. Retrieved 2009-02-28.

[20] Harlow, V (2002). Oxygen Hacker’s Companion. Air-

speed Press. ISBN 0-9678873-2-1.

[21] “Gas Compressor Manufacturing”. Pell Research.

10 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text
• Gas compressor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas%20compressor?oldid=638808945 Contributors: The Anome, Andre Engels,
Shii, Michael Hardy, Qaz, Mac, Glenn, Ehn, DJ Clayworth, Lumos3, Robbot, Kizor, Buster2058, Giftlite, Tom harrison, Mark.murphy,
Bobblewik, Edcolins, Chowbok, Antandrus, Karol Langner, Ice Czar, H Padleckas, Ma'ame Michu, Clawed, TOR, *drew, Longhair,
Hooperbloob, Atlant, Linmhall, DV8 2XL, Gene Nygaard, Japanese Searobin, Miaow Miaow, Cbdorsett, GalFisk, Graibeard, Margosbot,
Crazycomputers, Sanbeg, YurikBot, Retaggio, Jimp, Charles Gaudette, Kymacpherson, DMahalko, Jumbo Snails, Gaius Cornelius, Yyy,
Theshadow27, Spike Wilbury, Mortein, Ospalh, Dbfirs, Jeh, Fmyhr, Plober, Eog1916, SmackBot, Burbank, Onebravemonkey, Steam5,
Yamaguchi , Bluebot, Kurykh, DHN-bot, Quixada, CHeshmat, Andreas Pain, Mion, Rockpocket, Clicketyclack, Maowenjie, Mbey-
chok, Jamclaassen, Peter Horn, Politepunk, Alan.ca, BananaFiend, Vespine, Woodshed, CmdrObot, Sir Vicious, N2e, Egmonster, John
A. Ardelli, Peripitus, Zonination, HappyInGeneral, Headbomb, Nick Number, Sryan2k1, Tim Shuba, Dougher, JAnDbot, PhilKnight,
BilCat, User A1, Hbent, CommonsDelinker, Sasajid, Numbo3, Leon II, Youngjim, Belovedfreak, Jabelufiroz, Industrialinfo, Engware,
TWCarlson, Squids and Chips, Itsfullofstars, Enderminh, Gene Hobbs, JayEsJay, TXiKiBoT, Theosch, Hqb, Yegor Chernyshev, OlavN,
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9.2 Images
• File:Axial_compressor.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Axial_compressor.gif License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/caxiala.html Original artist: NASA
• File:CentrifugalCompressor.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/CentrifugalCompressor.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Figure 34.21 in Handbook for Notification of Exports to Iraq, Annex 3, United Nations Security Council Res-
olution 1051 (1996), prepared by the U.S. Department of Energy, Nuclear Transfer and Supplier Policy Division. http://www.iraqwatch.
org/government/ Original artist: UN document (USGOV)
• File:DiaphragmCompressor.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fe/DiaphragmCompressor.jpg License: ? Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Gas-compressors-types-yed.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Gas-compressors-types-yed.png
License: GFDL Contributors: Created using yEd software. Original artist: Zonination
• File:Insetropic,polytropic,isothermal.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Insetropic%2Cpolytropic%
2Cisothermal.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tyler.neysmith
• File:Lednička_Zanussi_ZRA_319_SW,_kompresor_s_odpařovací_miskou_(002).JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Ledni%C4%8Dka_Zanussi_ZRA_319_SW%2C_kompresor_s_odpa%C5%99ovac%C3%AD_miskou_
%28002%29.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Juan de Vojníkov
• File:ReciprocatingCompressor.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/ReciprocatingCompressor.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Mbeychok at en.wikipedia
• File:RotaryScrewCompressor.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/RotaryScrewCompressor.gif License:
Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia by SreeBot Original artist: Mbeychok at en.wikipedia
• File:Small_stationary_Bauer_HP_compressor_installation_DSC09403.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/5/5a/Small_stationary_Bauer_HP_compressor_installation_DSC09403.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work
Original artist: Peter Southwood
• File:Two_moving_spirals_scroll_pump.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Two_moving_spirals_
scroll_pump.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cacycle

9.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0