Prepared by: ER Lapong

MSU-General Santos
Open Channel
– is a conduit in which a liquid flows with a free surface

Types of Flow:

Open Channel Flow – flow having a free surface and

subjected to atmospheric pressure

Pipe Flow - flow confined in a closed conduit, has no

free surface and exerts no direct pressure but
hydraulic pressure only
Characteristics of OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

1. Flow condition in open channel is complicated by the fact that

the portion of the free surface is likely to change with respect
to time and space and by the fact that the depth of flow, the
discharge, and the slopes of the channel bottom and of the
free surface are interdependent.

2. Physical condition in open channel varies much more widely

than that of pipes.

3. Cross section in open channel may take any shape, from

rectangular, square, triangular, circular, and to the irregular
forms of natural streams.
4. In open channel, roughness varies with the position of the
free surface, therefore, the selection of friction coefficient
is attended by greater efficiency.

5. The treatment of open channel is somewhat more empirical

than that of pipe flow.

6. Open channel flow depend on energy gradient.

Characteristics of PIPE FLOW

1. In pipes, the cross section of flow is fixed, since it is

completely defined by the geometry of the conduit.

2. The cross-section of a pipe is generally round.

3. Pipe flow depends on hydraulic gradient.

 Types of Open Channel Flow

A. Time as criterion

1. Steady Flow – if the depth of flow does not change or if it

can be assumed to be constant during the time interval
under consideration.

* For Steady Flow, the discharge is constant throughout the reach of

the channel under consideration, thus, the flow is continuous, therefore,
Q = V1A1 = V2A2
 2. Unsteady flow – if the depth changes with time

* The term Unsteady Flow is used to describe Unsteady Varied Flow.

B. Space as criterion

1. Uniform Flow – if the depth of flow is the same at every

section of the channel - refers to Steady Uniform Flow

• Steady Uniform Flow – is the fundamental type of flow in

open channel hydraulics
2. Varied/Non-uniform Flow – if the depth of flow changes
along the length of the channel

Also known as Spatially Varied or Discontinuous Flow – where

water runs in or out along the course of flow

Example: roadside gutters, side-channel spillways,

washwater trough in filters, effluent channels around
sewage-treatment tanks, main drainage channels, feeding
channels in irrigation systems.
 Factors that Affect Open-Channel Flow

1. Viscosity – together with gravity, they are the factor that

basically affect open-channel flow

Types of flow in terms of the effect of viscosity relative to inertia:

a. Laminar – water particles appear to move in definite

smooth paths or streamlines; and infinitesimally thin
layers of fluid slide over adjacent layers.

b. Turbulent – viscuous forces are weak relative to inertial forces

- water particles move in irregular paths which are neither
smooth nor fixed

c. Transitional
The effect of viscosity relative to inertia can be
represented by the Reynold’s Number;

Where:
VL V = velocity (ft/s)
R L = characteristics length (ft)
 υ = kinematic viscosity (ft2/s)
= absolute viscosity (μ)/ density (ρ)

If the depth of flow is taken as the characteristic length,

For Laminar Flow, R < 500

For Turbulent Flow, R > 2,000
For Transitional Flow, 500 < R > 2000
2. Gravity – its effect upon the state of flow is represented by a
ratio of inertial forces to gravity forces, given by the Froude Number.

where:
V V = mean velocity
F g = acceleration due to gravity
gL
L = characteristic length

* In open-channel flow, the characteristic length is equal to

the hydraulic radius D,

A where:
D A = cross-sectional area
b b = width of the free surface
 V
F
gL
If: F = 1, flow is critical

F > 1, flow is supercritical (inertial force is dominant; the flow

is rapid, has high velocity, and has torrential shooting)

F < 1, flow is subcritical (gravity force is more pronounced;

the flow is tranquil, has low velocity, and is streamlined)
 Kinds of Open Channel

A. According to Origin or Nature

1. Natural – include all watercourses that exist naturally on the earth

Examples: rivulets, brooks, stream, small/large rivers, tidal estuaries,
underground streams

2. Artificial – those constructed or developed by human

Examples: navigation canals, power canals, irrigation canals,
flumes, drainage ditches, spillways, floodways, chutes, roadside
gutters
Canal – usually a long and mild-sloped channel built in the ground
which maybe lined or unlined
- lining of canals maybe stone masonry, concrete, or wood
Flume – is a channel made of wood, metal, or concrete supported
above the surface of the ground to carry water across a depression
Chute – channel having a moderate to steep slope
Drop – similar to chute, but the change in elevation is
effected in a short distance
Culvert – a covered channel of comparatively short length installed
to drain water through a highway and railroad embankments.
Open-Channel Tunnel – comparatively long covered channel used
to carry water through a hill or any obstruction on the ground.
According to Channel Geometry

1. Prismatic Channel – a channel built with uniform cross-

section and constant bottom slope

2. Non-Prismatic Channel
 THE UNIFORM FLOW

Characteristics of a Uniform Flow:

a. The depth, water area, velocity, and discharge at every

section of the channel reach are constant
b. The energy line, water surface, and channel bottom are
all parallel, that is, there slope are equal.
c. Uniform flow is considered to be steady, since unsteady uniform
flow is practically non-existent. Even in natural streams where
steady flow is rare and it scarcely experience a uniform flow
condition, it is assumed to be a uniform flow to offer a relatively
simple and satisfactory solution to many practical problems.

d. Uniform flow cannot occur at very high velocities or rapid flow.

This is because, when uniform flow reaches a certain high
velocity, it becomes very unstable. At higher velocities, the flow
will eventually entrain air and become unsteady.

* The depth and slope corresponding to a uniform flow discharge

in any channel is called normal depth and normal slope.
Manning’s Formula
Presented in 1889 by Irish engineer Robert Manning. It is the formula
generally used in open channel conditions.

C m 23 12
V 
n
R S V  C RS

Where:
Cm = 1.49 (English units)
Cm = 1.0 (Metric units)
R = A/P (hydraulic radius)
S – slope
n – Manning’s roughness coefficient
Computing for the discharge,

Q  AV
 1.49 23 12   1 23 12 
Q  A R s  or Q  A R s 
 n  n 

* The value n is highly variable and depends or affected by

several factors. A channel, particularly natural channels, don’t
have a single value of n for all occasions.
Factors affecting Manning’s Roughness Coefficient:

1. Surface Roughness
It is represented by the size and shape of the grains of the
material forming the wetted perimeter and producing a retarding
effect on the flow.
Generally, fine grains result in a relatively low value of n and
coarse grains, in a high n value.

2. Vegetation
It is, in itself, a kind of surface roughness but also markedly
reduces the capacity of the channel and retards the flow. This
effect depends mainly on height, density, distribution, and type
of vegetation.
It is very important in designing small drainage channels.
3. Channel Irregularity

Channel irregularity comprises irregularities in wetted perimeter

and variations in cross section, size, and shape along the channel
length. Such irregularities are usually introduced by the presence of
sand bars, sand waves, ridges and depressions, and holes and
humps on the channel bed. These irregularities definitely introduce
roughness in addition to that caused by surface roughness and other
factors.

Generally, a gradual and uniform change in cross section, size,

and shape will not appreciably affect the value of n, but abrupt
changes or alternation of a small and large sections necessitates the
use of a large value n.
4. Alignment

Smooth curvature with large radius will give a relatively low value of
n, whereas sharp curvature with severe meandering will increase n.

It is suggested that the value of n be increased 0.001 for each 20

degrees of curvature in 100 ft. of channel. Curvature may induce the
accumulation of drift and thus indirectly increase the value of n.

Generally, the increase of roughness in unlined channels carrying

water at low velocities is negligible. An increase of 0.002 in n value
would constitute an adequate allowance for curve losses in most
channels containing pronounced curvatures, whether built or concrete
or other materials. The meandering of natural streams, however, may
increase the n value as high as 30%.
5. Silting and Scouring

Silting may change a very irregular channel into a comparatively

uniform one and decrease n, whereas scouring may do the reverse
and increase n. However, dominant effect of silting will depend on
the nature of the material deposited.

Uneven deposits such as sand bars and sand waves are channel
irregularities and will increase the roughness.

The amount and uniformity of scouring will depend on the material

forming the wetted perimeter. Thus, a sandy or gravelly bed will be
eroded more uniformly than a clay bed. The effect of scouring is not
significant as long as the erosion on channel bed caused by high
velocities in progressing evenly and uniformly.
6. Obstruction

The presence of log jams, bridge piers, and the like tends to
increase n. The amount of increase depends on the nature of
the obstructions, their size, shape, number, and distribution.

7. Size and Shape of Channel

There is no definite evidence about the size and shape of a channel

as an important factor affecting the value of n. An increase in
hydraulic radius may either increase or decrease n, depending on
the condition of the channel.
8. Stage and Discharge
The n value in most streams decreases with increase in stage
and in discharge. When the water is shallow, the irregularities of
the channel bottom are exposed and their effects become
pronounced. However, the n value may be large at high stages if
the banks are rough and grassy.

9. Seasonal Change
The value n increases during the seasonal growth of grass,
weeds, and other plants in the channel or on the banks.

10. Suspended Material and Bed Load

The suspended material and the bed load, whether moving or
not, would consume energy and cause head loss or increase the
apparent channel roughness.
 DESIGN OF CHANNELS FOR UNIFORM FLOW

A. Non-Erodible Channel
These are lined and built-up channels which can withstand
erosion satisfactorily.

Lining material maybe stone masonry, steel, cast iron, timber, glass,
and plastic. The selection of the material depends mainly on the
availability and cost of the material, the method of construction, and
the purpose for which the channel is to be used.

Purpose of lining the channel:

a. To prevent erosion
b. To check seepage losses
Design Factors for Non-Erodible Channels:

1. Minimum Permissible Velocity or the Non-Silting Velocity

It is the velocity that will not start sedimentation and will not
induce the growth of aquatic plants and moss.

Generally, a mean velocity of 2 to 3 fps may be used safely

when the percentage of silt present in the channel is small, and
a mean velocity of not less than 2.5 fps will prevent a growth of
vegetation that would seriously decrease the carrying capacity of
the channel.
2. Channel Slope and Side Slope

The channel (bottom) slope is governed by,

 topography
 energy head required for the flow of water
 purpose of the channel

* For water-distribution purposes such as for irrigation, domestic

water supply, and hydropower project, channels require a high
level at the point of delivery, thus, a small slope is desirable in
order to keep the loss in elevation to a minimum.
The side slope of a channel depends mainly on the kind of
material. Other factors to be considered include,

 method of construction
 condition of seepage loss
 climatic change
 channel size

Generally, side slope should be made as steep as practicable

and should be designed for high hydraulic efficiency and
stability.
3. Freeboard

It is the vertical distance from the top of the channel to the

water surface at the design condition. This is provided to
prevent waves or fluctuations in water surface from overflowing
the sides. This factor becomes very important particularly in the
design of elevated flumes.

Freeboard used in the design vary from 5% to 30% of the depth

of flow.
Freeboard in an unlined canal or lateral is normally governed by
the following considerations:

 size and location

 storm-water inflow
 water table fluctuations caused by checks
 wind action
 soil characteristics
 percolation gradients
 operating road requirements
 availability of excavated material
Freeboard may be computed using the formula,

Where:
F – freeboard (ft)
F  Cy y – water depth (ft)
C – coefficient
(1.5 for a canal capacity of 20 cfs and
2.5 for a canal capacity of 3,000 cfs)
B. Erodible Channels (which scour but do not silt)

Design Methods for Erodible Channels:

1. Maximum Permissible Velocity Method

Maximum Permissible Velocity is the greatest mean

velocity that will not cause erosion of the channel body.
2. Tractive Force Method

Tractive Force is the pull of water on the wetted area.

In a uniform flow, the tractive force is apparently equal to the

effective component of the gravity force acting on the body of
water, parallel to the channel bottom.

Where:

  ALS τ – tractive force

ω – unit weight of water
A – wetted area
L – length of the channel reach
S – slope
The average tractive force per unit wetted area, or the so-
called Unit Tractive Force is,

ALS Where:
0   RS τo – unit tractive force
PL R – hydraulic radius
2. Grassed Channels

The presence of grass or vegetation in channels will result in

considerable turbulence, which means loss of energy and
retardance of flow.

For earth channels used for carrying water on farm lands, however,
a lining of grass is often found to be advantageous and desirable.
The grass will stabilize the body of the channel, consolidate the soil
mass of the bed, and check the erosion on the channel surface and
the movement of soil particles along the channel bottom.

The Manning coefficient of roughness for grassed channels is

specifically known as Retardance Coefficient.
 THE CRITICAL FLOW

Characteristics of Critical Flow:

1. The specific energy is minimum for a given discharge.

2. The discharge is maximum for a given specific energy.
3. The specific force is a minimum for a given discharge
4. The velocity head is equal to half of the hydraulic depth in a
channel of small slope.
 V
5. The Froude Number is equal to unity. F 
gL

6. The velocity of flow in a channel, V  gL , of small slope with

uniform velocity distribution is equal to the celerity of small
gravity waves in shallow water caused by disturbances or
obstacles in the channel that cause a displacement of water
above and below the mean surface level and thus create waves
that exert a weight or gravity force.
The flow is a critical flow when the critical state of flow exists
throughout the entire length of the channel or over the reach of the
channel; and the slope of the channel that sustains a given
discharge at a uniform and critical depth is called the critical slope.

The critical depth is the depth, at which, for a given total head,
the discharge is a maximum or, conversely, the depth at which a
given flow occurs with a minimum content of energy.

Regimes of Flow:
a. Subcritical-laminar
b. Supercritical-laminar
c. Subcritical-turbulent
d. Supercritical-turbulent
 Geometric Elements of Channel Section

Depth of Flow (y) – is the vertical distance of the lowest

point of a channel section from the free surface

Stage – elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum

* If the datum is the lowest point of the channel section, the

stage is equal to the depth of flow)
Top Width (T) – is the width of channel section at the free surface

Water Area (A) – is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal

to the direction of flow
Wetted Perimeter (P) – the length of the line of intersection of the
channel wetted surface with a cross-sectional plane normal to the
direction of flow.
A
R
Hydraulic Radius (R) – ratio of water area to its wetted perimeter P
A
Hydraulic Depth (D) – ratio of the water area to the top width D 
T
Section factor for critical flow computation

A
ZA DA
T

Section factor for uniform flow computation

Z = AR2/3
Geometric Elements of Different Channel Sections
 The Best Hydraulic Section

It is the channel section having the least wetted

perimeter for a given area and maximum conveyance.

The principle of the best hydraulic section applies only

to the design of non-erodible channels.
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