Principles of Embedded Systems: ESE63201

Embedded Systems and ‘Control Systems’

Many real-time embedded systems make control decisions. These decisions are usually made by
software and based on feedback from the hardware under its control (termed the "plant"). Such
feedback commonly takes the form of an analogue sensor that can be read via an A/D converter. A
sample from the sensor may represent position, voltage, temperature, or any other appropriate
parameter. Each sample provides the software with additional information upon which to base its
control decisions.

An open-loop controller, also called a non-feedback controller, is a type of controller that

computes its input into a system using only the current state and its model of the system.

Elements of typical control system/examples:

plants: industrial process; elevator ; CD player, disk drive mechanics; aircraft or missile; car
suspension, engine; rolling mill; high-rise building, XY stage on stepper machine for IC lithography;
computer network;

sensors: radar altimeter; GPS; shaft encoder, strain gauge; accelerometer; tachometer; microphone;
pressure and temperature transducers; chemical sensors; micro-switch

actuators: hydraulic, pneumatic, electric motors; pumps; heaters; aircraft control surfaces; voice
coil; solenoid; piezo-electric transducer

disturbances: wind gusts; earthquakes; external shaking and vibration; road surface variations;
variation in feed material
control processors: human operator; mechanical; electro-mechanical; analog electrical; general
purpose digital processor; special purpose digital processor

Open Loop Control

A characteristic of the open-loop controller is that it does not use feedback to determine if its output
has achieved the desired goal of the input. This means that the system does not observe the output
of the processes that it is controlling. Consequently, a true open-loop system can not engage in
machine learning and also cannot correct any errors that it could make. It also may not compensate
for disturbances in the system.

Example
a plate is to be heated to a desired temperature T des by an electrical heater the plant is the plate the
actuator is the electrical heater the controller sets the heater power, given T des the input u is the
heater power P the output y is the plate temperature T. In steady-state, T = T amb + (P + D)

Tamb is the ambient temperature, Tamb ~ 70F

 is a thermal resistance coefficient, ~1F/W²

D is a thermal disturbance to the plate, D ~W (represents other heat flow, in or out of plate)

called open-loop or feed-forward because sensor signal is not used.

Example:
A car has a throttle whose position u can vary from 0 to 45 degrees.

Measurements: with the car travelling at 50mph and the throttle set to 30 degrees, we quickly
change the throttle to 40 degrees. And measure the car’s speed every second until the car reaches
the steady speed. Repeat with different initial speeds and initial throttle angle. Suppose we found
that the speed is given as:

vt 1  0.7vt  0.5u t
Controller: suppose that the only input to the controller is the desired speed r. The controller’s
behaviour is a function of the commanded speed r, so that the throttle position u = F(r). Let us
assume that F is a simple function of the form:

u= P*r

where P is a constant. Substituting, we get:

vt 1  0.7vt  0.5 P.r

In steady state, v ss  vt 1  vt

This gives, v ss  1.67 P.r

If we want v ss  r , then we need to set: P  1 / 1.67  0.6

The controller merely multiplies the desired speed r by 0.6 to determine the desired throttle angle.

Closed loop control

Systems that utilize feedback are called closed-loop control systems. The feedback is used to make
decisions about changes to the control signal that drives the plant. By contrast, an open-loop control
system doesn't have or doesn't use feedback.

Closed-loop control systems typically operate at a fixed frequency. The frequency of changes to the
drive signal is usually the same as the sampling rate, and certainly not any faster. After reading each
new sample from the sensor, the software reacts to the plant's changed state by recalculating and
adjusting the drive signal. The plant responds to this change, another sample is taken, and the cycle
repeats. Eventually, the plant should reach the desired state and the software will cease making
changes.

If feedback indicates that the temperature in your home is below your desired set-point, the
thermostat will turn the heater on until the room is at least that temperature. Similarly, if your car is
going too quickly, the cruise control system can temporarily reduce the amount of fuel fed to the
engine.

In contrast to an open-loop control system, a closed-loop control system utilizes an additional

measure of the actual output to compare the actual output with the desired output response. The
measure of the output is called the feedback signal. A feedback control system is a control system
that tends to maintain a prescribed relationship of one system variable to another by comparing
functions of these variables and using the difference as a means of control.

A feedback control system often uses a function of a prescribed relationship between the output and
reference input to control the process. Often the difference between the output of the process
under control and the reference input is amplified and used to control the process so that the
difference is continually reduced. The feedback concept has been the foundation for control system
analysis and design.
A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of the output and feedback of this signal to
compare it with the desired output (reference or command). Due to the increasing complexity of the
system under control and the interest in achieving optimum performance, the importance of control
system engineering has grown in the past decade. Furthermore, as the systems become more
complex, the interrelationship of many controlled variables must be considered in the control
scheme.

A common example of an open-loop control system is an electric toaster in the kitchen. An example
of a closed-loop control system is a person steering an automobile (assuming his or her eyes are
open) by looking at the auto’s location on the road and making the appropriate adjustments.

The introduction of feedback enables us to control a desired output and can improve accuracy, but it
requires attention to the issue of stability of response.

Example:
Using the open loop control example: the error is computed as: e=r-v

Let the controller be linear and proportional to the error, u= P(r-v), then

v t 1  0.7vt  0.5u t  w

Where w is a parameter added to represent the effect of the slope of the surface.

v t 1  0.7vt  0.5 P( rt  vt )  wt

vt 1  (0.7  0.5 P )vt  0.5 P.rt  wt

For the system to be stable, then

0.7  0.5 P  1

This gives: -0.6<P<3.4

To avoid oscillations: | 0.7  0.5 P | 0 giving P  1.4

Steady state condition:

v ss  (0.7  0.5 P )v ss  0.5 P.r0  w0

0.5P w0
v ss  ro 
0.3  0.5P 0.3  0.5 P

Let P=3.3 (vss as close to ro as possible).

This gives the throttle angle set to:

u t  3.3(rt  u t )

This will result-in oscillations.

PID Controllers
The PID controller is the most common form of feedback. It was an essential element of early
governors and it became the standard tool when process control emerged in the 1940s. In process
control today, more than 95% of the control loops are of PID type, most loops are actually PI control.
PID controllers are today found in all areas where control is used.

The controllers come in many different forms. There are standalone systems in boxes for one or a
few loops, which are manufactured by the hundred thousands yearly. PID control is an important
ingredient of a distributed control system. The controllers are also embedded in many special
purpose control systems. PID control is often combined with logic, sequential functions, selectors,
and simple function blocks to build the complicated automation systems used for energy production,
transportation, and manufacturing. Many sophisticated control strategies, such as model predictive
control, are also organized hierarchically. PID control is used at the lowest level; the multivariable
controller gives the set points to the controllers at the lower level. The PID controller can thus be
said to be the “bread and butter’ of control engineering. It is an important component in every
control engineer’s tool box.

We will start by summarizing the key features of the PID controller. The PID algorithm is described
by:

where y is the measured process variable, r the reference variable, u is the control signal and e is the
control error e=ysp-y. The reference variable is often called the setpoint. The control signal is thus a
sum of three terms: the P term (which is proportional to the error), the I term (which is proportional
to the integral of the error), and the D term (which is proportional to the derivative of the error). The
controller parameters are proportional gain K, integral time T i, and derivative time Td. The integral,
proportional and derivative part can be interpreted as control actions based on the past, the present
and the future.

PID controllers have survived many changes in technology, from mechanics and pneumatics to
microprocessors via electronic tubes, transistors, integrated circuits. The microprocessor has had a
dramatic influence on the PID controller. Practically all PID controllers made today are based on
microprocessors. This has given opportunities to provide additional features like automatic tuning,
gain scheduling, and continuous adaptation.