POWER AND MEASUREMENT

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

1. Mass – is the quantity of matter a body contains.

2. Inertia – the property of matter by virtue of which a body tends to remain at
rest or continue in motion in a straight line.
3. Momentum – the product of a body’s mass and velocity at any instant.
4. Force – an action exerted upon a body, that changes its natural state of rest or
uniform motion.
5. Work – the result of applying force to an object and causing it to move.
6. Energy – the capacity for doing work.
7. Torque – the turning or twisting effort or action.

T = FL

where T is Torque in N-m (lb-ft), F is force in N (lb) and L length in m (ft)

For example, torque is exerted when tightening a nut using a wrench. Torque
can be increased by exerting a larger force or extending the length of the
wrench away from the bolt. Engines must produce torque in order to rotate the
drive wheels.

8. Power – the rate at which work is done.

P = FS/C

where P is the linear power in kW (hp), F is force in kN (lb), S is speed in km/hr

(mph) and C is constant 3.6(375)

In addition, the amount of angular rotation per unit time is called rotary speed
where the common unit is revolution per minute (rpm). Rotary power or brake
power is the product of work/rev and rotary speed and can be calculated using
the equation below:

PB = 2∏TN/C

where PB is brake power in kW (hp), T is torque in N-m (lb-ft), N is engine

rpm and C is constant 60,000 (33,000). Brake horsepower is the power
available at the engine flywheel for doing useful work. It is the actual power
produced by an engine.

FUEL AS SOURCE OF ENGINE POWER

Equivalent power from fuel can be calculated the following equation:

PF = HV*MF/C

where PF is the fuel equivalent power in kW (hp), HV is the heating value of

fuel in kJ/kg (BTU/lb), MF is the fuel consumption rate in kg/h (lb/h) and C is
constant 3600 (2545). The heat unit British Thermal Unit (BTU) is equivalent
 to 778 ft-lb of work. This is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat. Since
1 hp equals 33,000 ft-lb per min, and 1 hp generated for 1 hour is equal to 60
x 42.24, or 2,545 BTU.

1 hp = 33,000/778
= 42.42 BTU / min

Heating value (HV) is the amount of energy that would be released in burning
a kg (lb) of fuel.

Illustration 1.

An engine consumes diesel fuel at a rate of 73.1 L/h (19.3 gal/h). Fuel density
is 0.835 kg/L (6.96 lb/gal), and its heating vale is 45, 434 kJ/kg (19,533
BTU/lb). Calculate the fuel equivalent power.

Using the formula, PF = HV*MF/C:

PF = (45,434 kJ/kg) * (73.1 L/h) * (0.835 kg/L) / 3,600

PF = 770 kW

POWER OF AN ENGINE

1. Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP). It is the average pressure in kilograms

per square centimeter on the piston during the power stroke only. It is measured
by an engine indicator. It is also expressed in pounds per square inch.

2. Indicated horsepower (IHP). It is the total horsepower developed by all the

cylinders and received by the pistons, disregarding frictions and losses within the
engine. It is the theoretical power produced by an engine.

IHP = PLANn / 60000 x 2 (four stroke cycle engine)

IHP = PLANn/ 60000 (two stroke cycle engine)

Where: IHP – indicated power in kW

P – indicated mean effective pressure in kPa
L – length of piston stroke, cm
A – area of of the top of each piston, sq. cm.
N – rpm
n – number of cylinders

The product of stroke length, piston area and the number of cylinders is called the
engine displacement.

3. Friction Horsepower (FHP). Power used to overcome friction and to run engine
accessories such as oil pump, fan, alternator, etc.

FHP = IHP – PB
Illustration 2.

The engine in illustration 1 is a four-cycle engine with a displacement of 15.649 L.

While running at 2,100 rpm, it produces 1,341 N-m torque. The imep is 1,267 kPa.
Compute the indicated, brake and friction power?

IHP = (1267 kPa * 15.649 L * 2100 rpm) / (60000 * 2) = 347 kW

PB = (2∏ * 1341 N-m * 2100 rpm) / 60000 = 295 kW

FHP = 347 – 295 = 52 kW

4. Drawbar Horsepower (DHP). Power developed at the hitch or drawbar and available
for pulling, dragging or similar tractive effort.

DHP = average pull (lb) x rate of travel (ft/min) / 33,000

5. Rated Horsepower. Amount of power that the engine will generate at some
designated crankshaft speed.

Usually 85% of BHP.

ENGINE OPERATING EFFICIENCIES

1. Indicated thermal efficiency. This is a measure of combustion efficiency of the

engine.

TE = IHP/PF

The thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines varies from 15 to 35

percent, depending upon the type of engine, speed, load, design, and other
factors.

2. Mechanical Efficiency. This is the fraction of newly created indicated power

delivered as useful power from the engine.

ME = PB / IHP

The principal factors affecting the mechanical efficiency of an engine are losses
due to friction in the moving parts such as the crankshaft and connecting rod bearings,
pistons and cylinders, valve mechanism, and cooling fan and pump, and losses
involved in the induction of the fuel mixture and the exhaust of the residue.

The mechanical efficiency of an internal combustion engine varies from 75 to

90 percent, depending upon the load, speed and other factors.

3. Brake thermal efficiency. This is the overall efficiency of the engine in converting
fuel power into useful power.
 TEB =PB / PF

The brake thermal efficiency is the overall efficiency and an indication of the fraction
of the energy in the fuel that is converted to power at the flywheel. TEB can also be
calculated using the equation below:

TEB = TE * ME

Illustration 3.

Calculate the indicated thermal, brake thermal and mechanical efficiency for the
engine in illustration 2.

TE = 347 kW / 770 kW = 0.45 or 45%

This indicates that the combustion process converts 45% of the fuel energy into
mechanical energy. The remaining 55% of the fuel energy is rejected as heat by the
engine. Much of the rejected heat goes out with the exhaust gases, and some heat is
rejected through the cooling system.

ME = 295 kW / 347 kW = 0.85 or 85%

This means that the useful power from the engine is 85% of the mechanical power
created by combustion. The remaining 15% is friction power used to overcome friction
and to run the oil pump, alternator, and other accessories.

TEB = 0.45 * 0.85 = 0.38 or 38%

This shows that only 38% of the 770 kW in the fuel is converted to useful power from
the engine.

By combining equations for friction horsepower and mechanical efficiency, we can see
that mechanical and overall efficiencies of an engine can vary with load. That is engines
are most efficient when operated at full load.

ME = PB / (PB + FHP)

The equation above shows that friction cannot be eliminated but the percentage of
power taken to overcome friction becomes smaller as the load increases. Therefore,
when operating tractor with less than full load, the operator is advised to shift to higher
gear and reduce the engine speed to retain the original ground speed. Figure 1 shows
that reducing engine speed reduces friction power leading to higher mechanical
efficiency and improved fuel economy.
 Figure 1. Friction mean effective pressure in a typical diesel engine (Courtesy of Goering and Hansen,
2008).

4. Volumetric Efficiency. This is a measure of the air-pumping efficiency of an engine.

Atmospheric air taken up during each intake stroke should fill up the combustion
chamber. However, in naturally aspirated engines (no turbo charger), combustion
chambers are not completely filled with air due to the partial vacuum during each
intake stroke. Thus volumetric efficiency can be calculated using the equation
below:

VE = AA / AT

where AA is the actual air consumption rate in kg/h (lb/h) and A T is the theoretical
air consumption rate in kg/h (lb/h)

AT = (60 * D * N * ρa) / (Cr * c)

where AT is the theoretical air consumption of engine in kg/h (lb/h), D is the engine
displacement in L (cu. in.), N is the engine rpm, ρa is air density in kg/m3 (lb/ft3),
Cr is the crankshaft revolutions per cycle and c is a constant 1000 (1728)

The principal factors affecting volumetric efficiency are:

a. Atmospheric pressure and temperature

b. Manifold design
c. Intake manifold temperature
d. Air filter design and operation
e. Fuel characteristics
f. Piston speed
 g. Compression ratio
h. Valve size, opening and timing
i. Engine operating temperature

The volumetric efficiency of automotive type engines should fall within a range
of 75 to 85 percent, depending on their design and existing operating conditions
and factors.

Factors affecting fuel consumption and efficiency. One of the fundamental

objectives in the design ,construction and operation of any internal combustion engine
is to secure the greatest possible efficiency without interfering with other
considerations involved in practical adaptability to a particular purpose. Efficiency of
an engine means obtaining the greatest possible power out of it with the lowest
possible fuel cost – not necessarily the lowest fuel consumption.

The actual fuel consumption of engines is usually expressed in pounds per

horsepower-hour or in horsepower-hours per gallon. In general, the fuel consumption
of all gasoline-burning engines, such as automobiles, truck and tractor engines, is
about the same when reduced to the basis of pounds per horsepower-hour, provided
they are all operated under a one-half to full load. Such engines seldom burns less
than 0.55 lb of fuel per hp-hr. The average is around 0.60 lb, and the rate may run as
high as 0.70 lb. Diesel type and similar high compression heavy duty oil burning
engines often show a fuel consumption of 0.4 to o.5 lb per hp-hr and seldom use more
than 0.55 lb.

Reference:

Goering and Hansen, 2008. Engine and Tractor Power, 4th ed. ASAE Publication
801M0704. ISBN 1-892769-42-5

Exercises:

1. Torque and work are both the product of force times a distance. How does torque
differ from work?

2. During a test, the four cycle, 15.649 L engine in a large tractor consumes 73 L/h
of diesel fuel while running at 2100 rpm and producing 1160 N-m of torque. The
imep during the test is 1110 kPa. The fuel density is 0.835 kg/L and its heating
value is 45,434 kJ/kg. Calculate the fuel equivalent power, indicated power, brake
power, friction power, indicated thermal efficiency, mechanical efficiency, and
brake thermal efficiency.

3. Calculate the gallons of gasoline needed to fill a 1,000 gallon tank from a well
whose water level is 200 ft below the tank, if the over all efficiency of the power
unit and the pump is 15 percent.