ETHICS: Foundation of moral The reasons given in the news human nature.

This understanding
values article vary, ranging from the of human nature anchored on our
opinion that seeing two men kiss capacity for reason will become
Chapter III: Natural Law
is unsightly, to the statement that the basis of the natural law
Thomas Aquinas there is something “irregular” theory, a theory which will provide
about belonging to the Lesbian, us a unique way of determining
The Greek Heritage Gay, Bisexual, Transgender the moral status of our actions.
The Essence and Varieties of (LGBT) community, and to the
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
Law judgment that two people of the
same sex being together is The moral philosophy of St.
INTRODUCTION unnatural. Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274)
In October 2016, involves a merger of at least two
We are used to hearing
newspapers reported that apparently disparate traditions:
people justify something by
Pantaleon Alvarez, Speaker of the Aristotelian eudemonism and
making the appeal that what they
House of Representatives, was Christian Theology
maintain is what is “natural,” and
intending to draft a bill which therefore acceptable. Likewise, The Moral Law is something that
would amend the country’s Family people would judge something as orders humans to do the good and
Code, thereby allowing for the unacceptable on the basis that it forbids them to do evil.
legalization of same-sex unions. is supposedly “unnatural.”
“The proper effect of law is to lead
This would result in the possibility In order to proceed, it is therefore its subject to the proper virtue.
of two men together or two necessary to ask: “What do the Since virtue is what makes its
women together being identified words natural and unnatural subject good. It follows that the
as a couple with rights guaranteed mean?” Sometimes, the word proper effect of law is to make is
and protected by the law. “natural” seems to be used to subject good.”
However, as one newspaper refer to some kind of intuition that
report revealed, even before a person has, one which is so The reason is that since
anything could be formally apparently true to him that it is Natural Law proceeds from
proposed, other fellow legislators unquestioned. God, then, it must have a
had already expressed to the natural inclination towards
media their refusal to support any In this chapter we explore how GOD.
such initiative. Thomas Aquinas provides this,
emphasizing the capacity for GOD IN THE SENSE IS ALONE
reason as what is essential in our THE SOURCE OF THE LAW

1
To live in accordance to one’s God’s grace and that grace has supreme and absolutely
nature therefore means to live in become perfectly incarnate in the transcendent good.
accordance with this immanence. person of Jesus.
In his work The Republic, it is
Since GOD is in nature, GOD puts The Context of Aquinas Ethics often supposed that Plato is trying
order into NATURE. to envision the ideal society. Plato
The Christian life is about
himself was trying to answer
To FOLLOW GOD or the natural developing the capacities given to
questions such as, “Why should I
law means to follow this rational us by God into a disposition of
bother trying to be good?” and
order. virtue inclined toward the good.
“Why cannot ‘good’ be just
THOMAS AQUINAS For Aquinas, there is a sense of whatever I say it is?”
right and wrong in us that we are
The Context of the Christian Story His answer, placed in the mouth of
obliged to obey (conscience).
the main character Socrates, is
The fundamental truth maintained However, he also adds that this
that good is real and not
and elaborated by Aquinas in all sense of right and wrong must be
something that one can pretend
his works is the promise right at informed, guided, and ultimately
to make up or ignore.
the center of the Christian faith: grounded in an objective basis for
that we are created by God in morality.
order to ultimately return to Him
THE GREEK HERITAGE
(Summa Theologiae).
Neoplatonic Good Readers of The Republic have long
There are three parts to this
been baffled by this enigmatic
voluminous work. The second part Aquinas has been shaped and
passage and are still trying to
deals with man or the dynamic of define by an idea stated in the
figure out how exactly to interpret
human life. This is characterized work of the ancient Greek
it.
by our pursuit of happiness, which philosopher Plato, which had been
we should realize rests ultimately put forward a thousand years Rather than be dismissed, this
not on any particular good thing before Aquinas. idea of the good--- a good which is
that is created by God, but in the prior to all being and is even the
He is credited for giving the
highest good which is God cause of all being ---will become a
subsequent history of philosophy
Himself. source of fascination and
in one of its most compelling and
inspiration to later thinkers even
In other words, salvation is only enduring ideas: the notion of a
to this day.
possible through the presence of

2
In the next centuries after Plato’s efficient cause and final proceed to consider causes, their
time, some scholars turned to his cause character, and number.
texts and tried to decipher the
1. Material Cause – We recognize Knowledge is the object of our
wealth of ideas contained there.
that any being e can see around is inquiry, and men do not think they
Because they saw their task as corporeal, possessed of a certain know a thing till they have
basically clarifying and materially or physical “stuff”. A grasped the “why” of (which is to
elaborating on what the great being becomes unique, individual grasp its primary cause).
thinker had already written, these being that it is because it is made
In one sense, then, (1) that
later scholars are often labeled as up of this particular stuff.
out of which a thing comes to be
Neoplatonists.
2. Formal Cause - the “shape” and which persists, is called
Neoplatonic Good that makes a being a particular “cause,” for example, the bronze
kind can be called its form. of the statue, the silver of the
In the hands of the Neoplatonists,
bowl, and the genera of which the
Plato’s idea of the good, which is Parents beget a child. A mango
bronze and silver are species.
the source of all beings, becomes tree used to be a seed that itself
identified with the One and the came from an older tree. A chair In another sense (2) the form
Beautiful. is built as the product of a or the archetype, that is, the
carpenter. Thus , there is statement of the essence and its
This is the ultimate reality which is
something which brings about the genera are called “causes” (e.g. of
the oneness that will give rise to
presence of another being. This is the octave the relation of 2:1, and
the multiplicity of everything else
referred to as 3. Efficient Cause. generally number), and the parts
in the cosmos. All these beings
in the definition.
have a single goal, which is to Also, since a being has an
return to that unity. apparent end or goal, a chair to Again (3) the primary source
Aristotelian Being and be sat on, a pen for writing, a of the change or coming to rest;
Becoming seed to become a to become a for example, the man who gave
tree, or a child to become an advice is a cause, the father is
adult, one can speak of the 4. cause of the child, and generally
Any being, according to Aristotle,
Final Cause (“that for the sake of what makes of what is made and
can be said to have four causes:
which” ) of each being. what causes change of what is
material cause, formal changed.
Now that we have established
cause,
these distinctions, we must Lastly(4)in the sense of end or
“that for the sake of which” a

3
thing is done, for example, health A new pair of principles is THE ESSENCE AND VARIETIES
is the cause of walking about. introduced by Aristotle, which we OF LAW
(“Why is he walking about?’ we can refer to as potency and act. A
Essence
say. “To be healthy,” and, being may carry within itself
having said that , we think we certain potentials, but these In thinking about what is good for
have assigned the cause.) require being actualized. us, it is also quite possible that we
end up thinking exclusively of our
A The same is true also of all the A puppy is not yet a full-grown
own good. Aquinas reminds us
intermediate steps which are dog. These potencies are latent in
that this will not do; we cannot
brought about through the action the puppy and are actualized as
simply act in pursuit of our own
of something else as means the puppy grows up and achieves
ends or good without any regard
towards the end, for example, what it is supposed to be. The
for other people’s ends or good.
reduction of flesh, purging, drugs, process of becoming--- or—
or surgical instruments are means change can thus be explained in Since we belong to a community,
toward health. this way. we have to consider what is good
for the community as well as our
All these things are “for the sake Understanding beings, how they
own good. This can be called the
of” the end, though they differ are and how they become or what
common good.
from one another in that some are they could be, is the significant
activities, others instruments. Aristotelian contribution to the Acts are rightly directed toward
picture which will be given to us their ends by reason.
PROCESS OF BECOMING
by Aquinas.
What is necessary is to think
Of course, it is not a case of a
SYNTHESIS carefully of what really is in fact
being that is something which is
good for us.
already permanently set as it is Aquinas puts it, God is that which
and remains forever unchanging. of essentially is and is essentially What exactly the common good is
So in addition to describing a good. might not always be easy to
being determine as there are many
It is God’s will and love that are
variables to consider, such as the
,. Aristotle also has to explain to cause of all things.
particular community we are
us the process of becoming or the
God communicates to each being thinking of or the particular ends
possibility of change that takes
His perfection and goodness. that the community is pursuing.
place in a being.

4
The determination of the proper I. ETERNAL LAW – refers to what Aquinas thus identifies first that
measure of our acts can be God wills for creation, how each there is in our nature, common
referred to as law. participant in it is intended to with all other beings, a desire to
return to Him. preserve one’s own being.
As Aquinas put it, the law must
regard properly the relationship o 2. NATURAL LAW – a law that *Murder
universal happiness. determines the rule and measure
* Protection against predator
that should be directing our acts
It is also necessary for rules or
by looking at our human nature, *Suicide
laws to be communicated to the
at the natural inclinations given to
people involved in order to In Common with Other Animals
us by God.
enforce them and to better ensure
compliance. This is referred to as 3. HUMAN LAW – refers to all Aquinas then goes on to say that
promulgation. instances wherein human beings there is in our human nature,
construct and enforce laws in their common with other animals, a
Aquinas’ own summary of this desire that has to do with sexual
communities.
point is worth citing: “The intercourse and the care of one’s
definition of law may be gathered; 4. DIVINE LAW – this term, often offspring.
and it is nothing else than an confused with eternal law, refers
ordinance of reason for the specifically to the instances where * Abortion
common good, made by him who we have precepts or instructions * Child Abuse
has care of the community, and that come from divine revelation.
promulgated. ” * Hard Labor

Varieties * Needs of young (Properly

Human beings, are both unique fed, sheltered, and educated)
Aquinas points out that while and at the same time participating
reflecting on our human nature in the community of the rest of
will provide us the precepts of the creation. Our presence in the rest
We have an inclination to do good
natural law, these are quite of creation does not only mean
according to the nature of our
general and would have to be that we interact with creatures
reason. With this, we have a
made more specific, and at the that are not human, but that there
natural inclination to know the
same time more concrete in the is also in our nature something
truth about God and to live in
actual operation of human acts. that shares in the nature of other
society.
For this reason, there is also beings.
human law.

5
* Reason is the defining part The moral theory that evaluates To act freely is to act
of human nature. actions that are done because of autonomously. To act
duty. autonomously is to act according
* Rational is what is proper to
to the law I give myself.
man. Deontological or duty – based
ethics, are concerned with what Rationality consists of the
ETHICS: FOUNDATION OF MORAL
people do, not with the mental faculty to construct ideas
Values
consequences of their actions. and thoughts that are beyond our
Lesson 4: Deontology immediate surroundings. This is
Morality is a matter of duty
the capacity for mental
Chapter IV: Deontology  Do the right thing abstraction, which arises from the
 Do it because it’s the right operations of the faculty of
Duty and Agency
thing to do reason.
Autonomy  Don’t do wrong things
Thus, we have the ability to stop
 Avoid them because they
Universalizability and think about what we are
are wrong.
doing.
“reggie”  Actions are wrong or right
un themselves, regardless WHAT WORKS?
To hold a moral conviction means
of consequences.
believing that it is one’s duty to Kant's theories pay attention to
do the right thing. What is duty? Deontologist abide by motives and intentions
Why does one choose to follow universal moral rules.
 Provides certainty of action
his/her duty even if doing
The main proponent of deontology  Emphasize value on every
otherwise may bring his/her more
and known as the founding father human being
benefits?
is Immanuel Kant (1724–1804).  Everyone is equal in their
Deontology comes from the Greek ability to come up with the
Kant brings our attention to the
word deon, which means “being right moral action
fact that we human beings have
necessary.” Hence, deontology  Doesn’t allow for special
the faculty called rational will,
refers to the study of duty and rules
which is the capacity to act
obligation.  Non-consequentialist, do
according to principles that we
your duty and disregard the
deontology determine for ourselves.
outcomes
 Does not allow for people to
use one another.

6
Stealing TO SAVE a Life action. Any other motive, while Yes, certainly. Kant describes this
possibly commendable, cannot as follows:
Questions/discussion
give an action moral worth.
The will is thus not only subject to
DUTY AND AGENCY
AUTONOMY Kant claims that the the law, but it is also subject to
Let us go back to Reggie. The property of the rational will is the law in such a way that it gives
moment he discovered that Trent autonomy, which is the opposite the law to itself (self-legislating),
had left his suitcase in the taxi of heteronomy.
…and primarily just in this way
cab, Reggie reacted according to
These3 Greek word are that the will can be considered the
his rational will—to return the
instructive: author of the law under which it is
suitcase.
subject. (Ak 4:431)
Autos - “self”
He determined that it was his duty
HETERONOMY
to return it in as much as his Heteros - “other” and
rational will had conceived such a Heteronomy is the simple
Nomos - “law”
duty. legislation and imposition of a law
Autos + nomos = autonomy/self- by an external authority (a person
Hence, to act according to a duty
law/self-legislating must brush her teeth before going
is a specifically human
to bed).
experience. Animals, if it is true Heteros + nomos =
that they do not possess the heteronomy/other law Their parents are the authority
faculty of rational will, cannot figures, and the law is imposed
conceive of having duties. (1) agree with the principle behind externally by rewards and
it (oral hygiene) and thus, (2) punishments.
This is the starting point of every night they impose it upon
deontology. We may claim that as themselves to brush their teeth AUTONOMY VS HETERONOMY
long as we have rationality, there before going to bed. (FREEDOM)
will always be the tension
Number 1 refers to the act of I am only free when my will is
between our base impulses and
legislating a principle, while determined autonomously,
our rational will.
number 2 refers to the enacting of governed by the law I give myself.
DUTY VS INCLINATION (MORALITY) the principle. Thus, it is also refers
to the willing of the adopted
Only the motive of duty , acting
principle into reality.
accordingly to the law I give
myself confers moral worth to an Are they autonomous?

7
Being part of nature, I am not There are four key elements in intention like praying in order to
exempt from its laws and I’m this formulation of the be seen as good.
inclined or compelled to act categorical imperative: action,
Some acts are evil in themselves
according to those laws (act maxim, will, and universal law.
as formication and are always
heteronomously).
Kant states that we must wrong to choose.
My capacity for reason opens formulate an action as a maxim,
Therefore, the persons intention
another possibility, that of acting which he defines as a “subjective
and the circumstances, such as
accordingly to laws other than the principle of action.”
pressure or duress, cannot change
laws of the nature: the laws I give
What does it mean to have a will a morally evil act, such as murder,
myself.
and a maxim that can become a blasphemy, or adultery, into a
This the reason, “pure practical universal law? morally good act.
reason”, legislates a priori –
It means that the maxim must be We cannot do evil so good will
regardless of all empirical end.
universalizable, which is what it come from it.
means to “will that it become a
universal law.”
We reveal the rational
UNIVERSALIZABILITY
permissibility of actions insofar as
Kant endorses this formal kind they cannot be rejected as
of moral theory. The universalizable maxims.
Grundlegung zur Metaphysik
In contrast, those universalized
der Sitten, which he wrote in
maxims that are rejected are
1785.
shown to be impermissible, that
This embodies a formal moral is, they are irrational and thus, in
theory in what he calls the Kant’s mind, immoral.
categorical imperative, which
REMEMBER
provides a procedural way of
identifying the rightness or An act is good when the object,
wrongness of an action. the intention, and the
circumstances are all good. A
Kant articulates the categorical
good act is vitiated by an evil
imperative this way: