MODULE: PGH 115 RESEARCH METHODS LECTURE NOTES

PGH 115
RESEARCH
METHODS

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Purpose

The paper will aim at equipping us with knowledge and skills required for
formulating research proposals and providing us with techniques for executing
empirical enquiries, to enable us analyze and interpret statistical data and
intelligently discuss and summarize findings.

Objectives

Specifically, this paper will try;

(i) To remind us of what research is about

(ii) To sharpen our skills in identifying research problems
(iii) To sharpen our skills in writing research proposals
(iv) To sharpen our abilities in designing research instruments
(v) To improve on our writing abilities.
(vi) To draw our attention to the fact that research is a rich source of research
problems

Main references (used in reading guides)

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American

Psychological Association (5th ed) Washington D.C; Author.

Amin, M.E (2005). Social science research: Conception, methodology and analysis,
Kampala : Makerere University Printery.

Bakkabulindi, F.E.K. (2005). Social correlates of innovations adoption: The case of

ICT in Makerere University. Unpublished PhD research proposal, Makerere
University, Kampala, Uganda

Other references
Will include textbooks (such as those below), journal papers, Chapters in edited
books, dissertations, magazine articles, newspaper articles, and so on. The said

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other text books are: Bell, J (1993). How to complete your research project
successfully: Guide for first- time Researchers. New Dehli:UBS.
Borden, K.S & Abbot, B.B. (2008). Research design and methods: Process approach
(7th ed.) Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Creswell, J.W.(2003). Research design: Qualitative, and mixed methods approaches
(2nd ed.) London: Sage.
Creswell, J.W.(1994). Research design: Qualitative approaches. London Sage.
Day, R.A. (1983). How to write and publish a scientific paper. New Delhi: Vikas
Faculty of Technology, Makerere, PhD students. ( nd ). How to get a quality PhD
from Faculty of Technology, Makerere University. Handbook for research students.
Kampala. Author.
Gatthom, A.A. & Joyner, R.L. (2005). Writing the winning thesis or dissertation:
Step-by-Step guide. Calfornia: Sage.
Hussey, J. & Hussey, R. (1997). Business research: Practical guide for
undergraduate and postgraduate students. NY: Palgrave.
Kakinda, F.M. & Kakinda, J.F.M. (1986). Tools and practice of social research.
Kampala Department of Sociology.
Kombo, D.K & Tromp, D.L.A (2006). Proposal and thesis writing. Nairobi: Paulines
Publications Africa.
Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods & Techniques. New Delhi:
New Age.
Locke, L.F., Spirduso, W.W. & Silverman, S.J. (1987). Proposals that work : Guide
for planning dissertations and grants proposals. London: Sage.
Maicibi, N.A. & Kaahwa, Y. (Eds.) Graduate supervision at Makerere University: Book
of readings. Kampala: Monitor.
McNiff, J. (2000). Action research in organizations. NY: Routledge.
Moser, C.A. & Kalton, G. (1971). Survey methods in social investigation. London:
Hienemamn.
Newman, W.L.(2000). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative
approaches (4th ed.) Boston: Ally & Bacon.
Nichols, P. (2005). Advising PhD candidates. Milperra: Higher Education Research &

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Development Society of Australasia (HERDSA) Inc.

Oliver, P. (2004). Writing your thesis. London: Sage.
Oppenhein, A.N. (1992). Questionnaire design, interviewing and attitude
measurement(new ed.) NY: Continuum.
Oso, W.Y & Onen, D (2005). General guide to writing research proposal and report:
Handbook for beginning researchers. Kisum Options Press & Publication.
Phillips, E.M. & Pugh, D.S (1987). How to get a PhD: Handbook for students and
their supervisors.New Delhi: UBS.
Riley, M.W (1963). Sociological research: Case approach. NY: Harcourt, Brace &
World, Inc.
Rodriques, D & Rodriques, R.J. (2003). Research paper: Guide to Library and
internet research (3rd ed) N.J: Prentice-Hall.
Saranfakos, S. ( ). Social research (2 nd ed) N.Y: Palgrave.
Sekaran, V. (2003). Research methods for business: Skills-building approach (4 th ed.)
NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Thomas, J.R. & Nelson, J.K (1996). Research methods in physical activity (3 rd ed.)
IL: Human Kinetics.
Methodology of teaching

We shall use andragogy (i.e. participatory teaching) as opposed to pedagogy or

teacher-centered delivery.

Measurement and evaluation

Each participant/ student is expected to develop an own three-chapter research

proposal along the suggestions in Chapters Three through five in this syllabus to
take 20% and accompanying CAT another 20%. The final examination will
contribute 60% of the total mark from this paper.

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Syllabus in brief (i.e. chapter headings)

Chapter one What research is about

Chapter two Research problems/ topics (cont’d in Chap. Eight)
Chapter three Introducing a research
Chapter four Reviewing literatures pertaining to research
Chapter five Proposing methodologies for a research
Chapter six Designing instruments for a research
Chapter seven Academic writing (to be given as a paper)
Chapter eight Research as a source of research problems (Cont’n of Chap.
Two; Abstracts of relevant studies to given)

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CHAPTER ONE WHAT RESEARCH IS ABOUT

1.0 Introduction
This chapter gives an overview of the whole paper by considering the why, what,
and how of the research
1.1 Why do we do research?
The research is intended to allow us, students to;
 develop and demonstrate ability to collect data relevant to a given problem;
 to analyze those data;
 to make independent judgments basing on the analysis;
 to write clear reports (Kakinda, 1990). In other words through research we
students get involved in a process of systematic discovery which enables us
to have insight into managerial problems and finding ways of solving them.

1.2 What is research?

Hussey & Hussey (1987) observe that although research is central to business and
academic activities, there is no consensus on how it is defined. For example,
Sekaran (2003) defines it as a process of finding solutions to a problem after a
thorough study and analysis of situational factors. Charles (1995) conceptualizes
research as a careful, Systematic, and patient investigation undertaken to
discover facts and relationships.

Note that such definitions highlight important characteristics of research such as

that;
 it is a process , that is it goes through steps;
 it is intended to solve problems: that is , without any problem there is no
need for research;
 it should be thorough that is not superficial (done/ carried out to the fullest
extent or omitting nothing)
 it is careful, meaning that it should not be done recklessly;
 it is systematic, implying that it should follow logical steps;
 it is patient meaning that it may take long;

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 it is intended to discover facts if it is qualitative; and at to discover

relationships if it is quantitative and so on.

1.3 How do we classify research?

We classify research in five ways reflected by headings of subsections in this section
1.3.1 Research according to subject
By subject or discipline, we shall mean area of specialization. Subjects or discipline
can be looked at individually, in which case we for example have management,
development studies, education and ICT; or in terms of their two major groups
that is as either pure or social science . Thus we can also classify research
according to individual subject or discipline, in which case we talk of managerial
research (i.e. research methods for business, research methods for economics),
educational research, and ICT research. We can also classify research according to
the two major groups/ subjects or disciplines, namely as research in either the
pure, basic, hard, physical, or natural sciences research in the social or
behavioral sciences.

Sykes (1982) defines “Pure science” as one studied without practical applications”
(p.939). He also defines a “natural science” as the one dealing with material
phenomena
based mainly on observation, experience and intuition “(p.939). Thus when we
talk of “pure, hard, physical or natural science research we are talking of
research usually conducted in artificial or laboratory settings in such subjects or
disciplines as chemistry, biology and physics as management students such
researches cannot be our priority.

Sykes (1982) on the other hand, defines a “ social science” as the study of human
society or behavior in such disciplines as management and educational. Thus
when we talk of “social or behavior science research” we mean that research
involving behavior of human beings as friends sharing resources on this planet

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(Latin: socius = friend). Thus we are talking of research in such discipline as

management and education that are of much relevance to our class.
Given that research in such disciplines is social or behavioral what challenges do
we expect to face that our brethren doing pure, basic, hard, and physical or
natural science research may not face? (Validity instruments; scope is uncertainty
in human behavior; costs; etc)

1.3.2 Research according to scope

Research varies by scope, scale or unit of analysis” for example Okirima (2009)’s
study entitled “Motivation and staff performed in INILAK” is interested in
bringing out how motivation affects performance of an individual staff. Thus
Okirima (2009)’s unit of analysis is the individual staff of INILAK. However, other
researchers (e.g. see the research title “ Taxation and performance of business
in Rwanda”) are interested not in individual persons as “units of analysis “but in
comparing whole schools, organization, district, and the like.

The above two examples are intended to suggest that as per their scale, scope or
unit of analysis”, we may classify research as micro or macro. Micro research
(e.g. Okirima, 2009) is that interested in comparisons/ variations between small
individual entities/ persons e.g. staff and students as units of analysis “, while macro
research is that interested in comparison between big / large entities (e.g.
businesses and districts) as units of analysis”.

Note that as students we are advised to undertake micro research on account of

cost, time, and skill limitations

1.3.2 Research according to purpose

According to purpose research can be either applied or pure (Bailey, 1994). If
research concerned with finding a solution to an immediate problem in a lay persons
language (e.g. poverty, school fires and an inadequate information system) that

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research is said to be “applied/ useful”, or “problem solving” or “action/ consultancy”

research.
Otherwise if research is trying to provide answers to questions of theoretical,
hypothetical, or academic nature, that is for the interest of academic only (e.g.
how training affects employee performance), then the research is said to be
pure, basic, theoretical, academic, hypothetical or theory-driven.
Question: Which of the two; applied and basic research is more suitable for us as
business and economics students and why?

1.3.4 Research according to approach

As per “approach or paradigm”, a given research may be qualitative or
quantitative, where a qualitative research is one based on the spoken and
written words reporting detailed views of respondents intended to build a holistic
picture of phenomenon under study. Quantitative research on the other hand, is
research based on variables measured with numbers and analyses with statistical
procedures (Amin 2005 chap. Two; Bakkabulindi, 2004; Creswell, 1994).

It is worth nothing however, that there is No research that is purely qualitative or

purely quantitative: on the contrary, all researches have aspects of both research
approaches and paradigms. So when we declare a given research as qualitative or
quantitative, we are only declaring the approach or paradigm to which it is biased.

Question: Which of the two qualitative and qualitative and quantitative is a more
advantageous research approach or paradigm for us as business and economics
students and why?

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1.3.5 Research according to number of variables.

As a researcher, you will be interested in measuring or observing variables on
entities or “units of analysis” of interest. The entity or unit of analysis could be a
staff, students, farmers, policy or information system . Characteristics of that
entity or “unity of analysis” (e.g. motivation, job satisfactory, effectiveness
and efficiency) in which researcher has interest are termed as “ variables”
because they are expected to vary from one entity or “unit of analysis” to another.
We should observe that while some variables ( e.g. sex and age ) are measurable
using one question or item say in a questionnaire, others ( e.g. satisfaction and
discipline) have to be constructed using many questions or items and are thus
known as constructs.

Alternatively, we can say that some variables (e.g. satisfaction and discipline)
have to be conceived or conceptualized in terms of how they will be measured and
are thus also known as “concepts”: thus the terms variables, constructs and
concepts are usually synonymously used in research.

Question: What are the variables, construct or concepts in your tentative research
title or topic? On which entities or units of analysis will they be measured or
observed?

The number of variables, constructs or concepts in a given research title or

topic matters! For example, the research title or topic “ Leadership styles used in
faculties in INILAK”, implies a researcher is interested in only one variable,
construct or concept (leadership styles): such a study is said to be uni-variate”.
However, while such a topic or title is the order of the day in qualitative research,
quantitative research topics or title are more pure, basic, theoretical,
academic, hypothesis-driven or theory-driven (subsection 1.3.3) and should
have at least two variables (i.e. be at least bi-variate), one being independent
and other dependent (Mc Burney, 1990). For example a quantitative research
could wish to explain what makes leaders in faculties in KIE to use the said

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leadership styles in which case the quantitative researcher could come up with
topic “Factors affecting leadership styles in faculties in INILAK ”; in that case
leadership styles are the dependent variable (D.V) while factors are the
independent variable (I.V). Alternatively, a quantitative researcher may want to
see the effect of the said leader styles on staff performance, in which case the
quantitative researcher could come up with the topic “leadership styles and staff
performance in faculties in INILAK”. In that case staff performance is the
dependent variable (D.V) while leadership styles are the independent variables
(I.V). These two examples are intended to stress the fact that quantitative
research topics or titles are co-relative that is they are interested in
relationships between variables.
Question: To what extent is your (my) tentative research topic or title co-relative?

1.4 How do we do Research?

We shall conceive or conceptualize the process of research, especially if that
research is quantitative and composed of five major steps as reflected by the
headings of sub sections in this section 1.4 (Bakkabulindi, 2004):

1.4.1 Proposal stage

During the proposal, planning or conceptual stages, a research topic or title is
chosen. (Our chap. Two); a proposal is developed (our chapters three to five); and
a data collection or a research instrument is designed (our Chap. Six); among
other activities.
1.4.2 Data collection or research stages
During data collection a researcher has two general approaches (to data collection)
namely primary and secondary.

Primary, first hand or field data collection, is that aiming at new data by
contacting or observing the respondents specimens right in the field. As we shall
see (section 5.4), a researcher has at least three methods of collecting primary data,
namely through observing relevant respondents or specimens, interviewing

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respondents and using survey: We shall observe that quantitative researchers

usually rely on the survey method of primary data collection, which usually involves
use of self administered questionnaires on account of usually large samples
used in quantitative researches.

Qualitative researchers on account of the small samples can usually afford to use
observation and interviewing as methods of primary data collection. In addition
to primary data collection, some qualitative researchers (e.g. those doing historical
research) also use secondary data, desk, documents or library data collection
which takes place at a desk by way of consulting documents or library resources.
1.4.3 Data processing stage
During this stage, the data collected are processed or prepared for analysis. How?
By editing or cleaning them of obvious errors, by categorizing them, by
entering into a computer and presenting or summarizing or considering
them.
1.4.4 Data analysis stage
In the analysis stage, the processed data are made sense of or interpreted. While
data analysis can take several forms and hence names data analysis techniques can
be classified as either quantitative or qualitative or statistical , depending on
the preferred research approach or paradigm (sub-section 1.3.4).
1.4.5 Reporting stage
In this stage, the research methodology (i.e. how the findings were arrived at) is
summarized, together with the findings themselves, and their implications (i.e.
discussions, conclusions and pertinent recommendations). Such reporting is
future reference by the researcher and other interested parties such as future
researchers. Research reports can take several forms, and hence names such as
research projects, dissertations or thesis in the case of students; conference
and journal articles in the case of senior academics.

1.5 Nature and purpose of Research

1.5.1 Nature of Research

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• Research is a fundamental part of human development because human

beings are, by natural inclination, inquisitive and learning animals
(circa Adam and Eve and the consequences of their ‘research’ endeavors)
• Research contributes greatly to sustainable learning processes by providing
the building blocks, in the form of data and information, needed to
construct a systematic body of knowledge (theory).
1.5.2 Purpose of research

1. The principal purpose of research is to discover new facts or principles ,

their correct interpretation and practical application (new knowledge)
that explains phenomena, whether natural or man-made.
Though there are other sources of knowledge, research is considered the
most reliable since it seeks to demonstrate truth.

2. Research is used to describe phenomenon. Accurate identification of any

event or facts involves thorough description, (eg size, shape, height, color,
weight, age, change over time etc). Description of such provides knowledge
that acts as a basis further/ future research studies.
3. Research enables prediction, which is the ability to estimate phenomenon
A, given phenomenon B. (e.g. our knowledge about the relative movements
of the sun, moon and earth help us predict with amazing accuracy the
occurrence of lunar eclipses). We sometimes use a set of variables to predict
a given variable.
3. Research is used to enable control especially in pure science research.
Control in this case is concerned with the ability to regulate the
phenomenon under the field of study. Many scientific studies are designed to
achieve this objective since one phenomenon is manipulated in order to
exert control over the other (e.g. laboratory experiments for manufacturing
drugs)
4. Research is usually conducted to enable explanation of phenomenon.
Explanation involves accurate observation and measurement of a given
phenomenon. In order to explain phenomenon one should be able to

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describe it, predict its occurrence, and observe factors that affect its
occurrence with certainty and accuracy.
5. Research is conducted to enable theory development. Theory
development involves formulating concepts, laws and generalizations about a
given phenomenon. Research is thus conducted with an attempt to confirm
or validate existing theories. This is sometimes referred to as falsification of
theory.
1.5.3 Sources of knowledge

• Research; is source of knowledge because it is objective and involves

systematic procedures although it may be subjected to error. Error is
anything that causes prediction to vary from what actually occurs.
• Experience; human beings learn through their experiences in life. (eg a
farmer after growing beans for several years, s/he may concludes that beans
grow best during the season of short rains given the experience overtime.
• Tradition; all human being inherit a culture. Culture is a reflection of an
adopted system of rules, norms, standards and values. The socio-cultural
system embodies accepted knowledge of how things are or should be and it is
acquired through indoctrination and socialization (transmitters include;
parents, peers, adults, teachers and the clergy.
• Authority; this takes the form of an expert in a specialized area, giving
his opinion on a given issue. The acceptance of such an opinion depends on
the status of the person giving the opinion (e.g. we are likely to accept the
fact that HIV/AIDS is not spread through handshakes if the person stating it is
a doctor rather than an engineer).
• Intuition has also been claimed to be a source of knowledge. Intuition is the
perception or explanation or insight into phenomena by instinct. In
other words, it is the ability to gain new knowledge without conscious
reasoning or rational process. However throughout history, intuition has
remained a mystery.

1.5.4 Basic terms used in research

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• Population; Sample; Sampling; Variable; Data; Parameter;

Statistics; Descriptive statistics; Inferential statistics; Objectives;
Literature review; Problem statement; Hypothesis; Theory etc
It is important to acquire a sound understanding of the basic terms used in research:
A clear grasp of the meaning of terms is a prerequisite for effective communication.
The terms commonly used will be defined using practical examples.

• Population refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects having

a common observable characteristic. In other words, population is an
aggregate of all that conforms to a given specification. Examples of
populations in research might be; All senior six students in the country; All
patients suffering from diabetes in the central province of Rwanda; All
medical doctors in a given district.
• Sample refers a smaller group obtained from the accessible population,
carefully selected to be representative of the whole population with the
relevant characteristics. Each member or case in a sample is referred to as a
subset or respondent or informant or interviewee depending on the method
used in data collection. (eg 200 senior six students from a particular district,
100 diabetes patients from Kigali hospitals.
• Sampling refers to the process of selecting a number of individuals for a
study in such a way that the individuals selected represent the large group
from which they were selected. The individuals selected form a sample and
the large group from which they were selected is the population.
• Its purpose is to enable the research to draw conclusions on the population
based on the selected sample.
• A variable is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values
among the subjects. It is therefore a logical way of expressing a particular
attribute in a subject either quantitatively or categorically. (eg quantitatively;
age is expressed in years, height is expressed in metres and weight is
expressed in kilograms and categorically: gender is expressed as male or
female and colour may be expressed as white, red, pink etc). Thus, there are
different classifications of variables
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• Data refers to all the information a researcher gathers for his or her study.
Researchers reorganize two types of data: primary data and secondary data.
• Primary data refers to the information researchers obtain from the field or
from the subjects in the sample.
• Secondary data refers to the information the researcher obtains from
already existing sources such as research articles, text books and journals.
Generally data is classified as quantitative and qualitative data.
• Parameter is a characteristic that is measured and can assume different
valves in the population. The difference between a parameter and a variable
is that a parameter refers to a population characteristic while a variable is
related to a characteristic of a sample drawn from a population. An example
of a parameter is Rwanda’s per capita income (i.e. average income per person
in Rwanda).
• Statistics is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing quantitative
data. The term statistics is also used to refer to indices which are derived
from data through statistical procedures. Examples of such indices include:
mean, standard deviation, correlation coefficient etc. if an index is descriptive
of a sample is a statistic; if the index is descriptive of a population, it is
referred to as a parameter
• Descriptive statistics are indices that describe a given sample. Examples of
descriptive statistics are: measures of central tendency (mean, mode,
median); measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance);
distributions (percentages, frequencies, quartiles); and relationships
(correlations)
• Inferential statistics are a branch of statistics which researchers use to
draw conclusions about a given phenomenon in the population. Such
inferences are based on results from a randomly selected sample. The
purpose of inferential statistics is to test hypotheses and enable the
researcher generalize the results from the sample to the population.
• An objective is any kind of desired end or condition. Objectives in research
studies refer to specific aspects of the phenomenon under a study that the

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researcher desires to bring out at the end of the research study. (e.g. a
researcher may want to carry out a study on the factors that contribute to
malnutrition of children in Rwanda: establish the socio-economic status of the
parents of malnourished children; identify the common causes of mal-
nutrition in Rwanda; explore the sources and availability of information on
proper nutrition in Rwanda)
• Literature review involves locating, reading and evaluating reports of
previous studies, observations and opinions related to the planned study. It
therefore leads to appreciating and understanding the research that has
already been done in one’s area of interest.
• Problem statement is a specific statement that clearly conveys the purpose
of the research study. The statement focuses on the phenomenon that the
researcher desires to describe, predict, control or explain. Some researchers
express the problem statement in question form: (e.g what is the effect of
designed perimeter walls on the maintenance cost of residential building in
Kigali?; the purpose of this research is to establish the human and technical
factors that contribute to road accidents in Rwanda)
• Hypothesis is a researcher’s anticipated explanation or opinion regarding the
result of the study. For example, in a study of productivity of labour within
manufacturing industries, a research may hypothesize that more monetary
incentives would lead to increases in productivity of labour or the provision of
recreational facilities would raise productivity.
List references
Amin, M.E (2005). Social science research: Conception, methodology and analysis,
Kampala : Makerere University Printery.
Bakkabulindi, F.E.K (2004). Research Methods by Example. Unpublished Maniscript.
Charles, C.M. (1995). Introduction to Educational Research (2 nd Edition). New York:
Longman
Creswell, J.W.(1994). Research design: Qualitative approaches. London: Sage.
Hussey, J. & Hussey, R. (1997). Business research: Practical guide for
undergraduate and postgraduate students. NY: Palgrave.

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Kakinda, F.M. Introduction to social research. Unpublished manuscript.

McBurney, D.H. (1990). Experimental Psychology (2nd ed.) Calif: Wardsworth.
Sekaran, U. (2003). Research methods for business: Skills-building approach (4th
ed.) NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sykes, J.B. (1982). Concise Oxford Dictionary of current English. Oxford: Oxford
Univ. Press.

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CHAPTER TWO RESEARCH PROBLEMS

(BY RUTARO ABAS)

2.0 Introduction
This chap. looks at how research problems and hence topics or titles are searched
for and evaluated as a first in the research process.
2.1 Searching for research problems
One challenge that all students face the world over, is identification of relevant
research problems and hence topics or titles yet those problems are abundant!
Indeed Owolabi (2003) observes that “absence or scarcity of (research) problems to
be studied is often not the problem: selecting topics for research from a multi-tude
of problems may be the problem (p.6)”. In this section we argue that research
problems and hence topics or title can arise from several sources including lectures,
past experiences mass media and academic literature (Bakkabulindi 2004: 28-41):
2.1.1 Lectures
As our lectures in the respective disciplines progress, several unresolved problems
will be pointed at. For example several theories will be raised, many of which are
yet to be tested in different context via research. An existing theory in an area
is a good source of a research problem. A theory contains generalizations and
hypothesized principles which can be scientifically tested. Such tests can be done
through the research process. This leads to validation or otherwise of existing
generalizations or principles. However, theory is a source of research studies as long
as such studies are theory – based. There are many studies that are not theory –
based. For example in section 4.1 among other theories, we shall cite social or
human productivity theory of investment in education by gurus such as Adam
smith (1776) which asserts than training of employees is one way of investing in
social or human capital, in the later, that training will raise employee productivity
and/ or efficiency (Kwesiga, 2002). Clearly, such a theory is begging for such
research as that entitled : “training and productivity of employees in King Faysil
Hospital” (Kazibwe, 2009).

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Question: To what extent will your tentative research topic or title originate from
lectures/ theories?
2.1.2 Past experience
Many research problems, and hence topics or titles result from a potential researcher
having experienced some problem in past life, in some organizations or society.
Personal experiences; First-hand observations and reflection on intriguing
experiences could be sources of research problems. Such personal experiences
usually lead to vivid images, or an intuition on the part of a serious researcher.
This helps the researcher to formulate a specific research problem from a general
area. For example Bakkabulindi (2005) topic “Social correlates of innovation
adoption: The case of ICT in Makerere university”, resulted from experience than
adoption of the innovation called ICT in the university was not at its best (note
than the problem is on the DV which problem Bakkabulindi (2005) wanted to
attribute to social correlate (I.V.) such as individual character perception about
ICT and organizational character.

Question: To what extent will your tentative research problem and hence topic or
title originate from past experience?
2.1.3 Mass media
Mass media are communication channels with large audience and or readership
and or view ship and include newspapers, Radio and internet, TV and so on.
Through mass media; Issues which are frequently reported in the media can also
form the basis of a research problem. Such issues are usually discussed in public
fora and are therefore important to the majority of the people. For instance in the
recent past several newspapers articles (e.g. Bogere 2008 march) have pointed at
high turnover in Rwandan hospitals. As a quantitative researcher one may want
to come up with reasons why that problem persists, in which case a topic such as
“factors affecting doctors in Rwandan hospitals…”

Also in the recent past, several newspapers articles (e.g. Mugerwa 2009 March)
have raised the problem of low pay in Rwanda. As a quantitative researcher, one
may want to study the effects of that problem, say on staff performance, in
which case a topic or title such as “ remuneration and performance of teachers
in Rwandan schools”.
Advice: Start perusing mass media, noting suggested research problems, and
hence topics or tittles.
2.1.4 Scholarly (Academic) literature

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We shall consider scholarly or academic literature as referring to text books,

professional and or academic journals, and dissertation or theses among others.
Some text books have chapter headings relating variables, and hence suggesting
pure, basic, academic, theoretical or hypothetical research topics or titles: For
examples Mullius (2002 chap eighteen) is entitled jobs satisfaction and work
performance, which is a research topic or title very suitable for a quantitative
researcher. Other text books especially research text books have suggested
researches (e.g. pp.446-448 of Amin, 2005 give thirty research topic or titles)!

Dissertations and theses are research reports by students which usually end by
suggesting areas of further research and hence research topics or titles students in
search of research topics or titles: students in search of research topics or titles are
particularly encouraged to peruse past dissertation or theses in libraries in their
respective universities.
To this end, you are individually advised to get personal copies of lists of past
dissertation and theses from KIE, INILAK, KIST, NUR and other universities.
2.1.5 Existing literature; A systematic reading programme in the general area of
interest is perhaps the best way of locating specific research problems. Textbooks
and articles on the broad area give the researcher a good background of basic
information and an insight into various issues that could be studied.

2.1.6 Discussions with experts; Discussions on general topics either in class or

seminars are a source of current problems that could be researched. Such
discussions usually involve experienced and well-informed researchers in the
particular area that one may be interested in.

2.1.7 Replication; Replicating a study involves carrying out a research project that
has been done previously. In this case, the problem and the procedures of the
research are identical to a study that has been previously done. Replication is
usually done to find out whether findings hold over time and across regions.

2.2 Evaluating research problem

After a thorough research from at least one of the suggested sources, you will come
up with at least one problem and hence topic or title such as Bakkabulindi (2005)
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entitled “Social collarets of innovation adoption the case of ICT in Makerere

University”. Note that such a quantitative research topic or title has variables
(name them), which it relates and context (Makerere name it) in which the
proposed research is to be done. However before such a topic or title is approved,
several criteria have to be satisfied including asking and positively answering
questions to do with (Bakkabulindi, 2004:31-33):
i) Newness
While the verb “to research” literary means “to search a gain”, a given research
topic or title ought to be adequate new, so that in does not involve too much
duplication. You may consider whether your tentative research topic or title has
“content newness” hat is in terms of variables; “contextual newness” that is in
terms of situations where the study is top take place; “ temporal newness” that in
terms of time. To what extent is your tentative research problem and hence topic or
title, new?
ii) Interest
If your proposed research topic or title not interesting to you, you will find it difficult
to overcome challenges that will come at every step in your research process or
cycle. This partly explains why as a student you are encouraged to search for
research problems hence topics or titles in your area of specialization (subsection
1.3.1) where you are expected to have interest.
Question: To what extent is your tentative research topic or title interesting to you
in so far as it is relevant to your area of study/ specialization?
iii) Significance
Your proposed research problem, title or topic should be significant or justifiable,
in that if it is pure or basic (subsection 1.3.2), it has some important theory
underpinning it; if it is applied (subsection 1.3.2), it should have some practice it
intends to improve. If a topic or title is not significant it is not worth undertaking
because it neither adds to knowledge, that is has no theoretical significance nor
leads to improvement in practice, that is it has no practical significance.
Question: To what extent does your tentative topic have theoretical and practical
significances?

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iv) Feasibility
Your proposed research (problem, title or topic) should be feasible or viable in
terms of skill, time and money. If not, it should be modified or discarded.
Question: Is your proposed research feasible?
v) Assurance of guidance
Is there a potential supervisor/overseer? For example this partly explains why as
students, we are encouraged to search for research topics in our areas of
specialization where we are assured of guidance or supervision from respective
facilitators/ supervisors/ teachers.
Question: Does your topic pass this hurdle?
vi) Facilities
Are there adequate facilities such as literature for your tentative research? This is
yet another reason why as students, we should search for and propose research
topics or titles in our areas of specialization where we are assured of adequate
literature.
Question: Does your tentative topic pass this criterion?
Lists of refs
Amin, M.E.(2005) Social science research: Conception, methodology and analysis .
Kampala: Makerere University Printery.
Bakkabulindi, F.E.K (2005) Social correlates of innovation adoption: the case of ICT
in Makerere University. Unpublished PhD research proposal, Makerere University,
Kampala, Uganda.
Bakkabulindi, F.E.K (2004) Research methods by example; unpublished manuscript.
Kazibwe, S (2009) Training and work performance of employees in King Faysil
hospital, Unpublished PHD research proposal, Kampala international university
Kwesiga, J.C (2002) Women’s access to higher education in Africa: Uganda
experience, Kampala, Fountain Publishers.
Mulluis, L.J (2002) Management and organization behavior (6th ed.) London Financial
Times’ |prentice hall.

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Owolabi, S (2003). Overview of research: Paper presented at a seminar on Overview

of Educational Research Methodology for teachers of School of Education, Makerere
University, held at an undisclosed venue, March 5, 2008.

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CHAPTER THREE INTRODUCING A RESEARCH

(By RUTARO ABAS)

3.0 Introducing a research

Before embarking on the practical/ empirical part of your research, you are expected
to first develop a research proposal, guide or protocol, a document summarizing
the systematic process to be followed in your study. You proposal will serve a
number of functions (Bakkabulindi, 2004: 25-27):

 First it will help you communicate your study idea to potential supervisor,
funders, consenting agencies and the like, however much you will talk to
these people without a written proposal, they will not fully appreciate your
study idea.

 Second, the proposal will be your plan of action: planners summarize the
importance of planning in the philosophical saying to the effect that “one who
has no plan, has planned to fail”. Further as you develop your proposal or
study plan, you will actually be assessing the feasibility of your study idea.

 Third, once complete, your proposal/ study plan serve as a guide, protocol,
terms of reference, contract or agreement to be followed by you (the
researcher), supervisors, funders and the like.

Note that the first item in a proposal is the title, in the case of quantitative
research reflecting the IV, DV and context of the study. As to the structure of
your research proposal that is its contents and their order, unfortunately there is
no universally acceptable format! Nevertheless in this paper we shall consider a
typical quantitative research proposal as consisting of three chapters namely the
introduction chap (this chap. Three); literature review chap (our chap. Four)
and methodology chap (our chap. five) plus the accompanying data collection or
research instrument (our chap six)

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3.1 Backgrounds

According to the Cambridge international dictionary of English (1995), a

background refers to “those things that can be seen or heard behind other things
that are closer or louder” (p.90). In the case of research, as we shall remind
ourselves in section 3.3, there will be a particular issue/ concern referred to as the
problem prompting you to think of your particular study. But behind that problem,
there will be the background to it, which you will be expected to give first. The
background to quantitative researches has at least four perspectives (Amin, 2005:
122-123); historical perspective; theoretical perspective; conceptual perspective; and
contextual perspective.

3.1.1 Historical perspective

You are expected to use this perspective of the background to trace the history the
problem being investigated, recalling from subsection 2.1.2 that the problem is
usually on your Dependent Variable. A part from narrating how “the problem”
came about, historical attempts by past/ earlier researchers to tackle the same
problem, that is to carry out studies with the same dependent variable as yours,
should be given showing gaps they left to justify your new study. For example
Bakkabulindi (2005 subsection 1.1.1) not only trace the history of ICT in Makerere,
but also how ICTs have not been well adopted (problem on the DV). Then a few
past studies on adoption of ICTs and the gaps left to justify the new study are
given.

Note that in your case, lists of past dissertation and theses from KIE, INILAK,
SFB, KIM and other universities (see end of section 2.1 these notes), will be very
useful in this regard.

3.1.2 Theoretical perspective

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Quantitative/ basic research being theory-driven (sub-section 1.3.3, 2.1.1), in

this perspective of the background, you are expected to theorize on the assumed
co-relation between the IV and DV in your study. For example, an explanation of
why the DV (adoption of innovation) is expected to be affected by the IV
(social correlates) is attempted. In explaining the relationships between your IV
and DV, you may call upon a formal theory or relevance for example Bakkabulindi
(2005 subsection 1.1.2) invoked Rogers (1958) Innovation Adoption Theory.

Question? Which theory will you invoke in your study?

3.1.3 Conceptual perspective

At this juncture you will be expected to conceptualize or define the variables in

your study: For example Bakkabulindi (2005 subsection 1.1.3), conceptualized
“adoption of ICT innovation and social correlates” respectively. In
conceptualizing a given variable, you are expected to start with one or a few text
book or dictionary definitions, and then go further to give an “operational/
working definition” to the variable (that is how the variable will be understood in
this study). This is done by identifying and stating basic elements/ concepts that will
constitute each variable. For example in Bakkabulindi (2005 subsection 1.1.3
adoption of ICT is not only generally defined, but also operationalized as
knowledge and uses of basic computer hardware, software and
communication facilities, while “social correlates” are also generally defined
before being operational as individual characteristics, perceived ICT
characteristics and organizational characteristics.

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3.1.4 Contextual perspective

Empirical research being contextual, in this subsection of the background, you are
expected to usher in the situation where your proposed study is to take place (e.g.
in Bakkabulindi, 2005 subsection 1.1.4, Makerere University), re-iterating the
concern or problem with your DV (in Bakkabulindi, 2005 are, non-optimal adoption
of ICT) in the context, tendering empirical evidence/ indicators of the existence of
“the problem”.

3.2 Problem statement

This is the section where you are expected to officially state “ the problem” pointed
at in the contextual perspective of the background (our subsection 3.1.4), stressing
the urgency to study “the problem” with the view to understand it more and
hence possibly suggest how to solve or alleviate it: While there are many ways of
stating the problem, in a given study, you may proceed as follows: start by stating
the importance of the DV in your study in any organization in general; then lament
the problem on the DV in your study context , re-iterating its empirical
indicators.

Suggest bad consequences of the problem and hence the need to solve or
alleviate it. Argue that the one way to solve or alleviate the problem is to isolate
its causes/ factors: and point out that your study is interested in investigating the
extent to which the IV could be one of the factors contributing to the problem;
hence justifying your quantitative study relating the IV and DV in your study
context.

3.3 Purpose

Also known as the aim, goal, or main objective of the study, this is where in one
sentence, you will officially state the general intention of your proposed study,
which as per the study title is to co-relate the IV and the DV in your study
context. From the purpose you are expected to derive specific objectives.

3.4 Specific Objectives

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Here you are expected to break the purpose, aim, goal or main objective into
specific activities/ tasks/ targets that when executed, will tantamount to the
achievement of your study’s purpose. In so doing, you will either use the “many-
to-one” linking strategy, where you will break the IV into many concepts but
leaving the DV as one; or “the one-to-many” linking strategy, where you will
leave the IV as one, while breaking the DV into many concepts (Amin, 2005:
131-133).

For example, basing on the purpose (e.g. to establish the effect of social
characteristics on ICT adoption …), then using the many-to-one linking strategy,
one may break, conceptualize, or Operationalize the IV (social correlates) into
many concepts, namely individual characteristics, perceived ICT
characteristics and organizational characteristics, while leaving DV (ICT
adoption) as one. In that case, you end up with specific objectives. In addition to
specific objective, a quantitative research may raise some questions to answer:

3.5 Research Questions

Research questions are the specific objectives turned into question form. Why then
turn objectives into questions? Some researchers argue that since research is
expected to give answers to questions/ problems, then there is no way those
answers will be forthcoming unless there are questions posed.

Note: research questions should be equivalent/ congruent (e.g. in terms of number,

variables/ content and context) with the research/ specific objectives.

3.6 Hypothesis

A quantitative researcher does not usually go in for any study blindly: on the
contrary, the researcher, with the guidance of theory (quantitative research is
theory-driven –subsection 1.3.3, 2.1.1, 3.1.2), beliefs, intuition, and so on (Amin
2005: 129) will have provisional/ tentative answers to the research questions.

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Such tentative answers to (the research questions) are called “ research

hypothesis”.

Note: Hypotheses should also be congruent/ equivalent (e.g. in terms of

number, content and context) with the research questions.

3.7 Scope

Also known as the delimitation/ coverage of the study, your research scope
should specify the limitations you (the researcher) will impose on your study, in
terms of time, cost, and skills (Amin, 2005: 135). Amin (2005) further compares
specification of a research scope to bounding a piece of land before transferring
it.

In quantitative research, you are expected to give at least three scopes, namely the
geographical scope, that is where the study will take place; content,
conceptual or theoretical scope, that is what variables the quantitative study
will relate; and the sample scope, that is who the respondents in this study will
be.

3.8 Significance or Justification

According to Amin (2005), your significance section is supposed to state “how the
results of the study will influence the institution/ society in question; why the
study is worth the time, effort and expense …” (pp.135-136). That way, the
significance or justification section seeks authority say from government and
persuades donor agencies to support the study. This section of your proposal
should address at least two questions: first, how will policy makers or
practitioners (e.g. government and other stakeholders) benefit from the study
findings? Here we are talking of what we termed as practical/ policy
significance. Second, how will academicians/ researchers/ theoreticians
benefit from the study findings? Here we are talking of what we termed as
theoretical significance.

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List of References

Amin, M.E. (2005). Social Science Research: Conception, methodology and analysis.
Kampala: Makerere University printery.

Cambridge International Dictionary of English. (1995): Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

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Addendum 1

3.6 Formulation hypotheses

A hypothesis is further defined as a researcher’s prediction regarding the outcomes of the

study. A hypothesis states possible differences, relationships or causes and effects
between two variables or concepts. Hypotheses are derived from or based on existing
theories, previous research, personal observations or experiences. Each hypothesis will
usually express a predicted relationship between two or more variables or concepts.

3.6.1 Purposes of hypotheses

 Hypotheses provide direction. They bridge the gap between the problem and the
evidence needed for its solution.
 Hypotheses ensure collection of the evidence necessary to answer the question to
answer the question posed in the statement of the problem.
 Hypotheses enable the investigator/ researcher to assess the information s/he
has collected from the standpoint of both relevance and organization.
 Hypotheses sensitize the investigator to certain aspects of the situation that are
relevant regarding the problem at hand. Researchers should, however, guard against
being led to acceptance of false data through sensitization.
 Hypotheses permit the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarity
and use the date collected to find solutions to problems.
 Hypotheses guide the collection of data and provide the structure for their
meaningful interpretation in relation to the problem under investigation.
 Hypotheses form the framework for the ultimate conclusions as solutions.
Researchers usually base their conclusions on the results of the tests of their
hypotheses.

3.6.2 The characteristics of good hypotheses

The exercise of formulating hypotheses is carried out after the review of literature but prior
to data collection. Formulating hypotheses after collection and examining the data is a bad
practice and should be avoided. Good hypotheses should have the following characteristics:

 They must state clearly and briefly the expected relationship between variables.
 They must be based on a sound rationale derived from theory. Or previous
research, or professional experience.
 They must be consistent with common sense or generally accepted truths.
 They must be testable. Data can be collected to support or fail to support
hypotheses. This also implies that the variables stated in the hypotheses can be
operationalized

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 They must be related to empirical phenomena. Words like “ought”, “should”, “bad”
reflect moral judgment and should be avoided.
 They should be testable within a reasonable time. For example, the hypothesis
that children who are breast fed for longer periods will have a longer life expectancy
in adulthood would take more than fifty years to test.
 Variables stated in the hypotheses must be consisted with the purpose statement
objectives and the operationalized variables in the method section.
 A good hypothesis must be as simple and as concise as the complexity of the
concepts involved allows.
 A good hypothesis must be stated in such a way that its implications can be
deducted in the form of empirical operations with respect to which relationship can
be validated or refuted.
The following are examples of hypotheses that meet the above criteria:

 High alcohol content in the blood influences reaction time among drivers in Rwanda.
 High mathematics anxiety influences students’ performance in statistics quizzes at
Kigali Institute of Education.
 There is a positive relationship between level of education and income among civil
servants in Rwanda.
 The amount of rainfall and type of fertilizer used influence the yield of tea per acre in
the Northern Province of Rwanda.
 Promotion as part of an incentive programme, increases productivity of workers in
both public and private sectors.

In each hypothesis stated above, a relationship between two or more variables is clearly is
and briefly indicated. In each case, a rationale can be derived from theory, research or
professional experience in the particular field. They are also consistent with common sense.
Because the variables in each hypothesis can be operationalized, the hypotheses are
testable. And such a test would involve data collection and analysis, an exercise that would
not take an unreasonably long time.

Researchers should avoid the use of value-laden, biased or subjective hypotheses. For
example, the following hypotheses are biased and value-laden:

 Jogging one mile a day will be shown to be more effective method of weight control
compared to dieting.
 The Study will show students from urban primary schools perform better in national
examinations compared to students from rural primary schools.

3.6.3 Types of hypotheses

Researchers recognize three types of hypotheses: null hypotheses, alternative non-

directional hypotheses and alternative directional hypotheses.

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Null hypotheses is sometimes referred to as statistical hypothesis. A null hypothesis

always states that no real relationship or difference exists: any relationship between
two variables or difference between groups is merely due to chance or error. The following
is an example of a null hypothesis: There is no difference in the performance of national
examinations between standard eight students from rural primary schools and standard six
students from urban primary schools in Rwanda.

We can test the above hypothesis by sampling several schools from each region and
working out an average score on the national examination for each region. We can then
start by stating that the two averages will not differ. Statistically, this can be represented by
the following symbols.

Ho: m1 = m2

This null hypothesis states that the population mean of children in rural primary schools is
equal to the population mean of children in urban schools.

Alternative non-directional hypothesis is also referred to as a research hypothesis.

This type of hypothesis states that there is a relationship or differences but the
researcher does not know the nature of such a difference or relationship. An alternative
non-directional hypothesis is suitable where previous research findings are conflicting or
where a strong rationale to support a predicted relationship does not exist. Starting a
hypothesis in a non-directional form is a conservative approach; the researcher avoids
commitment to a specific outcome. Consider the following hypothesis:

 High alcohol content in the blood affects reaction time among truck drivers in
Rwanda.
 There is a difference in the performance of national examinations between children
from rural primary schools and children from urban primary schools.
The first hypothesis states that a relationship exists between the variables but the

Researcher does not indicate the direction of that relationship i.e. does alcohol reduce or
increase reaction time? The second hypothesis states that a difference between the two
groups exists, but we are not told which group performs better than the other. Using
statistical symbols we can represent the second hypothesis as follows:

H1:m1 ≠ m2

This means that the population mean, on national examinations, of children in rural primary
schools and the population mean, on national examinations, of children in urban primary
schools are not the same.

An alternative directional hypothesis specifies the nature of the relationship or

difference between variables. This means that a relationship may be stated as being

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greater than, less than, increased, decreased, higher than, lower than , etc. Where
the researcher is not sure off form of the relationship, he or he should not use a directional
hypothesis especially where there is a high chance of obtaining an opposite relationship
from the one hypothesized.

Consider the following examples:

 High alcohol content in the blood decreases reaction time of truck drivers in Rwanda.
 Irrigation and use cow dung manure decreases the yield of maize per acre in arid
districts of Rwanda.
From previous studies and experiences, it is highly likely that the first hypothesis will be
borne out by the result of a research study. Even from common sense or general
observation, drunk drivers take a longer time to react to dangerous situations compared to
sober drivers. However, it is highly unlikely that the second hypothesis will be supported by
any data.

In statistical form, directional hypotheses make use of the signs greater than (>) or less
than (<). The hypothesis that in, in national examinations, pupils in urban schools perform
better than pupils in rural schools is represented by:

H1: m1>m2

Or

H1: m2<m1

The above alternative hypothesis implies that the population mean in the national
examination of children from urban schools is greater than the population mean, in the
same examination, of children from rural schools. Therefore pupils from urban schools
perform better than pupils from rural schools in the national examinations.

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CHAP FOUR RE-VIEWING LITERATURE PERTAINING TO A RE-SEARCH

(by RUTARO ABAS)

4.0 Introduction

Given that any re-searcher will only be contributing to an on-going debate, a good
re-search proposal should include a “re-view of literature”, that is, what earlier
re-searchers and/or writers have found and/or written about the given re-search
problem. This re-view enables the proposal writer to achieve many things,
including: first, to share with the proposal readers what earlier re-searchers and/or
writers found and/or said about the given re-search issue; Second, to identify gaps
left by those earlier re-searchers and/or writers for the current study to fill; Third, to
see how others went about related studies with the view to replicate their
ideas and methodologies in the proposed study.

Simply put, review of literature involves the systematic identification,

location and analysis of documents containing information related to the
research problem being investigated. Literature review should be extensive and
thorough because it is aimed at obtaining detailed knowledge of the topic being
studied.

The purpose of literature review

1. The main purpose of literature review is to determine what has been done
already related to the research problem being studied. A detailed knowledge
of what has been done helps the researcher to:
 Avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication.
 Form the framework within which the research findings are to be
interpreted.
 Demonstrate his or her familiarity with the existing body of knowledge.
This increases the reader’s confidence in the researchers’ professional
ability.

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2. A review of literature will reveal what strategies, procedures and

measuring instruments have been found useful in investigating the
problem in question. This information helps one to avoid mistakes that have
been made by other researchers and also helps one to benefit from other
researchers’ experiences.
3. In most cases, literature review will suggest other procedures and
approaches. This is very useful information because a researcher could try
out suggested approaches, especially if they will improve the research
study.
4. Literature review is to make the researcher familiar with previous studies
and thus facilitate interpretation of the results of the study. For example
results can be discussed in terms of whether they support or contrast
previous findings. If there is contradiction, the literature review might provide
rational for the discrepancy.
5. In some cases the literature review helps the researcher to limit the
research problem and to define it better. The review of literature will give
the researcher the knowledge needed to convert a tentative research into a
detailed and concise plan of work.
6. Literature review helps determine new approaches and stimulates new
ideas. The researcher may also be alerted to research possibilities which have
been overlooked in the past.
7. Approaches that have proved to be futile will be revealed through literature
review. This helps in the research because there is no point in repeating a
certain approach in a study if that approach has been found to be
consistently unproductive or unreliable.
8. In most cases, authors of research articles include specific suggestions and
recommendations for those planning further research. These suggestions
are usually found when reviewing literature and should be considered very
carefully.

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9. Literature review pulls together, integrates and summarizes what is

known in an area. A review analyses and synthesizes different results
revealing gaps in information and areas where major questions still remain.

While there are several styles of re-viewing literature, as suggested by our syllabus
(Chapter four), we may have to re-view theories of relevance to the proposed
study (section 4.1); from which we may derive a conceptual framework model
(section 4.2); and then re-view literature related to the respective specific study
objectives (section 4.3).

4.1 Theoretical re-view

In so many instances, we have seen that basic re-search is theory–driven. Thus a

good re-search especially if it is quantitative should be anchored on a sound
theoretical foundation (Owolabi, 2004), trying to link the variables in the study.
For example, (section 2.1 of our notes), anchored his study on Rodger (1958)
Innovation Adoption theory to explain the theoretical linkage between his IV
(social correlates) and DV (ICT Innovation Adoption).

The theoretical re-view section is an expansion of the theoretical perspective of

the Background, in that any theory raised in the latter is expanded by stating in
more detail: what theory it is; who propounded/ suggested it; when it was
propounded; what does the theory stipulate and how relevant is it to the
proposed study: that is how does it link the IV and DV in the proposed study; and
so on.

But then, what is a theory? A “theory” can be defined as a formulation regarding

the cause and effect relationship between variables (Mugerwa, 2004), and
thus, a theory bridges the IV and DV in a (quantitative) study, providing an
explanation of why and how we should expect the IV to explain or Predict the
DV (Amin, 2005; Creswell, 2003). Some of the many theories to consider when
trying to identify a theory (ries) for a given managerial study are:

(i) Management theories/ approaches/thought/models

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There are several management theories, out of which we shall use scientific
theory of management as an example. This theory propounded by Frederick.
W. Taylor around 1910 advises managers that to raise employee productivity,
performance and/or efficiency, those employees should be made to work as
machines. Note that studies, such as Uwamahoro (2009) interested in how ICT
affects employee productivity in banking …, could consider Taylor’s scientific
theory of management as relevant.

(ii) Leadership theories

Studies involving leadership as one of the variables (e.g. Kamugundu, 2009) have
very many theories to consider. For example if a re-searcher is relating leadership
styles to employee job performance, then the re-search could exploit Path-Goal
theory of leadership, since it stipulates that a good leader should enhance, sub-
ordinates job performance by showing them goals to achieve and the paths to
take, in order to achieve the said goals (Yukl, 2002).

(iii) Motivation theories

Re-searchers on motivation as one o their variables can explore the relevance of

such theories of motivation as Equity theory. Equity theory of motivation
propounded by Jane Pearson in 1943, asserts that individual employees for
example, compare what they receive in terms of salary, allowances and so on,
with what other employees of same rank, education and son on, receive, and if
the two are comparable, there is Farness/ Equity and hence motivation to work;
the opposite occurs otherwise.

(iv) Social or Human capital theories

If a study is looking at training as a means of enhancing employee, productivity

and/or efficiency, then as we saw (in subsection 2.1.1 and 2.3 of these notes) that
study may appeal to such theories as social or human capital theory of
investment in Education of Adam smith (1776 ) and/or T.W. Shuitz (1960),
which has it that training of employees is one way of investing in social or human
capital in that training will raise those employees’ productivity and/or efficiency.
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The list of theories is infinite/ endless! What is important is for a potential re-
searcher to know that when searching for a theory (ries) to be the basis or anchor
of a given re-search, the re-searcher ought to widely read and re-view writings in
principles of management, sociology or any other field that forms the basis of the
study (Owolabi, 2004). However, to ease the process of getting relevant theory
(ries), you were, and still are being, advised to choose topics from your respective
areas of specialization.

4.2 Conceptual framework or model

Having re-viewed theory (ries) of relevance, a (quantitative) re-searcher may go on

to develop an own mini theory, usually a diagrammatic framework or model
which visualizes how the re-searcher views inter-connections between variables
in the proposed study, in order to achieve the study objectives. Such a mini theory
to guide the empirical part of the study is called a conceptual framework or
model for the study.

Generally, the introduction to a conceptual framework or model should show how

the framework or mini theory in question, originates from the main theory (ries)
re-viewed in the preceding theoretical review. A framework for a quantitative
study should at least show the IV and DV in the study, and how each is
conceptualized or operationalized (a process that started in the conceptual
perspective of the Background – our subsection 1.1.3, and continued when deriving
specific objectives – our subsection 3.4). As we shall see in chap. Six, it is this
repeated conceptualization or operationalization that leads to the pertinent data
collection or re-search instrument.

While it is not always covered by many, in addition the IV and DV, sometimes your
supervisor may ask you to reflect extraneous variables (EV), that is, variables
competing with the IV in explaining the DV. A supervisor may even ask you to
reflect intervening/ moderating variables, that is, variables affected by the IV
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and later in turn, they (the moderating variables, intervening) will affect the DV. For
details on these, see Amin (2005:95–97). Generally, it is conventional for the IV (and
EV if any) to be on the left, the M.V if any to be in the middle, while the DV is on
the right.

Relationships between concepts in a framework are represented by arrows directed

from the left (e.g. IV and EV if any) to the right (e.g. DV) sometimes via MV.
Sometimes these arrows may show the hypothesized direction (positive or
negative) of relationship. Here, a given conceptual framework or model should be
given an identification number (e.g. fig 2.2) and an operational working title.
Source (es) used in constructing the framework should be revealed. Finally the
framework should be described with the description highlighting how the IV, (EV,
MV) and DV are or were conceptualized or operationalized, and later on related.

4.3 Related literature

Having re-viewed theory (ries) relevant to your study (section 4.1) and developed or
adapted a conceptual framework/ model (section 4.2) there from, as a re-searcher
you may now turn to the review of: “related literature”, that is “literature
related to the respective specific study objectives”. We shall thus note for
example that if your first objective, namely: “(i) to establish the effect of individual
characteristic on ICT adoption among staff and students in Makerere University”, it
could attract related literature, entitled: “individual characteristic and innovation
adoption”; and so on.

Note also that literature related to any objective does not have to be
specific to study context: we instead can go beyond the targeted.

Also note that literature related to any objective starts with a mini “conceptual re-
view”, that is definition of (new) concepts in the objective: Then related
literature proceeds to a mini “theoretical re-view”, that is an explanation of why
the concepts an objective are expected to be related. Lastly, literature related to any
objective gives an “empirical re-view”, that is past study findings of relevance to
the objective.

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Such re-view of any past study should reveal who undertake the study, when,
where and what was studied (i.e. variables related); how the study was carried
out (i.e. its methodology briefly); its main findings of relevance to the objective;
what gap (s) the study left for the proposal study to fill.

4.4 The scope of literature review

Some very common questions here are:

 How wide or narrow should the literature review be? In other words, when
should one stop reviewing?
 What kind of literature is related to my topic? In other word, how do I know
the relevant literature?
There is no formula for arriving at a decision. However the following are useful hints
towards determining scope.

1. If the area of study has been studied for a long time and therefore there is a
huge body of literature, one can read only those studies that are reasonably
close to one’s research topic. In these thoroughly explored areas, much greater
depth is available and the researcher can personally cover a narrower topic range
to greater depth.
2. In new or little researched areas, where little depth is available, a researcher
would require to review any relevant material in order develop a logical
framework for the study and appropriate hypotheses for the study.
3. The researcher should avoid temptation to include all available material.
Excessive material does not mean great research information. A smaller well
organized review is preferable to a review containing many studies that are only
remotely related to the problem.
4. Another indicator to abandon literature review is to constantly re-encounter
material already reviewed.

4.5 Steps in carrying out literature review

 Be very familiar with the library before beginning the literature review.
 Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search. For
example, if the study deals with familiar conflict, other phrases that could be
used to search the literature are “family violence” or “abuse”, “family
dissolution”, etc.

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 With the key words and phrases related to the study, one should go to the
source of literature. Library staffs are generally very helpful in offering
guidance.
 Summarize the references on cards for easy organization of the literature.
 Once collected, the literature should be analyzed, organized and reported
in an orderly manner. Such organization, analysis and reporting represents
the hardest part of literature review.
 Make an outline of the main topics o themes in other of presentation.
Decide on the number of headlines and sub-headlines required,
depending on how detailed the review is.
 Analyze each reference in terms of outline made and establish where it will
be most relevant.
 Studies contrary to received wisdom should be ignored when reviewing
literature. Such studies should be analyzed and possible explanation for the
differences given. They should be analyzed with a view to accounting for
differences of opinion.
 The literature should be organized in such a way that the more general is
covered first before the researcher narrows down to that which is more
specific to the research problem. Organizing the literature in this way leads
to testable hypotheses.
 Some researchers prefer to have a brief summary of the literature and its
implications. This is however, optional depending on the length of the
literature under review.

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4.6 Sources of Literature

Sources of information can be classified into two broad categories:

Primary sources; and Secondary sources:

Examples of sources of information

Scholarly journals; These are crucial research documents. They are to be found in
libraries. Recent ones will be paper copies while older journals are retained on
microfilms. Today owing to access to the internet, many journals articles will have
the author’s name, year of publication, title of the article, title of the journal and
volume number to enable one to locate it easily.

Theses and dissertations; All graduate students who wish to receive a Master’s
degree or Doctor of philosophy (Ph.D) undertake original work which they write up
as a thesis or dissertation. Such manuscripts could prove of great value to the
researcher.

Government documents; These include policy papers, and research reports

owned by governments, some of which are normally sponsored by international
agencies. In Kenya examples are the “Master Plan of Education and planning”
(MPEP), “Kenya Demographic and Health Survey” (KDHS), and the “situation
Analysis of Children and women in Kenya”.

Papers presented at conferences; Research papers presented at conferences are

also good sources of literature. Eventually such papers get published in conference
proceedings or referred journals. However, a reader is able to make reference to
them as presentations even before they are published.

Books; Subject bibliographies are available in most libraries. These give a list of
books in general. If one is interested in a particular book, then the card catalogue
which is alphabetically indexed by author, subject and title can be checked to see if
the book is available in the library.

References quoted in books; The references given at the back of a relevant book
may reveal more relevant source e.g. books or journals?

International indices; These are important sources which list theses and
dissertations which have been written in a particular area of specialization, for
example in the USA, there is “dissertation Abstracts International” which lists
dissertations with their authors, titles and universities.
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Abstracts; Abstracts give a list of journal articles with summaries. Abstracts will
give the name, volume and issue number of the journal where the full article can be
found. Examples of such abstracts are: Nutritional abstracts; Home economics
abstracts; Biological abstracts

Periodicals; As their name suggests these include journals, magazines or local

newspapers which are published periodically. In some libraries, for example Moi
Library at Kenyatta University, there is periodical holdings list which lists all the
available journals in the library classified by subject. A very useful source of
information

The Africana section of the library; This is a special area in a library (libraries in
Africa) where any material on a nation by its nationals (e.g. material on Rwanda by
Rwandans) is kept. However, unique materials which are irreplaceable or which are
very scarce may be kept in Africana society for safety. In most libraries in Kenya for
example, all theses and dissertations by Kenyans are kept in the Africana.

References section in library; This is another special area in libraries where all
books classified as “reference books” are catalogued in the same way as books on
open shelves, only that the inscription “REF” is added. Such books include
encyclopedias, dictionaries, manuals, handbooks and biographies which are
considered either rare or extremely expensive.

Grey literature; Grey literature refers to anything written but not published.
Examples are notes from lectures, papers presented at conferences or any other
useful information collected by the library. Very many researchers overlook this very
important source of information. It is wise to always ask the librarian for the grey
literature available in one’s area of interest.

Inter-library loan; this is an important source of information which is often

overlooked, In most public libraries, if a certain book is needed and it is not in a
particular library, the library staff can borrow that book from another library for the
consumption of their clients.

The British lending library; The British council in every country has a library that
is open to members of the public. Members can borrow books from the library. If
one requires a book which is not available in other libraries in a particular country.
The librarian can use a coupon to get the book from British lending libraries. Articles
from unavailable journals can also be acquired.

Computer search; There are computer facilities to get required information

through a computer search. In such cases, all reading materials are computerized
which makes the process of literature review easier. If a computer is being used to
search the information, key words are used. For example in a study on “family
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conflicts” the key words would be “family” and “conflict”. Related words can also be
used e.g. “violence”. Once the key words have been keyed into the computer, it
shows all the articles or books in the library which have titles bearing on that key
word. The computer also shows the call number of the article or book. One could
also search by keying in the subject or of study. The computer will show the titles of
books and articles dealing with that subject. Some libraries in public Universities are
already computerized.

Microfilm; This is where information, especially old information is stored on

microfilm and retrieved only when needed. There are microfilms machines which one
can use to locate the article needed. The article is then printed from the microfilm by
special machines so that one can get copies of microfilmed materials. The purpose
of storing old material especially Journals and Magazines in microfilms is to reduce
the storage space. Such old materials are also not very frequently used, yet retrieval
is easy when the materials are needed.

The internet; With the access to internet, it is very easy to browse the web and get
literature from the latest journal articles, conference papers and policy documents
from various organizations. One is also able to off load from a digital library via
satellite. Some scholars are predicting very limited use of libraries in future,
especially in developed countries, owing to advances in information technology.

4.7 Tips on good reviewing of literature

 Do not conduct a hurried review for fear of overlooking important studies.

 Do not rely too heavily on secondary sources
 Many people concentrate only on findings from journals when reviewing
literature. One should also read about the methodology used and the
measurement of variables.
 It is important to check daily newspapers as they contain very educative,
current information.
 It is extremely important to copy references correctly in the first place so as
to avoid the frustration of trying to retrace a reference later.

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List of refs;

Amin, M.E. (2005), Social science re-search: conception, methodology and analysis.
Kampala: Makerere University Printery.

Bakkabulindi, F.E.K. (2004). Research methods by example. Unpublished

manuscript.

Creswell, J.W. (2003); Research design: qualitative, quantitative and auxed

approaches. Thousand Oaks: sage.

Owolabi, S. (2004). Overview of research in Maicibi, N.A.& Kahawa, Y. (Eds.)

graduate studies suspension at Makerere University: Book of readings (pp.12-14).
Kampala: Monitor.

Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in organization (5th ed.) NY: Prentice – Hall.

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CHAPTER FIVE PROPOSING METHODOLOGY FOR A RE-SEARCH

(by RUTARO ABAS)

5.0 Introduction

After-searching for, and evaluating your re-search topic (our chapter two) and
justified a study on it (our chap. Three), and having officially re-viewed literature
related to your study (our chap. Four), your attention now turns to the
methodology of your proposed study, that is, the systematic process (our
section 1.4) you will follow in the empirical part of the study.

5.1 Design

The “design” of your re-search is the combination/ set of methods (or

methodology) you have chosen for the empirical part of your study (Bakkabuluidi,
2004). It is worth noting that choice of re-search design is contingent upon choice
of re-search approach or paradigm, whereby a re-search is either quantitative
or qualitative (our subsection 1.3.4). While both re-search approaches a paradigms
are welcome in our institution, in this chapter, we shall deal only with designs under
the quantitative approach or paradigm, which designs we shall classify as in figure
5.1:

Experimental Non-expermental

Co-relative Survey

Cross-sectional longitudinal
Fig. 5.1: Classification of re-search designs under the quantitative paradigm .

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According to fig 5.1, if a re-search takes the quantitative approach or paradigm, it

may take either the experimental or non-experimental design, with
experimental re-search being one where you the researcher (e.g.
agriculturalist/ manager/ educationist/ development worker and so on)
manipulates variables (e.g. by varying the amount of fertilizers/ rewards/
teaching/ work different plants/ employees/ students/ workers get); while non-
experimental re-search is intended to simply report something that has happened
or is happening, without manipulating or experimenting with variables.

It is worth noting that quantitative social re-searches (our subsection 1.3.1, like
the one you are developing your proposal on), are usually non-experimental, in
which case (fig.5.1), your study design is likely to be at least one of the following:
co-relative and/or survey. Co-relative re-search as we have stressed all along,
is interested in testing whether two or more variables are co-related (e.g. your
current re-search topic). Survey re-search is that involving a relatively large
number of respondents or informants.

Fig 5.1, further suggests that survey re-search may either be cross-sectional or
longitudinal, where the cross-sectional design involves getting responses from
informants at once, as opposed to longitudinal re-searches, which involve
contacting respondents or checking or specimens repetitively/ repeatedly
(Bakkabulindi, 2004). Note that your re-search will be cross-sectional in order to
reduce time and cost(s) involved. For example we can declare that “the study will
take the quantitative paradigm, with a co-relational, cross-section, survey
design”.

5.2 Population

A “population” is the mass of units of analysis (e.g. respondents like staff,

informants like customers and specimens) about which you, the re-searcher will
measure your variables (Bakkabulindi, 2004). In the population section of your
proposal, you are expected to describe the nature of your “target or parent
population”, that is your intended respondents, informants or specimens: who or

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what they will be; where they will be found; why they have been chosen for your
study; how many they are, usually by categories.

5.3 Sampling (strategies)

While at face value, it is ideal for you to deal with your whole population,
practically you are advised not to do so, even if you had no constraints: you are
expected to sample. In your proposal therefore, if you are proposing to sample,
as is most likely to be the case, you should justify your choice of sampling, with
reasons (e.g. see Amin, 2005:238 – 239). Having decided to sample, you will
immediately have to sort the issue of:

5.3.1 Sample size

There is no fixed and inviolate rule on how large your sample should be! Rather it
is the circum-stances that dictate what number or fraction of the population you
will study (Owolabi, 2003). Owolabi (2003) further observes however, that the
larger the sample size you will use the more representative your sample will be of
your target population, although the more costly your study will become. While
there are several methods of determining appropriate sample size, including
mathematical ones (e.g. see Amin, 2005:257-260; 2004:92-93), we social science
re-searchers can use Krejcie & Morgan (1970)’s table for determining
Minimum sample size (S) from a population of a given size (N): this table is given
in the Appendix to this chapter. For example according to this table, if you have a
population of size, N = 950 teachers, the suggested minimum sample size you
should select is s = 274.

5.3.2 Sampling strategy (ies)

A part from sample size, your sample section should detail how you intend to select
your sample, ensuring representativeness of the target or parent population.
Quantitative re-searchers usually ensure sample representativeness using
“scientific, mathematical, statistical/ probabilistic or random sampling”
(Amin, 2005:244-254): as a quantitative re-searcher therefore, you are supposed to
propose a scientific, probability, statistical or random “ sampling strategy (ies).
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For your study: will it be simple random, stratified random, cluster random or
systematic random? Why that particular strategy of sampling section for a
quantitative study? (refer to addendum #2 for details).

5.4 Data collection/ re-searches methods

As we saw already (subsection 1.4.2), while every re-searcher has two general
approaches to data collection, namely primary and secondary, quantitative re-
searchers usually use the former; further, while there are at least three “ methods”
of collecting primary data namely observation, inter-view and survey/
questionnaire, quantitative re-searchers usually rely on the survey method of
primary data collection, which usually involves use of self-administered
questionnaires (SAQs) on account of large samples in quantitative re-search.

5.5 Data collection/ re-search instruments/ tool

Having declared your choice of the survey method of data collection, need to design
on appropriate data collection or re-search instrument namely a self-
administered questionnaire (Chap. Six) and attach it as an appendix to the
proposal. However in this data collection or re-search instrument section, you have
to describe the instrument as to its contents, section by section (e.g. questions
1-7 relate to the transformation programme…)

5.6 Data quality control

Data quality refers to integrity of your data collection or re-search instrument.

Thus in this section of the proposal, you will deal with how the validity and
reliability of your proposal instrument ( SAQ) will be ensured. The details on the
same are to come in our section 6.6 and 6.7 of our syllabus.

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5.7 Procedure

In this section, you should narrate how your respondents or informants will be
contacted: for example, whose permission will you seek? What assistance will
you use in contacting respondents, say in distributing and following-up SAQs?

5.8 Data Analysis

This section is for you to out line how the data you will collect will be processed or
prepared for analysis (for details, re-visit our subsection 1.4.3); and how the said
data will then be analyzed (for details, re-visit our subsection 1.4.4).

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Appendix A

Sample size (s) required for a given population size (N)

N S N S N S N S N S

10 10 100 80 280 162 800 260 2800 338

15 14 110 86 290 165 850 256 3000 341

20 19 120 92 300 169 900 269 3500 346

25 24 130 97 320 175 950 274 4000 351

30 28 140 103 340 181 1000 278 4500 354

35 32 150 108 360 186 1100 285 5000 357

40 36 160 113 380 191 1200 291 6000 361

45 40 170 118 400 196 1300 297 7000 364

50 44 180 123 420 201 1400 302 8000 367

55 48 190 127 440 205 1500 306 9000 368

60 52 200 132 460 210 1600 310 10000 370

65 56 210 136 480 214 1700 313 15000 375

70 59 220 140 500 217 1800 317 20000 377

75 63 230 144 550 226 1900 320 30000 379

80 66 240 148 600 234 2000 322 40000 380

85 70 250 152 650 242 2200 327 50000 381

90 73 260 155 700 248 2400 331 75000 382

95 76 270 159 750 254 2600 335 100000 384

(Source: Amin, 2005:454)

Note: From R.V. Krejcie and D.W. Morgan (1970), Determining sample size for
research activities, Educational and psychological measurement, 30,608, Sage
Publications.

Addendum # 2

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5.9 Sampling Strategies

5.9.0 Introduction

This section of the research study describes the procedures followed in conducting
the study and the techniques used in collecting data to test the research hypothesis.
The main task is discussion of the populations, samples, sampling methods.

5.9.1 Population

This refers to the group or category of units with one or more characteristics of
interest to the researcher. It represents the Universe though it may be smaller in
magnitude. Example: The population of female students on the Bachelor of
development studies program offered by INILAK is smaller than the universe of
female students undertaking university education in Rwanda.

It is important to establish first what the researcher needs to find out, and to
describe precisely the reference group i.e. the accessible population because each
population has unique characteristics e.g. all three-bedroom residential houses in
Kigali, all primary school children in the Eastern province etc.

5.9.2 Sample

A sample is a smaller percentage or proportion/ subset of the population.

Researchers often use samples to investigate or study and make
generalizations about the population especially when it is impossible to study the
entire population.

5.9.3 Sample size

Generally the sample size depends on factors such as the number of variables in
the study, the type of research design, the methods of data analysis and the size of
the accessible population. Gay (2001) suggests that for correlation research, 30
cases or more are required, for descriptive studies, 10% of the accessible
population is enough; and for experimental research, at least 30 cases are
required per group.

Where time and resources can allow the research should take a larger sample
because of the advantages it has over a small sample (i.e. salient characteristics of
a sample are revealed).

[The sample size can also be statistically determined). The statistical equation used
to generate the sample size is;

• N= z2q/d2; N> 10,000.

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• This equation is used when the study population (N) is more than 10,000
subjects.

• Now; n = Z2 Pq/d2

Where;

• Z = standard normal deviate normally set at 1.96

• P = Proportion of sample with a particular characteristic under study, 0.5 is

used if P is not empirically known.

• q= Probabilistic derivative (1.0-P)

• d= degree of accuracy which corresponds to Z

• Substituting in the figures in the equation

• N = 1.96 x 1.96 x 0.5(1.0-0.5)/0.05x0.05

• Note that 0.5 is used for the value of ‘P’ because we do not empirically know
the proportion of the study population living in the study area.

So; n = 1.96 x 1.96 x 0.5/ 0.0025

= 384 Respondents

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5.9.4 Sampling procedures

5.9.4.1 Random Samples

Random sampling aims at eliminating or minimizing differences in the

population. It accords each subject in the population with the same (equal) chance
of being selected for study. For example, the researcher can use a raffle method
or Random Table Numbers to select the subjects. The larger the sample size, the
greater the likelihood (probability) that the selected units will portray a more
representative set of attributes in terms of the population.

5.9.4.2 Systematic random/ List Sampling (SLS):

This involves dividing the population by attributes of the sample e.g. size selected
by the researcher to obtain the interval that identifies the sample subjects.
Example: Population Size—400 possible respondents: Preferred Sample Size—50
respondents, then the interval will be 400/50=8. The researcher will, therefore,
select every 8th subject starting with any between No.1 and No.8. Systematic List
Sampling is especially convenient where the research subjects are already listed
e.g. Voters Register, Pay Roll, Class Register, etc. The process is continued until the
required sample size is achieved.

5.9.4.3 Stratified Random Sampling (SRS):

SRS aims at ensuring that significant sub-groups of the population are

represented in the sample. For example the population is first divided into layers
or strata before the sample is selected. Thus, a population may first be divided into
men and women, then by income groups or by age before selecting a sample
from each category. The proportion selected for the each sample should correspond
to the proportion in the population.

Steps involved in stratified random sampling

• Identify the population

• Define the criterion for stratification

• List the population according to the defined strata

• Determine the required sample size and the appropriate representation in

each stratum.

• Select randomly an appropriate number of subjects

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5.9.4.4 Area or Cluster Sampling:

This method is used when it is difficult to access a register or sufficient and reliable
information on the population because of a very large or scattered population.
Thus, a researcher may sub-divide an area into 10 sub locations from which a
sample of the sub location is used to randomly select male adult respondents.

Steps involved in cluster sampling

• Identify the population

• Define the cluster forming the population

• Determine the required sample size

• Select randomly an appropriate number of clusters according to the required

sample size

• All members in the selected cluster are included in the sample as units of
observation

5.9.4.5 Multi-stage Cluster Sampling:

This approach is useful for dealing with large populations spread over a large
area. Example: in selecting hospital units for a nation-wide research study, the
researcher may first consider the districts as the primary sampling units; selects
the representative districts; then selects counties as secondary sampling units,
and finally selects the sample hospitals from the counties as the tertiary sample
units for the study.

Table 5.1 Multi-stage Cluster Sampling

Level of Sampling Population Sample

• Primary 55 Districts 11

• Secondary 100 Counties 20

• Tertiary 300 Hospitals60

It is important to ensure use of a consistent ratio for all levels (e.g. ratio of 5 for
our case)

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5.9.4.6 Volunteer Sampling

Volunteers refer to individuals who are not part of the original sample of
respondents. Volunteer sampling may be used to provide additional validation or
to backstop gaps in the original sample.

5.9.4.7 Purposive sampling

This technique allows the researcher to use case studies that have the required
information with respect to the objectives of the study (are handpicked because
they possess the required characteristics). For example, a certain age range,
religious sect, education level etc. The disadvantage is it produces extreme
results even when a small group is used.

5.9.4.8 Maximum variation sampling

Maximum variation is a method of sampling where an effort is made to get a

sample containing very varied cases. It enables the researcher to establish whether
characteristics of a certain phenomenon cut across the units of observation with
maximum variation.

5.9.4.8 Homogenous sampling

This is where a sample of similar cases is selected to enable in-depth study of the
group. It allows the researcher to select a smaller sample from which intensive data
is collected.

5.9.4.9 Snowball sampling:

In this method, initial subjects with desired characteristics are identified using
purposive sampling, and the few identified subjects name others with the required
characteristics until the researcher gets the required number of cases for his study.
(E.g. we want to know Uganda’s Nationalist Movement, we identify few who
participated in the liberation movement and they name others).

5.9.4.10 Quota sampling

This is similar to stratified random sampling and the objective is to include various
groups or quotas of the population in the study bases on some criteria.

For example the research may want to include a certain religion or social class in the
sample and therefore purposively picks quotas of each. In this case selection is
purposive and not random.

5.9.4.11 Convenient/ accidental sampling

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This involves selection of cases/ units of observation as they become available to

the researcher. For example, a radio presenter may ask a few questions to radio
listeners and tell them to take the answers to a specified place. Such a sample is
said to be convenient and biased because only those people who listen to radios will
answer. Or a researcher uses convenient people like room-mates, neighbours, etc.

List of refs

Amin, M.E. (2005). Social science re-search: conception, methodology and analysis.
Kampala: Makerere University Printery.

Bakkabulindi, F.E.K. (2004). Research methods by example. Unpublished manuscript

Krejcie, R.V. & Morgan, D.V. (1970). Determining sample size for re-search activities.
Educational and psychological measurement, 30,608. Sage Publications.

Owolabi, S.J. (2003). Research sample. Paper presented at a research seminar for
teachers and Postgraduates, Dept. of Higher Education (now E.A. Inst. For higher
education study of development), school of education, Makerere University, may 23,
2003. Kampala, Uganda.

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CHAPTER SIX DESIGNING INSTRUMENTS FOR A RE-SEARCH

(by RUTARO ABAS)

6.0 Introduction

A re-search proposal is incomplete unless it is accompanied by at least one data collection or

re-search instruments (e.g. Rutaro, 2006 is accompanied by three SAQs, including the one
for management, accompanying this chapter). In this chapter, we argue that such
instruments result from repeated conceptualization or operationalization of the
concepts/ variables in the study, a process that is facilitated by constructing a so-called
“conceptual framework or model” for the study in question, as already observed in our
section 4.2. The chapter ends by highlighting how the quality (i.e. Validity and
reliability) of an instrument is ensured.

6.1 Conceptual framework or model

One designing a data collection or re-search instrument, should base on the particular
study’s conceptual framework or model, which as e saw in section 4.2, is usually a
diagram which visualizes how a given re-searcher views inter-connections between
variables in the proposed study, in order to achieve the study’s objectives. For a sample,
re-visit Rutaro (2006)’s fig 2.1.

6.2 Identification of variables (or concepts or constructs)

A conceptual framework or model should at a glance, help a data collection or re-search

instrument designer to identify the variables (at least IV and DV) in the study. For
example, in his fig. 2.1 we clearly see that Rutaro (2006) is relating Restructuring and
corporate transformation (i.e. IV and DV respectively).

6.3 Operationalized (or conceptualization) of the variables

A conceptual framework or model help a data collection or re-search instrument designer, at

a glance, to see how each variable has been conceptualized or operationalized. For
example, his fig. 2.1 clearly shows that Rutaro (2006) conceptualized or operationalized his
IV (beyond restructuring) into constructing an economic model, aligning physical
structures and redesigning work architecture.

His fig. 2.1 also shows that Rutaro (2006) conceptualized or operationalized his DV
(corporate transformation) in terms of reframing, revitalization and renewal of a corporation
(through creating vision and measurement systems; inventing new business and
market focus; and developing the organization reward structures and building
industrial learning).

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6.4 Further conceptualization or operationalization of the variables

A conceptual framework should show a data collection or re-search instrument designer

how, where necessary, variables are further conceptualized or operationalized for purposes
of measurement. For example, his fig. 2.1 shows that Rutaro (2006) further conceptualized
or operationalized concepts such as constructing economic model and redesign of
genetic architecture.

6.5 Hence the instruments

From such repeated conceptualization or operationalization, the pertinent data collection or

re-search instruments will emerge, with sections of the instrument reflecting the
variables (IV and DV) and how they have been sub-divided or conceptualized. Under the
sections and subsections are the respective questions or items. However as Rutaro
(2006)’s instrument for managers suggests, an instrument should, like any other academic
document, start with a: (Amin, 2005: 277-279) main title; introduction/covering
letter; dependent variable; independent variable; background/ classification
variables and so on.

Main title

As the sample suggests, this title should reflect the type/ nature of the instrument (in this
case, SAQ ;), the target respondents (in his case, management staff); the context and
variables in the study. In addition, the instrument should have an:

Introductory letter/ Covering letter

The letter of transmittal/ introductory letter is also called a cover letter. A letter of
transmittal accompanies every questionnaire. The letter must be brief but must contain an
adequate brief about the research. This letter should among other things, identify the
address of the re-searcher, the purpose of the study; why and how the respondent has
been chosen. It should request for the respondent’s co-operation, while assuring the
respondent of anonymity of responses. The letter should specify the time frame within the
instrument should be filled or administered and whom to return it to ending with
thanks and the identity of the re-searcher(s).

Then the sections; Dependent variable

Note that Rutaro (2006)’s instrument in this section, reflects what is on the right of his
conceptual framework in his fig. 2.1. We shall observe that all questions in the section
were asked in an opinion or attitudinal format and even called for “opinion or attitude
scaling”.

Independent variable

Note that Rutaro (2006)’s instrument in this section, reflects what is on the left hand side
of his conceptual framework in his fig. 2.1 (the IV - beyond restructuring; perceived as
constructing an economic model, aligning physical structures and redesigning work

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architecture. We shall also note that all questions in the section were asked in an opinion or
attitudinal format, and were “opinion or attitude scale” using Likert’s scale.

Background variables

Also known as classification/ stratification variables, this section contains questions or

items for classification or stratification of respondents into different background for
example, in this section Rutaro (2006) posed questions or items on the respondents as
management, employees, and competitors designation respectively. Other would-be
background questions or items (e.g. on age and gender/sex) were not asked. You will
observe that background questions or items are usually factual (and not opinion or
attitude questions) soliciting facts, and hence have right or wrong answers (Rutaro,
2005:102).

Note that contrary to expectations, the background questions were not put at the start but
at the end of the SAQ in agreement with Oppenheim (1992) who advises that “ personal
data questions should … come near the end of a questionnaire …” (p.109), having earlier
explained that early in the SAQ”, having had the purpose of the study explained to them
[the respondents] in a cover letter …, they now expect … questions dealing with the topic
of the study … [and not] being steered in a different, rather personal, direction by being
asked … about their private life! (p.109).

In summary, we have observed that questions or items in an instrument (e.g. SAQ) will be
pertaining to either IV or DV in separate sections : thus questions in items relating
variables should be avoided: their co-relation: will be done by you in the analysis phase
of your study (ref section 5.8. in these Notes). We have also noted that while some
questions or items in an instrument are factual, others are opinion /attitudinal
questions. We have also seen that while some variables are/ require one question, other
variables are multi dimensional.

Otherwise, generality all questions or items in an instrument should be self- rating, that is
prompting a respondent to talk for self and not for others. All items should prompt a
respondent to talk about how things are and not how things should be” that is theoretical
questions or items should be avoided. Retardant question or items (e.g. repetition)
should be avoided.

6.6. Validity of the instrument

Before a data collection or re-search instrument is declared fit for use, it usually has to jump
at least two other hurdles: validity and reliability tests. According to Kakinda-Mbaaga
(2000:132), “validity” of an instrument is the degree to which it measures what it is
intended to measure and does so correctly, giving an example that if length is measured
with a foot ruler, which is valid measurement, while measuring length with a thermo-
meter is invalid measurement!!

In the social sciences, if an instrument is constructed to measure say “ job

performance”, then the designer ought to ensure/ validate, that it is measuring that,

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and not something else say “ job satisfaction”. Amin (2005:286-293) discusses several
ways of validating an instrument, such as “face/ content validation” and “concurrent
validation”: read about them.

6.7 Reliability of the instruments

“Reliability” of an instrument is its degree of consistency. A “reliable” instrument will

give the same score even when used several times to measure the same variable,
provided the variable has not changed for a given entity (Kakinda-Mbaaga, 2000:118).
Kakinda-Mbaaga (2000:118-119) illustrates “reliability” of an instrument using the case of a
wooden ruler which will give same length of an object co-respective of the number of
times the measurement is repeated. He argues however, that if the ruler expands when it
is hot, and contracts when cold, then the length gal will depend on the weather and hence
the plastic ruler will not be reliable or consistent!! Amin (2005:295-303) gives several
methods of testing reliability of an instrument such as test-retest and parallel forms
methods: read about them.

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS IN SUMMARY

The Role of a cover letter

Persuade the prospective respondent to participate in the research project

Introducing the respondents to the research project and the research
Informing the respondent about the importance of the study
Communicating the study’s legitimacy and other particulars such as deadline for
returning the completed survey, and where to return it.

Guidelines for developing cover letters

Personalization
Identification of an organization doing the study
Clear statements of the study’s purpose and importance
Anonymity and confidentiality
General time frame for conducting the study
Reinforcement of the importance of the respondent’s participation
Acknowledgement of reasons for not participating in the study
Time requirements and compensations
Completion data and where and how to return the survey
Advance thank you statement for willingness to participate

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What information should a cover letter contain?

1. The letter should explain the purpose of the study. Respondents need to be aware of
the purpose of the study for them to co-operate.
2. The letter should also briefly explain the importance and significance of the study.
This should be done in simple language rather than technical language, which may
not be understood?
3. It is also advisable to commit yourself to sharing the results when the study is
completed. Promising to share shows the respondents that the researcher is genuine
and there is nothing to hide. If sharing the information is not possible, the
researcher should not make promises that will not be kept.
4. A brief assurance of confidentiality should be included in the letter. If the topic is
very sensitive, it may be necessary to describe the steps that will be taken to ensure
confidentiality.
5. If the study is affiliated to a certain institution or organization, it is advisable to have
an endorsement from such an institution, or organization. This motivates and
reassures respondents.
6. In a sensitive research, it may be necessary to assure the anonymity of respondents.
If the respondents are anonymous, this increases the chances of getting honest
replies.
7. The latter should contain specific deadline dates by which the completed
questionnaire is to be returned. This should give respondents enough time to
respond without inconveniencing them. Two to three weeks should be sufficient.
Summary of forms of questions used in questionnaires

There are two broad categories of questions that are used in questionnaires.

1. Structure or closed –ended,

2. Unstructured or open-ended.

Structure or closed –ended

These types of items refer to questions which are accompanied by a list of all possible
alternatives from which respondents select the answer that best describes their situation. In
many cases, it is impossible to exhaust all the categories since the researcher may not know
all possible answers. In such cases, it is customary to include a category called “other” to
take care of all those responses which may not fit in the given categories. Example

Question: What type of house do you live in?

1. Bungalow 2. Flat 3. Maisonette 4. Other

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Advantages of closed –ended questions

a. Closed-ended questions are easier to analyze since they are in any immediate usable
form.
b. They are easier to administer because each item is followed by alternative answers.
c. They are economical too use in items of time and money.
Disadvantages of closed-ended questions

a. they are more difficult to construct because categories must be well thought out
b. Responses are limited, and the respondent is compelled to answer questions
according to the researcher’s choices.

Unstructured or open –ended questions

This refers to questions which give the respondent complete freedom of response. These
free response questions permit an individual to respond in his or her own words. The
amount of space provided is however a good indicator of whether a brief or length answers
is desired. In some cases, only a phrase or a figure is needed. Example

Question: How do you keep record of your monthly expenditure in your household?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Advantages of open –ended questions

a. They permit a greater depth of response. When a respondent is allowed to give a

personal response, usually reasons for the response given may be directly or indirectly
included.
b. Open –ended questions are also simpler to formulate mainly because the researcher
does not have to labor to come up with appropriate response categories.
c. The respondent’s responses may give an insight into his feelings, background,
hidden motivation, interests and decisions.
d. Open –ended questions can stimulate a person to thing about his feelings or motives
and to express what he considers to be most important.
Disadvantages of open – ended questions

a) When the respondent is free to give an individual response deemed to be proper ,

there is a tendency to provide information which does not answer the stipulated
research questions or objectives.
b) The responses given may be difficult to categorize and hence difficult to analyze
quantitatively. Whenever information can not be categorized, it is advisable to
include it in the study in narrative form. Some open-ended responses are very useful
for qualitative analysis.
c) Responding to open ended questions in time consuming. This may put off some
respondents.
Contingency questions

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In particular cases, certain questions are applicable to certain groups of respondents. In

such cases, follow-up questions are needed to get further information the relevant sub-
group only. These subsequent questions which are asked after the initial questions are
called “contingency questions” or “filter questions”. The purpose of these kinds of questions
is to probe for more information. They also simplify the respondents’ task, in that they will
not be required to answer questions that are not relevant to them. There are various
formats used to formulate contingency questions. Two are given below:

Please put a tick (v) in the box next to the right response:

Question 1: Have you ever voted in a political election?

1. Yes 2.No

If yes how many times have you voted?

1. Once 3. 2-4 times

2. 5-10 times 4. Over 10 times

As can be seen from the above two examples, contingency questions can be closed-ended
as in format one above, but could also open-ended, where a respondent is required to give
some explanation in subsequent question.

Matrix questions
These are questions which share the same set of response categories. They are common
whenever scales (e.g. Likert Type Scale) are being used. Example

Beside each of the statements presented below, please indicate whether you are extremely
satisfied, satisfied, dissatisfied or dissatisfied.

Question: How satisfied are you with your

a. Financial status 1 23 45 6
b. Quality of life 1 23 45 6
c. Level of Assets 1 23 45 6
d. Ability to save 1 23 45 6
Key:

1=extremely dissatisfied 2= Dissatisfied 3= Neutral

4=Satisfied 5=extremely satisfied.

Advantages of matrix questions

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1. When questions or items are presented in Matrix form, they are easier to complete
and hence the respondent is unlikely not be put off.
2. Space is used efficiently.
3. It is easy to compare responses give to different items. This easy comparability is
advantageous to both the researcher and the respondent. The researcher can easily
detect a trend just by glancing at the responses.
Disadvantages of matrix questions

1. Because they are easier to construct, many researchers use them when in fact the
kind of information being sought could better be obtained in another format.
2. Some respondents, especially the ones that may not be too keen to give right
responses, might form a pattern of agreeing or disagreeing with statements.

Scales used in questionnaires

There are several scales that are used in questionnaires and interview schedules. The Likert
type scale is the most commonly used rating scale.

Rating scales

These types of scales are used to measure perception, attitude, values and behavior. Rating
scales consist of numbers and descriptions which are used to rate or rank the subjective and
intangible components in research. The numerical scale helps to minimize the subjectivity
and makes it possible to use quantitative analysis. The most commonly used rating scale is
the Likert scale. Likert scales are often used with matrix questions. The items that are used
in Likert scales are usually declarative in form. The Likert scale comprises 5-7 response
categories. The numbers in a Likert scale are ordered such that they indicate the presence
or absence of the characteristic being measured. The following is an example of a Likert
scale. Example

Direction: Please circle the number that best describes your feelings about family planning.
The numbers represent the following responses:

1=strongly disagree 2= Disagree 3= Neutral

4= Agree 5= Strongly.

1. Family planning improves the health of both mother and child.

1 2 3 4 5

2. Both parents are responsible to planning the birth of their children

1 2 3 4 5

Rules of constructing questionnaires and questionnaire items in summary:

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i. Before constructing a questionnaire, list the objectives that you want the
questionnaire to accomplish. This will help in writing the items since each item must
relate to a certain objective.

ii. Determine how information obtained from each questionnaire item will be analyzed.

iii. Clarity is essential. Terms like “several” or “most” have no precise meaning and
should be avoided.
iv. If a concept has several meanings and that concept must be used in a question, the
intended meaning must defined. This will avoid misinterpretation of the question.
v. Short questions are preferred to long ones. This is mainly because short items are
easier to understand.
vi. Items should be stated positively as much as possible. Negatively stated items are
usually misread by many respondents. In most cases the negative word is
overlooked.
vii. Double-barreled items should be avoided. There are items that have two separate
ideas in question.
viii. Leading or biased questions should be avoided. These are questions that suggest
that one answer may be better than the other. Hints as to preferable answers should
be avoided.
ix. Very personal and sensitive questions should be avoided. The respondent may
naturally be dishonest in replying to them.
x. When constructing questions, simple words that are easily understandable should be
used. Difficult words or words that that are not familiar will discourage the
respondent.
xi. Questions that assume facts with no evidence should be avoided. Such questions
offend and discourage the respondent. For example: “Have you stopped buying
goods and services on credit
xii. Avoid psychologically threatening questions. For example: “are you worried about
the consequences of a divorce”
xiii. Include enough information in each item so that it is meaningful to the respondent

Ordering the items in a questionnaire

Items in a questionnaire should be arranged in a logical sequence. The following are

important to tips on how to organize your questionnaire:

1. Begin with no threatening, interesting items. If very touchy, sensitive items

are put at the beginning, they will put off the respondent. for example
it may not be a good idea to start with a question on respondent’s behavior

2. It is not advisable to put important questions at the end of a long

questionnaire. Such questions might be overlooked or answered in a hurry.

3. Have some logical sequence when putting items together. For example,
group together related items or items that will elicit a similar response.
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4. Some researchers arrange their questions according to the themes being

studied. This is another acceptable sequence.
5. If the questionnaire is arranged into content sub-sections, each section
should be introduced with a short statement concerning its content and
purpose. The purpose of such a short introduction is to help the respondent
make sense out of the questionnaire without spending too much time. It also
makes the questionnaire look less chaotic especially when an attempt is being
made to get a variety of information.
6. There is no consensus among researchers about where socio-economic
questions should be placed, that is, at the beginning or towards the end.
7. Each questionnaire should be given identification (ID).

Presentation of the questionnaire

1. Make the questionnaire attractive using good quality paper, since it has been
established that the more presentable the questionnaire the more inviting it to
respondents. This includes the response rate.
2. Organize and lay out the questions so that the questionnaire is easy to complete. A
haphazardly organized questionnaire is irritating and time consuming and will be
discarded by most respondents.
3. All the pages and items in the questionnaire should be numbered. This makes the
questionnaire easy to follow.
4. Brief but clear instruction must be included. If items are similar or follow the same
format, general instructions can be used however if different formats or questions
types are used, specific instructions should be given for every set of items that is
different.
5. Make your questionnaire short. Questionnaires which are too long are discouraging
to respondents. However, do not squeeze in questions in order to save space! It is
better to have questionnaire which is a page longer but which is clear, with items
which are well spread out, and uncluttered.

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WAYS OF ADMINISTRATING QUESTIONNAIRES

Questionnaires are mainly administered by using three methods:

1. Self administered questionnaires

Respondents are asked to complete the questionnaires themselves. In most cases
questionnaires are sent to them through the mail or hand-delivered to them.

2. Researcher administered questionnaires

In some cases, the researcher may decide to use the questionnaire to interview the
respondents. This is mostly done when the subjects may not have the ability to easily
interpret the questions probably because of their educational level. In such cases, the
researcher reads the items and the categories to the subjects and the responses are written
down.

3. Use of internet
Due to advancement of information technology, a lot of researchers especially in developed
countries are able to collect data through the internet. The people sampled for the research
receive and respond to the questionnaires through their web sites/home pages or through
their e-mail accounts. If the respondents do not have their personal e-mail accounts or
home pages, they can use someone else’s facility, for example, an institutional facility to
access the instruments from the researcher’s web site or e-mail and respond to them.

Interviews

An interview is an oral administration of a questionnaire or an interview schedule. Interviews

are therefore face-to-face encounters. To obtain accurate information through interviews, a
researcher needs to obtain the maximum co-operation from respondents. The researcher
must therefore establish a friendly relationship with the respondent prior to conducting the
interview.

Advantages of interviews

1. Interviews are advantageous in that they provide in-depth data which is not possible
to get using a questionnaire.
2. Interviews make it possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives of the
study.
3. Interviews guard against confusing the questions since the interviewer can clarify the
questions thereby helping the respondent give relevant responses.
4. Interviews are more flexible than questionnaires because the interviewer can adapt
to the situation and get as much information as possible.
5. Very sensitive and personal information can be extracted from the respondent by
honest and personal interaction between the respondent and the interviewer.
6. The interviewer can clarify and elaborate the purpose of the research and effectively
convince respondents about the importance of the research. This is advantageous
because respondents can then give more complete and honest information.
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7. Unlike questionnaires, the interviewer can get more information by using probing
questions.
8. Many respondents do not like exposing their negative side. Interviewers are able to
get such information through interaction and genuine conversation.
9. Interviewers yield higher response rates mainly because it is difficult for a subject to
completely refuse to answer questions or to ignore the interviewer.
Disadvantages of interviews

1. Interviews are more expensive. Researchers have to travel to meet respondents.

2. Since it is easier to ask questions rather than to administer tests or to conduct
observations, interviews tend to be misused to get factual responses which could be
obtained more accurately through other methods.
3. Interviewing requires a high level of skill, perhaps yet to be acquired by the novice
researcher. It requires communication and interpersonal skills.
4. Interviewers need to be trained to avoid bias. Interviewer bias can interfere with the
responses originating from varying techniques of interviewing. For example, a
respondent might answer a question in a certain way depending on how it is put.
5. Since interviews are adaptable, flexible and show concern for human interaction,
they often introduce bias and subjectivity into the study. The subject may be too
eager to please the interviewer or the interviewer may ask questions which tend to
support his or her perceived notions. In such cases, there exists a difference
between a subject’s response and the true answer. This is called “the response
effect”
6. Interviewers generally involve smaller samples because they are time consuming. If
a researcher is interested in using a big sample, interviews become a constraint.
7. Responses may be influenced by the respondents’ reaction to the interviewer. For
example, an interviewer who appears very affluent going to a very poor community
may not be received very well. This may be reflected in the responses.
Rules pertaining to interviews

1. The interviewer must be pleasant. Any kind of antagonism between the interviewer
and the respondent will affect the responses given.
2. Interviewers must show the genuine interest in getting to know respondents without
appearing like spies.
3. In order to create good rapport, the interviewer must try to find out very early what
kind of a person the respondent would like to interact with.
4. Interviewer should be relaxed and friendly. However they should not appear to be
too casual or clinging. If interviewers try to be too friendly this may backfire by
arousing suspicion.
5. The interviewer should be very familiar with the questionnaire or the interview guide.
6. When interviewing, the interviewer should have a guide which indicates what
questions are to be asked and in what order.
7. The interviewer should interact with the respondent as an equal. Respondents
should not be talked down to or belittled. This will create antagonism and will affect
the responses given.

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8. The interviewer should pretest the interview guide before using it to check for
vocabulary, language level and how well the questions will be understood.
9. The interviewer should inform the respondent about the confidentiality of the
information given. Depending on the situation, the interviewer should explain the
procedures that will be used to keep the information confidential.
10. Interviewers should not ask leading questions.
11. The interviewer should remain neutral in an interview situation in order to be as
objective as possible. Probing is commonly used to get deeper information. Examples
of probing questions are “How?” “How did it happen?”, “anything else?”

Revision questions

1) Discuss the theoretical principles of questionnaire design, and explain why a

questionnaire is more than just asking a respondent some questions.

2) List and discuss the 11 (eleven) steps in questionnaire development process

and show how to eliminate some common mistakes in questionnaire designs.

3) Discuss the importance of cover letters and explain the guidelines that help
to eliminate common mistakes in cover letter designs.
List of refs

Amin, M.E. (2005). Social science research: conception, methodology and analysis.
Kampala; Makerere University Printery. Bakkabuluidi, F.E.K. (2005). Social correlates of
innovation adoption: the case of ICT in Makerere University. Unpublished PLD re-search
proposal, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.

Bakkabuluidi, F.E.K. (2004). Research methods by example. Unpublished manuscript.

Kakinda-Mbaaga, F.M. (2000). Introduction to social re-search. Unpublished manuscript.

Kampala International University School of Postgraduate studies of research. (nd.).
Guidelines for re-search proposals. Unpublished manuscript.

Oppenheim, A.N. (1992). Questionnaire design, interviewing and attitude measurement

(new ed.). London: Continuum.

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Topic seven: PREPARING THE RESEARCH PROPOSALS AND REPORTS

7.1 The Written Research Report

The professional research report must achieve four primary objectives:

 To effectively communicate the findings of the research project

 To provide interpretations of those findings in the form of sound and logical
recommendations
 To illustrate the credibility of the research project
 To serve as a future reference document for strategic or tactical decisions

Taking the first objective of a research report (to effectively communicate the findings of the
research project), the report must explain how the information was obtained and what
relevance it has to the research questions. Best practices recommend that a detailed
description of the following factors be communicated to the client:

 The specific research objectives

 The specific research questions the study was to answer
 Specific procedural information relevant to the collection of secondary data (if
necessary)
 A description of the research methods used/employed
 Findings displayed in tables, graphs, or charts
 An accurate interpretation and summation of findings
 Conclusions based on data analysis
 Recommendations and suggestions for their implementation

7.2 Format of the Research Report

Every research report is unique in some way; due to client needs, research purpose, study
objectives among others, and yet all reports contain some common elements. The common
parts of all research reports include the following;

a) Title; this should be short and simple and yet informative.

 It gives the reader some initial information about the area of research the
report has covered and is therefore a pointer to the content of the report.
 The title should indicate the major variables of the research, the target
population and if possible the geographical location of the research.

[In case of consultancies, a title page should indicate the subject of the report and
the name of the recipient, along with his or her position and organization. Most
important, the title page must contain the name, position, employing organization,
address and telephone (fax) number of the person or persons submitting the report
as well as the date the report is submitted].

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b) Dedication: some authors dedicate their research work to a person/ persons they
deem special in their lives. Such persons may be spouses, parents, children, or very
dear friends. A dedication is just a statement such as to my children.
c) Table of contents: It acts like a map that guides readers in locating various
sections of the research report
 Lists the specific topics of the report in a sequential order
 Normally the content page will highlight all the topical area, the subdivisions
within each area, and corresponding page numbers.
d) Executive summary/ Abstract is the part of the research report that presents the
major points; (Research objectives, concise statement of method, and summary of
findings, conclusion and recommendations); it must be complete enough to provide
a true representation of the document but in a summary form.
 The research objectives should be as precise as possible, and confined to
approximately one page.
 The research purpose, a long with the questions/ hypothesis that guided the
project, should also be stated in this part of the research report.
 Next, a brief description of sampling method, the research design, and any
procedural aspects that should be addressed in one or two paragraphs.
 Following this should come the statement of findings presented in summary
and agreeing with those in the findings section of the full report (include only
key findings that relate to the research objectives in not more than two or
three paragraphs.
 Finally the summary must contain a brief statement of conclusions and
recommendations derived from the research.
 Normally conclusions and recommendations are/ can be stated in one to two
paragraphs of the executive summary.

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e) List of tables: Researchers always use tables to summarize information in a logical

sequence. A list of tables follows the same format like the table of contents. The
number and title of each table appearing in the body of the report is listed with the
corresponding page number.
f) List of figures: A figure is any pictorial representation used to clarify specific points
in a discussion. Examples of figures commonly used in research are graphs, charts,
diagrams, maps etc. A list of all figures, clearly showing their numbers, titles and
page numbers where they are located in the report should be included.
g) List of abbreviations and acronyms: in most research rrepots abbreviations and
acronyms are used especially when a word or group of words is repeated several
times in the report.
 An abbreviation is a short form of a word (e.g. “Dr” for Doctor, or hrs for hours)
 An acronym is a contraction formed by taking the first letter of several words
(e.g. FAO for Food and Agriculture Organization or WHO for World Health
Organization)
 The researcher should give the list of all the abbreviations and acronyms used in
the report and explain in full what each acronym stands for.
h) The introduction contains necessary information for a complete understanding of
the report. A definition of terms, relevant background, and specific circumstances
surrounding the study, the study’s scope and emphasis are communicated in this
section.
 The introduction should also list specific research objectives and questions
the study was designated to achieve, specific hypotheses, length and
duration of the study, and any research related.
 Therefore upon reading the introduction, the client should know exactly what
the research is about, why the research was conducted, and what
relationship exists between the current study and past research endeavors].
i) Literature review: Review of related literature is very important because it
provides the needed support to the researcher’s rationale for undertaking research in
a certain area.
 A literature review is a researcher’s critique of findings from other studies done in
related areas.
 Should include an assessment of methodologies used in these studies, theoretical/
conceptual frameworks, and the relationships or differences between the
researcher’s study and the reviewed studies.
j) Research methods and procedures; the objective of the methods and
procedures section is to communicate to the user specifically how the research was
conducted. Issues addressed in this section include;
 The research design used; exploratory, descriptive, or causal research design
 The types of secondary data that were used in the study
 If primary data were collected, what procedures were employed (observation or
questionnaire), and what administration procedures were employed (personal,
mail, telephone)
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 What sample and sample process were used; sample population defined and
profiled, sampling units (e.g. individuals, households, businesses etc), sampling
list generated, sample size determined, and was probability or non probability
sampling employed.
k) Data analysis and findings; because each project is so specific with regard to
data analysis technique per se. Nonetheless, if the research is reporting the output of
a qui-square, for example, best practices suggest that he or she defines the concepts
of statistical significance of the test, give the general rationale for performing the
test, and list the various assumptions associated with the procedure.
 [For more sophisticated analysis techniques such as ANOVA, it is always a
good practice to provide a brief interpretation of the technique along with
why it is being used and what outcomes can occur].
l) Conclusions and recommendations are derived specifically from the findings.
 Conclusions can be considered as broad generalizations that focus on
answering questions related to the research objectives. They are condensed
pieces of information derived from the findings that communicate the results
of the study to the reader.
 Recommendations, on the other hand are generated by critical thinking. They
involves the researcher critically evaluating the conclusion issues and
developing specific areas of application for strategic and tactical actions,
focusing on how the client can solve the problem at hand through the
creation of competitive advantage.
m) References: In writing a research report, a researcher relies heavily on published
and unpublished documents that bear some relationship to the researcher’s field of
study.
 The researcher should list all authors and titles of all the materials quoted in the text.
 There are several formats of referencing that are recommended (depending on the
institution), but the most common is the APA (American Psychological Association)
manual.
n) Limitations are extraneous events that place certain restrictions on the report and
are normally mentioned when communicating results. Common limitations that are
associated with research include; sampling bias, financial limitations, time pressures,
measurement error, and demand artifacts, to name a few.
o) Appendixes are sections that follow the main body of the report; used to house
complex, detailed, or technical information not necessary for the formal report.
Common items contained in the appendices include; questionnaires, interview forms,
statistical calculations, detailed sampling maps, and even highly detailed tables.

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7.3 Common Problems Encountered when Preparing the Research Report

Many times we get we get involved with the mere writing of a research report that we fail to
keep in mind key issues that later may present themselves as problems, they include;

 Lack of data interpretation; in some instances, we get so involved in constructing

tables of results that we fail to provide proper interpretation of data within the
tables. It is always the responsibility of the researcher to provide unbiased
interpretations of any findings.
 Unnecessary use of multivariate statistics; in order to impress the client, many
researchers will unnecessarily subject data to sophisticated multivariate statistical
techniques. In 75% of all research reports, the most sophisticated statistical
technique required will be a qui-square test. Try to avoid using statistical methods
unless they are essential for deriving meaning from the data.
 Emphasis on packaging instead of quality; with the abundance of software
packages available today, many researchers go out of their way to make the report
look classy or flamboyant with sophisticated computer generated graphics. While
graphic representation of results is essential in the report, never lose sight of the
primary purpose; to provide valid and credible information to the client.
 Lack of relevancy; reporting data, statistics and information that is not consistent
with the study’s objectives is a major problem with writing the report. Always
develop a report with the research objective clearly in focus. Avoid adding
unnecessary information just to make the report bigger. Always remain in the realm
of practicality; suggest ideas that are relevant, doable, and consistent with the
results of the study.
 Placing too much emphasis on a few statistics; never base all conclusions or
recommendations on one or few statistically significant questions or results. Always
attempt to find various supporting evidence for any recommendation or conclusion.

Revision questions

1) Explain how a research report is organized by including the generally

accepted components of any research report.
2) List the problems that any one may encounter when preparing a research
report.

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7.4 Research proposal format

7.4.1 Definition of Proposal

It is a written presentation of an intended research specifying the problem, the purpose,

scope, methodology, references and budget. This includes a synopsis which is an outline of
the research proposal of 3-5 pages length (including references) which is currently required
for provisional admission to post graduate degrees in most world class universities.

7.4.2 Elements of a research proposal

a) Title/Topic
The topic or title should accurately reflect the scope and content of the study in not more
than 20 words. It should be descriptive yet discrete (should clearly show the variables to be
used in the study)

b) Background/ Introduction
It is the rationale of the study providing evidence and conditions of the existing situations to
make the reader feel the urgency of the problem and the need to study it in order to solve it
or contribute to its solution. About 600 words (Double spaced)

c) Research Problem/ Statement of the problem

Refers to what has been detected and needs a solution in the practical or theoretical world.
The statement of the problem should clearly state the nature of the problem and its known
or estimated magnitude/ extent. Should be concise and brief (not more than one page)

d) General objective/ Aim/ Purpose

Refers to the general intention of the research, Should spell out what the research is
supposed to accomplish. This is usually the leading statement in the problem statement.

e) Specific Objectives
These are specific aims/ objectives arising directly from the general objective/ purpose/ aim
of the study. For each specific objective you must have a method to attempt to achieve it.

f) Significance/ justification
This refers to the relevancy of the study in terms of academic contribution and practical use
that might be made of the findings. It should reflect on knowledge creation, technological or
socio-economic value to the community.

g) Theoretical/ Conceptual framework

Theoretical Framework: Is an examination of existing or self-formulated theories in
relation to the researcher’s objectives

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Or

Conceptual Framework: Is a scheme of concepts (variables) which a researcher will

operationalise in the study in order to achieve the set objectives. Can be presented
graphically (diagrammatically)

NB. These are normally requirements for Masters and Ph.D. proposals where applicable.

h) Scope (where applicable)

The scope provides for the boundary of the research in terms of depth of investigation,
content, and sample size, geographical and theoretical coverage.

i) Literature Review
 This section deals with the analysis of the existing literature on the subject with the
objective of revealing contributions, weaknesses and gaps.
 The literature Review should be according to the themes of the study and should
reflect the objectives, hypothesis, methods and research questions.
 Citation should be in accordance with the approved formats (e.g. APA manual).
Hypotheses/ Postulates/ Research questions (where applicable)

These are investigative assumptions, which guide the study. In case of hypotheses, they
should be testable. Hypothesis is usually null or alternate, whichever poses the investigative
question.

NB. Hypotheses can come immediately after the literature review or Specific Objectives.

j) Methodology
This is the detailed description of selected methodology. Communication in unambiguous
terms is used

The methodology section comprises:

 Research design, which describes the nature and pattern the research intends to
follow e.g. whether it is qualitative or quantitative, historical, descriptive survey,
experimental or quasi experimental and location (optional).
 Description of the geographical area and where population of the study exists
(optional)
 Description of the population from which the samples will be selected
 Sampling strategies by which the researcher will select representative elements/
subjects from the population.
 Data collection methods; including instruments and procedures to be used in the
research described.
 Data quality control; which refers to the reliability and validity of instruments
 Measurements, which refer to the formulae or scales of measurement used in the
study
 Data analysis, which involves organization and interpretation of the data generated
and the different methods to be used in analyzing the data.

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Raw data and in analyzed form should be kept for further reference during analysis later.
Follow the following steps in preparing data for analysis:

Receive the raw data sources

 Create data base from the raw data sources

 Edit the data base
 Correct and edit the raw data sources
 Finalize data base
 Create data files from the data bases
k) Ethical consideration
These include getting clearance from the ethical body and consent of the respondent. Refers
to the moral justification of the investigation or intervention; as regards the minimal abuse,
disregard, safety social and psychological well being of the person and/or community.

l) Limitations/ Anticipated problems (optional)

This refers to anticipated constraints imposed by methods/ location/ situation of research. It
also considers the potential sources of bias in the proposed study. However, these must not
be seen to prevent the study from being carried out, otherwise it will not start. But they are
major considerations before embarking on a study to ascertain the feasibility of
accomplishment.

m) Reference
This is the list of all works cited in the proposal and should be written according the
approved format. The approved formats include APA Fourth Edition, and/ or Fifth Edition
(refer to appendix)

n) Appendices
Comprises of a budget, time framework, explanatory notes and instruments

i)Budget

This is the financial plan for implementation of the research. It should be clear, realistic and
reasonable (affordable). It should be itemized according to the following:

 Equipment
 Stationery
 Material e.g. nails, wood, chemicals etc
 Travel
 Subsistence
 Research Assistance
 Services (Secretarial, Photocopying, Printing, Binding etc)
 Other purposes (specify)
 30% Research honorarium (not for those doing higher degrees)
 15% International administrative fee (6% for faculty overheads, 5% publication and
4% for administration at the faculty/ school)
ii) Time framework

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This is the schedule/ time-table of activities over the period over which the research is to be
carried out with due regard to budgetary considerations as well. It could be presented in a
tabular form. It is a valuables guide for evaluation of a research progress.

iii) Explanatory Notes

They include research approval letters, maps, and lists of areas to be visited.

iv) Instruments

These are details of tools used in the research e.g. Equipment, questionnaire, interview
schedule, scales and tests etc.

v) Length of proposals for:

Undergraduate-up to 7 pages, Masters-up to 15 pages) excluding appendices

Note: A Proposal is submitted to the respective supervisor/ director for evaluation and
approval before it is submitted to the dean for final approval and recording.

Reading assignment

Using the knowledge so far acquired, choose a topic of your choice and write a research
proposal according to the guidelines discusses above.

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Appendix 1

Research Report, dissertation format (in summary)

Definition of report (is a detailed account of the study)

Research report comprises of: The preliminaries (Pages numbered in Roman numerals).

a) The preliminaries consist of:

i. Title page (not numbered)
ii. Declaration (compulsory for certificate and degree researches) and copyright
iii. Dedication (optional)
iv. Acknowledgement
v. Table of contents
vi. List of tables (where applicable)
vii. List of illustrations (figures) where applicable
viii. Abbreviations/ acronyms (where applicable)
ix. Abstract

b) The text (page numbered in Arabic numerals)

The text consists of:

1) Introduction
2) Literature review and/ or theoretical analysis
3) Methodology/ Methods and materials
4) Presentation of results/ findings
5) Discussion/ analysis of results/ findings
6) Conclusions: summary and recommendations

c) Bibliography/ references
d) The appendices

Till then, wish you well!!!

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