01 Geometric Design of Highway and Streets

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
CE 3121 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Semester 1, Academic Year 2021/2022
Part I: Geometric Design of Highways and Streets
Lecture Notes
Lecturer: A/Prof Ong Ghim Ping Raymond

Elements of Highway and Street Geometric Design 1
ELEMENTS OF HIGHWAY AND STREET

GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Recommended readings
1. AASHTO (2018) Chapters 1 to 3, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets, 7th
Edition.
2. Mannering, F. L., Washburn, S. S. and Kilareski, W. P. (2019). Chapters 2 and 3.
Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis, 7th Edition. Wiley.
3. Garber N. and Hoel, L. (2009). Chapters 3 and 15, Traffic and Highway Engineering, 4th
Edition. Cengage Learning.
References
1. Fwa, T. F. (2006) Chapter 6, Handbook of Highway Engineering. CRC Press.
2. Schoon, J. G. (2000) Geometric Design Projects for Highways: An Introduction. 2nd
Edition. ASCE Press.
PROCESS OF HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Major Design Controls

Master Development Plan • Functional class
• Road network plan • Design volume, capacity, level of
• Functional requirements service, right of way, access
• Location/corridor analysis • Horizontal alignment control
• Environmental screening • Vertical alignment controls
• Cross sectional elements and controls
• Earthwork and environmental controls
Preliminary Route Selection
and Design
• Identify possible alternate Site Surveys
routes • Topographical survey
• Select routes for • Soil surveys
preliminary design • Environmental survey (land use,
• Conduct preliminary design hydrology, habitat and others)
(Alignments, cross sections,
earthworks)
Evaluation of Alternate Designs Detailed Designs

• Traffic analysis • Geometric design
• Costs (project costs, user • Traffic control design
costs) • Pavement design
• Environmental impacts • Environmental impact mitigation plan
Figure 1: Key processes in highway geometric design
CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS
Requirements
• Functional needs (movement of • Sharing (vehicle, people, goods,

people, goods, bicycles, design services)
types) • Environmental quality and
• Safety harmony
• Efficiency (speed) • Geometric design consistency
• Comfort/Convenience
Key Considerations in Road Geometric Design
• Functional requirements • Safety

• Design vehicle • Pedestrian, bicycles
• Vehicle performance • Geometric design consistency
• Driver performance
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
Types of Road Classification
• Administrative classification • Structural classification

• Functional classification • Route numbering classification
• Geometry-based classification
Functional classification is the most appropriate for road location analysis,

geometric and structural design of highways and streets.
Functional Classification of Roads
1) Freeway/Expressway/Interstate 4) Secondary
2) Major Arterial/Primary 5) Local access
3) Distributor/Collector
Significance of using Functional Classification
• Levels of functions (control on access, exit, stopping, facilities)

• Hierarchy of movements (collection/distribution)
• Speed controls
• Flow or volume, vehicle-km

Figure 2: Schematic illustration of the functional classes for a suburban

road network
Figure 3: Schematic illustration of a functionally classified rural highway

network
Freeway
Arterial
Through Collector and
traffic distributor
movement
and speed Local
Access to property
Figure 4: Relationship between functional classification with traffic speed

and access

CROSS-SECTIONAL ELEMENTS OF ROADS
Dimensions of cross-sectional elements used in practice:
Cross-Sectional Dimension for Indicated Condition

Element Restricted Normal Desirable
Traffic lane width 2.45 – 3.5 m 3.65 m > 3.65 m
(8 – 11.5 ft) (12 ft) (> 12 ft)
Usable shoulder width min. 2.45 m 3.05 m > 3.05 m
(min. 8 ft) (10 ft) (> 10 ft)
Median width min 1.25 m min. 6 m > 12 m
(min. 4 ft) (min. 20 ft) (> 40 ft)
Border (each side) – min. 7.6 m > 12 m
width (min. 25 ft) (> 40 ft)
Right-of-way (ROW) – min. 42 m > 61 m
width (min. 140 ft) (> 200 ft)
Cross-Slope 1 – 2% (up to 4% for low speed roads)
One reported study on the effect of lane widening for two-lane roads with
lane width between 8 and 12 ft (2.45 and 3.05 m):
Lane Widening % Reduction in Accidents

1 ft (0.305 m) 12%
2 ft (0.610 m) 23%
3 ft (0.915 m) 32%
4 ft (1.220 m) 40%
Lane width is also known to affect traffic speed.
Figure 5: Typical cross section for two-lane highways

Figure 6: Typical cross section for multilane highways (half section)
Figure 7: Cross section of the 30 m green separator
CHOICE OF DESIGN VEHICLE
Types of Design Vehicle
1) Passenger cars (including SUVs, minivans, vans and pickup trucks)

2) Buses (including intercity motor coaches and city transit, school and
articulated buses)
3) Trucks (including single-unit trucks, truck tractor-semitrailer
combinations, and trucks or tractors with semitrailers in combination
with full trailers)
4) Recreational vehicles (including motor homes, cars with camper trailers,
car with boat trailers, and motor home pulling cars)

Figure 8: Example of different types of trucks
AASHTO Guidelines for Selecting Design Vehicle
• Parking lot or series of parking lots, private facilities – Passenger car

• Intersections on residential streets and park roads –Single-unit truck
• Intersection of highways and city streets that serve bus traffic but with
relatively few large trucks – Consider city transit bus
• Intersection of highways with low volume county or township or local
roads with average annual daily traffic of 400 or less – Large school bus
with capacity of 84 passengers or conventional bus with capacity of 65
passengers
• Intersection of freeway ramp terminals and arterial highways, highways
and industrial streets with high traffic volume, truck access to local
streets – Combination trucks (WB-20).

Dimension for Design Vehicles (AASHTO Standard Design Vehicle)

Minimum Turning Path/Radius
Control geometric parameters:

• Minimum turning radius
• Minimum centerline turning radius
• Minimum inside radius
• Out-to-out track width/Swept path width
• Wheelbase
• Path of inner rear tyre
• Vehicle speed (assumed to be less than 15 km/h)
Some relevant definitions:
Turning radius – The circular arc formed by the turning path radius of the
front outside tyre of a vehicle. Also known as “turning curb radius” by
vehicle manufacturers
Centerline turning radius – The turning radius of the centerline of the front
axle of a vehicle
Off-tracking – The difference in the paths of the front and rear wheels of a
vehicle negotiating a curve
Swept path width = (Off-tracking) + (Vehicle width) = roadway width that a

vehicle covers in negotiating a turn.
(Note: Path of rear tyres does not coincide with path of front tyres)

Figure 9A: Minimum turning path for passenger car (P) design vehicle

Figure 9B: Minimum turning path for single-unit truck (SU-9 [SU-30])
design vehicle

Figure 9C: Minimum turning path for city transit bus (CITY-BUS) design
vehicle

Figure 9D: Minimum turning path for large school bus (S-BUS-12 [S-BUS-
40]) design vehicle

Figure 9E: Minimum turning path for interstate semitrailer (WB-20 [WB-
67]) design vehicle

Figure 10: Turning characteristics of a typical tractor-semitrailer

combination truck

AASHTO minimum turning radius of design vehicles:

ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Major elements common to all classes of roads:
• Sight distance • Vertical alignment

• Horizontal alignment • Other elements
SIGHT DISTANCE
The distance ahead that a driver on a road could see is critical to the safe and
efficient vehicle operation. Sight distance is the length of roadway ahead that
is visible to the driver.
Important notes:
• Sight distance at every point along a roadway should be at least the sight
distance required for a below-average driver or vehicle to stop.
• Greater length than the required sight distance is desirable.
Three major forms of sight distances that are important:

A. Stopping sight distance C. Passing sight distance
B. Decision sight distance
(A) Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping sight distance = Brake reaction distance + Braking distance
Brake reaction distance = distance travelled by the vehicle from the time the
driver sees an object to the instant the brake is applied
Braking distance = distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant of
brake application
Brake Reaction Time
Findings of research in USA:
• For simple pre-arranged signals,

Ø Minimum brake reaction time ranged from 0.4 s to 1.7 s for expected
event
Ø For unexpected event, the minimum brake time increased by 1 s.
Some drivers took over 3.5 s to respond.

Ø A driver who needed 0.3 s reaction time under alert conditions would
need 1.5 s under normal conditions.
• Drivers’ reaction time increases when the complexity and amount of
information to be processed increase.
AASHTO recommends a design brake reaction time tR of 2.5 seconds.
Reasons:
(1) Exceeds 90th percentile of all drivers (including old drivers)
(2) Adequate for conditions more complex than simple pre-arranged events.
(3) For highly complex conditions (e.g. multiphase intersection, ramp
terminals), decision sight distance should be used instead.
Distance travelled during brake reaction time d1:

d1 = v ´ tR
where: v = design vehicle speed; tR = brake reaction time
Braking Distance
Braking distance to a complete stop d2:

v2
d2 =
2 [ a ± Gg ]
where: a = deceleration rate; g = gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2); G is
roadway grade (+ for uphill, – for downhill) in percent/100.
Notes:
(1) 90% of all drivers decelerate at rates greater than 3.4 m/s2 while
maintaining steering control during braking maneuver on wet surface Þ
AASHTO recommends a = 3.4 m/s2
(2) Valid when friction available on wet pavement and vehicle braking
capability exceeds the recommended deceleration rate.
Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping sight distance is the sum of brake reaction distance and braking
distance:
v2
SSD = d1 + d2 = v ´ t R +
2 [a ± Gg ]

Example: Determine the design stopping sight distances for a vehicle

traveling at 80 km/h on level ground (i.e. 0% grade) and 3% downgrade (i.e. -
3% grade) respectively.
Solution:
For design purposes, assume a = 3.4 m/s2 and tR = 2.5 s.
On level ground:
( 80 3.6)
2
v2 æ 80 ö
SSD = v ´ tR + =ç ÷ ´ ( 2.5 ) + = 128.2 m
2 [a ± Gg ] è 3.6 ø 2 éë3.4 + ( 0 )( 9.81)ùû
At 3% downgrade:
( 80 3.6)
2
v2 æ 80 ö
SSD = v ´ tR + =ç ÷ ´ ( 2.5 ) + = 135.1 m
2 [a ± Gg ] è 3.6 ø 2 éë3.4 - ( 3 100 )( 9.81) ùû
Example: Two drivers each have a reaction time of 2.5 seconds. One is
obeying an 80 km/h speed limit, and the other is traveling illegally at 110
km/h. How much distance will each of the drivers cover while
perceiving/reacting to the need to stop, and what will the total stopping
distance be for each driver? Assume the grade to be -2.5%.
Solution:
To determine the distance each driver cover while perceiving/reacting to the
need to stop, we compute the braking reaction distance:
æ 80 ö
For the driver traveling at 80 km/h: d1 = v ´ t R = ç ÷ ´ 2.5 = 55.6 m
è 3.6 ø
æ 110 ö
For the driver traveling at 110 km/h: d1 = v ´ t R = ç ÷ ´ 2.5 = 76.4 m
è 3.6 ø
Braking distances for each driver:
For the driver traveling at 80 km/h:
( 80 3.6)
2
v2
d2 = = = 78.2 m
2 [a ± Gg ] 2 éë3.4 - ( 0.025 )( 9.81) ùû
For the driver traveling at 110 km/h:
(110 3.6)
2
d2 = = 148.0 m
2 éë3.4 - ( 0.025 )( 9.81) ùû
Stopping sight distances for each driver:
For the driver traveling at 80 km/h: SSD = 55.6 + 78.2 = 133.8 m
For the driver traveling at 110 km/h: SSD = 76.4 + 148.0 = 224.4 m

AASHTO Design Stopping Distance (m)
Design Grades (+ for upgrades, - for downgrades)

Speed 0% +3% +6% +9% -3% -6% -9%
(km/h)
40 46 45 44 44 48 50 53
60 83 80 77 75 87 92 97
80 129 123 118 114 136 144 154
100 183 174 167 160 194 207 223
120 247 234 223 214 263 281 305
Assumptions:
• Height of driver’s eye = 1.08 m (approximate height of driver eye in
passenger car)
• Height of object = 0.6 m (approximate height of taillight of passenger car)
• Sufficient to allow reasonably competent and alert drivers to come to a
hurried stop under ordinary circumstances
Notes:
• Trucks require longer stopping distance, but this need is offset by the
higher eye-height of truck drivers. Design stopping sight distances based
on passenger cars are adequate for trucks.
• Longer stopping sight distance must be provided for trucks when the
advantage of higher eye-height does not lead to longer visible length of
roadway ahead.
• A situation where longer design stopping sight distance is needed for
trucks when sight obstruction occurs on downgrades. (Example: long
downgrade with horizontal sight obstruction)
(B) Decision Sight Distance
Stopping sight distance may not be adequate when:

• Drivers must make complex decisions
• Information is difficult to perceive
• Unexpected or unusual maneuver is required
• Evasive maneuver is preferred to stopping
• There is a likelihood of error in either information reception, decision
making or control actions
Examples: Complex interchange or intersection, locations with geometry

changes (such as toll plaza, lane merging), areas with “visual noise”

In these cases, longer sight distances than the minimum stopping sight
distance are necessary.
Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to

• Detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information or
condition in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered
• Recognize the condition or its potential threat
• Select an appropriate speed and path
• Initiate and complete the maneuver safely and efficiently
Design Decision Sight Distance (m)
Design Avoidance Maneuver

Speed A B C D E
(km/h)
50 70 155 145 170 195
60 95 195 170 205 235
70 115 325 200 235 275
80 140 280 230 270 315
90 170 325 270 315 360
100 200 370 315 355 400
110 235 420 330 380 430
120 265 470 360 415 470
130 305 525 390 450 510
Avoidance maneuver A: Stop on rural road (t = 3.0 s)

Avoidance maneuver B: Stop on urban road (t = 9.1 s)
Avoidance maneuver C: Speed/path/direction change on rural road (t = 10.2
– 11.2 s)
Avoidance maneuver D: Speed/path/direction change on suburban road (t =
12.1 – 12.9 s)
Avoidance maneuver E: Speed/path/direction change on urban road (t = 14.0
– 14.5 s)
Note:
(1) For avoidance maneuvers A and B:
v2
Decision sight distance = v ´ t R +
2 (a ± Gg )
For avoidance maneuvers C, D and E:
Decision sight distance = v ´ t
where t = total pre-maneuver and maneuver time; v = design speed; a =
driver deceleration

(2) Assumption on eye height and object height is the same as for stopping
sight distance, i.e. eye height = 1.08 m and object height = 0.6 m
(3) Longer decision sight distance is required in locations where the advantage
of higher eye-height of trucks is lost.
(4) If sufficient decision sight distance is not available at a planned critical
location, one may either (i) move the critical point to another location with
sufficient decision sight distance, or (ii) use suitable traffic control devices
or information system to provide the required advance warning.
(C) Passing Sight Distance
Purposes:
(1) To allow the passing driver to see a sufficient distance ahead that is clear
of traffic and to complete the passing maneuver without cutting off the
passed vehicle and without colliding onto the opposing vehicle.
(2) To allow the passing driver to return to the original lane without completing
the pass when he or she sees the opposing traffic being too close, i.e.
passing maneuver is only partially completed.
Minimum passing sight distance
• AASHTO 2011 Green Book’s design minimum passing sight distances are
based on the minimum sight distances presented by the Manual of
Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD, 2009) as warrants for no-passing
zones on two-lane highways.
• Design is most effective when traffic controls such as passing and no

passing zone markings are placed on highways and streets.
Passing Sight Distance for Design of Two-Lane Roads
Design Speed Assumed Speed (km/h) Passing Sight

(km/h) Passed Vehicle Passing Vehicle Distance (m)
30 11 30 120
40 21 40 140
50 31 50 160
60 41 60 180
70 51 70 210
80 61 80 245
90 71 90 280
100 81 100 320
110 91 110 355

120 101 120 395

130 111 130 440
Notes:
(1) Passing sight distance for use in design is based on a passenger car
passing a passenger car.
(2) While there may be occasions of multiple passings where two or more
vehicles are passed, it is not practical to assume such conditions when
developing minimum passing sight distance criteria.
(3) Longer passing sight distance is required for trucks (as passed vehicle,
passing vehicle or both) but no specific design distances are provided.
Assumptions:
• Height of driver’s eye = 1.08 m (approximate height of driver eye in
passenger car)
• Height of object = 1.08 m (Based on assumed vehicle height of 1.33 m less
an allowance of 0.25 m - the portion of the vehicle height that needs to be
visible for another driver to recognize a vehicle)
• Sufficient for night conditions.
Frequency and length of passing sections
Design consideration: To be as frequent and as long as practical based on

cost, space and design hourly volume.
• In mountainous terrain, more economical to build intermittent four-lane

sections or passing lanes with stopping sight distance
• The level of service of two-lane-two-way highway depends on (i) average

travel speed and (ii) percent time spent following. Both could be affected
by lack of passing opportunities. Example: A demand flow rate of 800 cars
per hour incurs a reduction of 3.1 km/h when no-passing zones comprise
40% of the road section.

Highway Alignment 23
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Recommended readings
1. AASHTO (2011) Chapters 3, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets, 6th
Edition.
2. Mannering, F. L., Washburn, S. S. and Kilareski, W. P. (2013). Chapter 3. Principles of
Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis, 5th Edition. Wiley.
3. Garber N. and Hoel, L. (2009). Chapters 3 and 15, Traffic and Highway Engineering, 4th
Edition. Cengage Learning.
References
1. Fwa, T. F. (2006) Chapter 6, Handbook of Highway Engineering. CRC Press.
2. Schoon, J. G. (2000) Geometric Design Projects for Highways: An Introduction. 2nd
Edition. ASCE Press.
PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Overall Alignment
• A three-dimensional problem because the highway must pass through

points defined by longitude, latitude and elevation.
• For easy visualization, a highway is defined by segments of connected

horizontal and vertical curves, or their combination.
• For the ease of interpretation of the construction drawing, the convention

of plan and profile views has been adopted.
• The plan view gives the horizontal alignment of a highway. The length of
the highway is measured along the plan view, on a horizontal plane, along
the horizontal curve.
• The length is expressed in terms of distance from a reference station, in

terms of stations. Each station is 100 m. (Note: Different countries can
have different conventions)
Example: If point A is the reference station (station 0 + 00), and the

distance between A and B is 1075.24 m, what is the station of point B?
Solution:
Station of point B = station (0 + 00) + (10 + 75.24) = station (10 + 75.24)

• The vertical alignment (including the gradients and vertical curves) are
represented in a profile view. The profile view is the view along the length
(including the true length of horizontal curve) of the highway. The
elevations of all the points at regular intervals or when necessary are
specified in the profile view.
Figure 11: Converting 3D representation of highway to 2D drawings
Horizontal Alignment
• A horizontal curve provides the directional transition on the horizontal

plane, between two straight sections of the highway running in different
directions.
Formulae for stations:

PI = PC + T
PT = PC + L
Figure 12: Elements of a simple horizontal curve
• Horizontal curves are expressed as circular curves with constant radii, or

successive curves with different radii.

• A horizontal curve may be described by its radius or by its degree of

curvature.
• A curve with a constant radius (R) starts at point of curvature (PC), ends
at point of tangent (PT). The point of intersection (PI) is the intersecting
point if the two straight lines are extended. Δ is the central angle of the
curve, expressed in degrees.
æDö
• Length of tangent T: T = R tan ç ÷
è2ø
æ Dö
• Middle ordinate M: M = R ç1 - cos ÷
è 2ø
æ 1 ö
• External distance E: E = R ç - 1÷÷
ç cos ( D 2)
è ø
• Degree of curvature D is the central angle (in degree) subtended by a 100

m arc of the curve.
æ 180 ö
100 ç
è p ÷ø 5729.6
D= =
R R
æDö p
• Length of curve L: L = 100 ç ÷ = RD
è D ø 180
Example: A horizontal curve is to be designed to connect two straight sections

of a highway. The PI is originally at station 180+00, and Δ is 30o. If the radius
of the curve is fixed at 403.15 m, what are the station numbers of PC and PT,
and the length of the curve?
Solution:
æDö æ 30° ö
T = R tan ç ÷ = 403.15 tan ç ÷ = 108.0 m
è2ø è 2 ø
Station of PC = Station of PI – T = station (180 + 00) – (1 + 8.0) = station (178
+ 92.0)
p p
Length of curve L = RD = ( 403.15 )( 30°) = 211.1 m
180 180
Station of PT = Station of PC + L = station (178 + 92.0) + (2 + 11.1) = station
(181 + 03.1m)

Vertical Alignment
• A vertical curve provides a smooth transition between two tangent grades.
• There are two types of vertical curves: crest vertical curves and sag vertical
curves.
• Example profiles of crest and sag vertical curves, with the initial grade G1,
final grade G2, and their signs.
Figure 13: Types of vertical curves
• The points of curvature, intersection and tangent of a vertical curve are

denoted by PVC, PVI and PVT respectively.
• The length of curve L is the distance between PVC and PVT measured along
the horizontal plane.
• The PVI is at the midpoint between PVC and PVT along the horizontal
plane.
• In the specification of a highway’s vertical alignment, the elevations of

points along the highway’s center line are required.
• The vertical curves are parabolic in form. It has a constant rate of change
of slope and equal curve tangents on both ends of the curve.
• Profile of a crest vertical curve

Formulae for stations:

PVI = PVC + 0.5L
PVT = PVC + L
Figure 14: Elements of a simple vertical curve
• The initial and final grades are denoted by G1 and G2 respectively,

expressed in %. G1 and G2 can be positive or negative.
• Based on the equation of a parabolic curve, the vertical offset Y at any

distance x from the projected initial gradient is
G - G1 2
Y = 2 x
200L
Negative values of Y mean a downward offset from the projected tangent
from PVC (as in the case of crest vertical curves) while positive values of Y
mean a upward offset from the projected tangent from PVC (in sag vertical
curves).
• It can also be determined that:
Ym =
(G2 - G1 ) L and Y f =
(G 2 - G1 ) L
800 200
• The highest or lowest point of the curve is given by:

L (G1 )
2
* LG1
x = and Y * =
G1 - G 2 200 (G2 - G1 )
Example: A highway must traverse a 6% followed by a -2% grade. The

length of this crest vertical curve is 2000 m. Calculate:
(i) The vertical offset for the first 500 m of the vertical curve at 100 m
intervals, and
(ii) The highest point of curve.
Solution:
G 2 - G1 2 ( -2) - ( +6 ) 2
(i) Given that L = 2000 m, Y = x = x = ( 2 ´ 10-5 ) x 2
200L 200 ( 2000 )
Elevation for first 500 m of curve:

x (m) 0 100 200 300 400 500

Y (m) 0 -0.2 -0.8 -1.8 -3.2 -5
The negative value means that the elevation is measured downward from the
projected original gradient, based on G1.
(ii) The highest point of the curve is:
x* =
LG1
=
( 2000 )( 6 ) = 1500 m
G1 - G 2 ( 6) - ( -2)
L (G1 ) ( 2000 )( 6) = -45 m
2 2
Y =
*
=
200 (G2 - G1 ) 200 ( 6 - ( -2) )
Example: A 200 m equal tangent sag vertical curve has the PVC at station
37+00 and elevation at 321 m. The initial grade is -3.5% and the final grade
is +0.5%. Determine the stationing and elevation of the PVI, PVT and lowest
point of the curve.
Solution:
Since the curve is equal tangent, PVI will be 100 m from PVC and PVT will
be 200 m from PVC. Therefore,
Station of PVI = 38+00
Station of PVC = 39+00
Since vertical curve is parabolic, let y = ax 2 + bx + c where x is the distance from

the PVC (m) and y is the elevation of curve (m).
At PVC i.e. x = 0 m, y = 321 m: c = 321
dy
At PVC i.e. x = 0 m, y = 321 m: = 2ax + b = b = G1 = -0.035
dx
dy
At PVT i.e. x = 200 m: = 2a ( 200 ) - 0.035 = G2 = 0.005 Þ a = 0.0001
dx
dy
At lowest point of curve: = 0.0002x - 0.035 = 0 Þ x = 175 m
dx
Station of lowest point of curve = 38+75
Elevation of PVI = 0.0001(100) - 0.035 (100) + 321 = 318.5 m

2
Elevation of PVT = 0.0001( 200) - 0.035 ( 200) + 321 = 318.0 m

2
Elevation of lowest point of curve = 0.0001(175) - 0.035 (175) + 321 =

2
317.94 m

DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Main design considerations:

(A) Superelevation and side friction
(B) Off-tracking and curve widening
(C) Sight distance
(A) Superelevation and Side Friction
A vehicle moving in a horizontal curve undergoes centripetal acceleration

that acts toward the centre of the curvature. This acceleration is sustained
by:
1. A component of vehicle weight due to roadway superelevation, and
2. Tyre-pavement side friction
Figure 15: Forces acting on a vehicle traveling on a horizontal curve
Superelevation rate: e = 100 tan a
mv 2
Centripetal force: FCP = (a)
R
Centripetal force is contributed by superelevation and side friction:

æ ö æ ö
0.01e 1
FCP = mg ç ÷ + mgf ç ÷ (b)
ç 1 + 0.01e 2 ÷ ç 1 + 0.01e 2 ÷
è ( ) ø è ( ) ø
Solve Equations (a) and (b) and set é1 + ( 0.01e ) ù ! 1 , we have:

2
ë û
v2
0.01e + f =
gR
where: e = superelevation in percent, f = available side friction factor, v =
vehicle speed, g = acceleration due to gravity, and R = radius of curve

Example: A circular curve has a radius of 80 m with a one-directional cross

slope (sloping downward towards the centre of the circular curve) of 2%. The
available side friction factor is 0.10. Calculate the maximum safe vehicle
speed.
Solution:
v max 2
For safe vehicle travel, 0.01e + f =
gR
v max 2
i.e. 0.01 ( 2 ) + 0.10 =
( 9.81)( 80 )
Solve: vmax = 9.70 m/s = 34.9 km/h
Choice of Superelevation Rate
• Maximum superelevation rate may be established by practical

considerations and used to determine minimum radius of curve.
• No superelevation is needed for tangent highways or curves with very large

radius.
• For curves between the above extremes, a superelevation rate should be

chosen with the appropriate side friction.
Maximum Superelevation Rate
Maximum superelevation rate is governed by four factors:

1. Climate conditions (frequency and amount of snow and ice – standing or
slow moving vehicles must not be allowed to slide downwards).
2. Terrain conditions (affecting vehicle speed, constructability, costs)
3. Type of area (i.e. rural or urban)
4. Frequency of very slow moving vehicles (high superelevation is not
comfortable for ride)
Some recommendations:
• Appropriate maximum superelevation varies with highway condition.
• A reasonable maximum superelevation value is 8%.
• Superelevations greater than 8% are only used in areas without snow or
ice.
• A superelevation rate of 12% should not be exceeded.
• For urban streets with little or no operational constraints, e = 4% to 6%
• Superelevation may be omitted on low-speed urban streets.

• For consistency in highway alignment design, use only one maximum

superelevation within a region of similar climate and land use. This
uniformity improves drivers’ perception-reaction skills.
• For downgrade, some adjustments in superelevation may be made to
account for higher speed.
Design Side Friction Factor
AASHTO recommends maximum side friction factors (see Figures 16 to 18) on

rural highways, urban freeways and urban streets where speed is relatively
high and uniform. These factors:
a) Provide reasonable margin of safety at high speeds
b) Lower superelevation rates at low speeds are used to provide greater
margin of safety
c) Within allowable maximum at which driver will experience a feeling of
discomfort when driving a curve at a particular design speed.
Figure 16: Side friction factors for high-speed streets and highways

Figure 17: Side friction factors for low-speed streets and highways
Figure 18: Side friction factors assumed for design
Minimum Radius of Horizontal Curves
The minimum radius of horizontal curves Rmin can be determined using

maximum superelevation rate and the maximum side friction factor.
v2
R min =
g ( 0.01e max + f max )

Sharpest Curve without Superelevation
On very flat curves, vehicles rely on:

(i) Side friction and positive cross slope as superelevation
(ii) Side friction where there is a negative cross slope (note: on a curve sharp
enough to need a superelevation, a plane cross slope across the whole
traveled way should be provided.)
Example: A roadway is being designed for a speed of 110 km/h. At one

horizontal curve, it is known that the superelevation is 8.0% and the
coefficient of side friction is 0.10. Determine the minimum allowable radius
for a horizontal curve that will provide safe vehicle operation.
Solution:
(110 /3.6)
2
v2
Rmin = = = 528.7 m
g ( 0.01emax + f max ) 9.81( 0.08 + 0.10 )
Minimum Radius for Design of Rural Highways, Urban Freeways and

High Speed Urban Streets using Limiting Values of e and f
Desig Ma Max Total Calculate Rounde Design Ma Max Total Calculate Rounde
n xe f (e/10 d Radius d Speed xe f (e/10 d Radius d
Speed (%) 0 + f) (m) Radius (km/h (%) 0 + f) (m) Radius
(km/h (m) ) (m)
)
15 4 0.4 0.44 4.0 4 90 8 0.1 0.21 303.7 304
0 3
20 4 0.3 0.39 8.1 8 100 8 0.1 0.20 393.7 394
5 2
30 4 0.2 0.32 22.1 22 110 8 0.1 0.19 501.5 501
8 1
40 4 0.2 0.27 46.7 47 120 8 0.0 0.17 667.0 667
3 9
50 4 0.1 0.23 85.6 86 130 8 0.0 0.16 831.7 832
9 8
60 4 0.1 0.21 135.0 135 15 10 0.4 0.50 3.5 4
7
70 4 0.1 0.19 203.1 203 20 10 0.3 0.45 7.0 7
5 5
80 4 0.1 0.18 280.0 280 30 10 0.2 0.38 18.6 19
4 8
90 4 0.1 0.17 375.2 375 40 10 0.2 0.33 38.2 38
3 3
100 4 0.1 0.16 492.1 492 50 10 0.1 0.29 67.9 68
2 9
15 6 0.4 0.46 3.9 4 60 10 0.1 0.27 105.0 105
0 7
20 6 0.3 0.41 7.7 8 70 10 0.1 0.25 154.3 154
5 5
30 6 0.2 0.34 20.8 21 80 10 0.1 0.24 210.0 210
8 4
40 6 0.2 0.29 43.4 43 90 10 0.1 0.23 277.3 277
3 3
50 6 0.1 0.25 78.7 79 100 10 0.1 0.22 357.9 358
9 2

60 6 0.1 0.23 123.2 123 110 10 0.1 0.21 453.7 454

7 1
70 6 0.1 0.21 183.7 184 120 10 0.0 0.19 596.8 597
5 9
80 6 0.1 0.20 252.0 252 130 10 0.0 0.18 739.3 739
4 8
90 6 0.1 0.19 335.7 336 15 10 0.4 0.50 3.5 4
3
100 6 0.1 0.18 437.4 437 20 12 0.3 0.47 6.7 7
2 5
110 6 0.1 0.17 560.4 560 30 12 0.2 0.40 17.7 18
1 8
120 6 0.0 0.15 755.9 756 40 12 0.2 0.35 36.0 36
9 3
130 6 0.0 0.14 950.5 951 50 12 0.1 0.31 63.5 64
8 9
15 8 0.4 0.48 3.7 4 60 12 0.1 0.29 97.7 98
0 7
20 8 0.3 0.43 7.3 7 70 12 0.1 0.27 142.9 143
5 5
30 8 0.2 0.36 19.7 20 80 12 0.1 0.26 193.8 194
8 4
40 8 0.2 0.31 40.6 41 90 12 0.1 0.25 255.1 255
3 3
50 8 0.1 0.27 72.9 73 100 12 0.1 0.24 328.1 328
9 2
60 8 0.1 0.25 113.4 113 110 12 0.1 0.23 414.2 414
7 1
70 8 0.1 0.23 167.8 168 120 12 0.0 0.21 539.9 540
5 9
80 8 0.1 0.22 229.1 229 130 12 0.0 0.20 665.4 665
4 8
Note: In recognition of safety considerations, use of emax = 4% should be limited to urban conditions.

(B) Off-tracking and Horizontal Curve Widening
Off-tracking: Rear wheels do not follow precisely the same path as the front
wheels when vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve or makes a turn. → Need
to allow sufficient space for cornering
Important considerations when determining additional off-tracking or

widening width:
• Design vehicle
• Radius of horizontal curve
Track Width
Track width U: Also known as swept path width, is the sum of track width on
a tangent u (2.44 m or 2.59 m depending on the design vehicle) and the
amount of offtracking.
U = u + R - R 2 - å L2i
where: U = track width on curve (m); u = track width on tangent (out-to-out of
tires) (m); R = radius of curve or turn (m); and Li = wheelbase of design vehicle
between consecutive axles (or sets of tandem axles) and articulation points
(m).
Lateral Clearance
Lateral clearance C: clearance between the edge of the traveled roadway and
nearest wheel path, and body clearance between vehicles passing or meeting
C = 0.6 m for tangent lane width WN of 6.0 m
= 0.75 m for tangent lane width WN of 6.6 m
= 0.9 m for tangent lane width WN of 7.2 m
Width of Front Overhang
Width of Front Overhang FA: radial distance between the outer edge of the tire
path of the outer front wheel and the path of the outer front edge of the vehicle
body.
FA = R 2 + A ( 2L + A ) - R
where: A = front overhang of design vehicle (m); R = radius of curve or turn
(m); and L = wheelbase of single unit of tractor (m).

Width of Rear Overhang
Width of Rear Overhang FB: radial distance between the outer edge of the tire
path of the inner rear wheel and the path of the inside edge of the vehicle
body.
Passenger car: FB = 0.15 m
Truck: FB = 0 m (width of body same as width of out-to-out of rear wheels)
Figure 19: Minimum turning path for interstate semitrailer WB-20 design
vehicle

Extra Width Allowance for Off-tracking
Extra Width Allowance for Off-tracking Z: Additional radial width of pavement

to allow for difficulty of maneuvering on a curve and the variation in driver
operation. This additional width is an empirical value.
æ v ö
Z = 0.1ç ÷
è Rø
where v = design speed of highway (km/h); R = radius of curve or turn (m)
Width of Traveled Roadway on Curve
For a design vehicle, the width of traveled roadway on curve WC is:

WC = N (U + C ) + ( N - 1) FA + Z
where N is the number of lanes; U = track width of design vehicle (m); C =
lateral clearance (m); FA = width of front overhang of inner-lane vehicle (m); Z
= extra width allowance (m)
Traveled Way Widening on Horizontal Curves
The amount of widening on the travelled way on a horizontal curve is the

difference between the width needed on the curve and the width used on a
tangent:
w = WC - WN
where WC = width of traveled roadway on curve (m); WN = width of traveled
roadway on tangent (m) (normally assumed to be 3.6 m per lane)
Example: Given that the design vehicle for a one-way two-lane highway is
WB-20, determine the amount of travelled way to be widened if the radius of
the horizontal curve is 200 m.
Solution:
See Figure 19 for the characteristics of the WB-20 design vehicle.
Track width:
U = u + R - R 2 - å L2i
( 200 ) - é(5.30 + 0.5 ´ 1.28 ) + (19.81 - (5.30 + 0.5 ´ 1.28 ) ) ù

2 2 2
= 2.44 + 200 -
ë û
= 3.01 m
Tangent lane width WN = 2 × 3.6 = 7.2 m
Lateral clearance: C = 0.9 m
Width of front wheel overhang:

FA = R 2 + A ( 2L + A ) - R = ( 200 ) + (1.22 ) ( 2 ´ (1.28 + 5.30 ) + 1.22 ) - 200

2
= 0.04 m
Width of Rear Overhang: FB = 0 m
æ v ö æ 60 ö
Extra Width Allowance for Offtracking: Z = 0.1ç ÷ = 0.1ç ÷ = 0.42 m
è R ø è 200 ø
Width of travelled roadway on horizontal curve:
WC = N (U + C ) + ( N - 1) FA + Z = 2 ( 3.01 + 0.9) + ( 2 - 1)( 0.04) + 0.42 = 8.28 m
Amount of widening on the travelled way on a horizontal curve:
w = WC - WN = 8.28 - 7.2 = 1.08 m
Design Values for Travelled Way Widening
Design Values for Traveled Way Widening on Curves (Two-Lane Highways,

One-Way or Two-Way:

Adjustment for Traveled Way Widening Values on Curves (Two-Lane

Highways, One-Way or Two-Way):

Notes:
• On simple curves, widening should be applied on the inside edge of the
curves. On curves with spirals, widening may be applied on the inside edge
or divided equally on either side of the centerline.
• Curve widening should be transitioned gradually over a length sufficient
to make the whole traveled way usable.
• From standpoint of usefulness and appearance, edge of travelled way
through the widening transition should be a smooth, graceful curve.

(C) Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
• When a driver is travel along a horizontal curve, his sight distance is

limited by a physical obstruction, such as sidewall, slope or building, at
the inside of the curve.
• For design purpose, the SSD is the length of curve along the centre line of
the inside lane, where the vehicle will be traveling or braking (with the
vehicle in full control).
Figure 20: Stopping sight distance considerations for horizontal curves
• Assuming that the length of the horizontal curve exceeds the stopping sight
distance (SSD):
p
SSD = Rv Ds
180
where Rv = radius to the vehicle’s traveled path (usually measured to the
center of the innermost lane of the road) (m); and Ds = angle subtended
by an arc equal to the length of the required stopping sight distance SSD
in degree.
• Middle ordinate:
é æ 90SSD öù
M s = Rv ê1 - cos ç ÷ú
ë è p Rv øû

• Minimum stopping sight distance SSD:

p Rv é -1 æ Rv - M s ö
ù
SSD = êcos ç ÷ú
90 ë è Rv ø û
• Alternatives when stopping sight distance is inadequate:

Ø Increase offset to obstruction
Ø Increase curve radius
Ø Reduce design speed
Example: A 400 m radius horizontal curve has design speed of 60 km/h.

What is the required minimum building clearance? Assume zero grade.
Solution:
For design speed of 60 km/h, required stopping sight distance SSD = 83 m.
é æ 90SSD ö ù é æ 90 ( 83) ö ù
M s = Rv ê1 - cos ç ÷ ú = ( 400 ) ê 1 - cos çç ÷÷ ú
ë è p Rv ø û êë è p ( 400 ) ø úû
= 400 éë1 - cos ( 5.95° ) ùû = 2.15 m
Passing Sight Distance
Passing sight distance is roughly 4 times as great as the minimum stopping

sight distance at the same design speed. It is difficult to maintain passing
sight distance on horizontal curves other than very flat curves. For practical
reasons, passing sight distance is provided only on tangents and very flat
curves.
Practical Controls for Horizontal Alignment
• Be consistent with topography and preserving developed properties and

community values.
• Number of short curves should be kept to a minimum.
• Use generally flat curves, save the minimum radius for the most critical
conditions.
• Maintain consistent alignment by avoiding sudden changes in alignment.

For example, sharp curves should not be introduced at the ends of long
tangents.

• To avoid appearance of a kink, curves should be at least 150 m long for a

central angle of 5o. The minimum length should be increased 30 m for each
1o decrease in the central angle.
• On main highways, the minimum length for horizontal curves should be 3

× (design speed expressed in km/h). On high-speed controlled access
expressways that use flat curves, the minimum length should be 6 ×
(design speed expressed in km/h) for aesthetic reasons.
• Compound circular curves (i.e. several curves in sequence at intersections

or interchange ramps) should be used with small difference in radii. A
desirable maximum ratio of the flatter radius to the sharper radius is
1.75:1. Otherwise, the alignment will appear abrupt or forced and require
considerable steering effort.
• Abrupt reversals in alignment should be avoided as they make driving

difficult, and it is difficult to superelevate both curves adequately.
• The “broken back” or “flat back” arrangement of curves (i.e. having a short
tangent between two curves in the same direction) should be avoided as
many drivers do not expect successive curves to be in the same direction.

DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Main design considerations:

(A) Critical grade length
(B) Sight distance
(A) Critical Grade Length in Vertical Alignment
Effect of Grades on Vehicle Operations
Passenger Cars
Readily drive on grades as steep as 4 to 5% without appreciable loss in speed.

For upgrades of 3% or less, the effect is slight.
Trucks
• Average speed of passenger cars and trucks are about the same on level
sections.
• On upgrades, the maximum steady speed that a truck can maintain is

dependent on:
Ø Steepness of grade
Ø Length of grade
Ø Truck weight/power ratio (gross weight/engine power)
• The effect of grade and length of grade on the speed of a typical heavy truck
is shown in Figures 21 and 22.
Ø Figure 21 shows how far a truck, starting from its climb from any speed
up to approximately 110 km/h, travels up various grades before a
certain constant speed is achieved.
Ø Figure 22 shows that a truck approaching a grade at or below crawl
speed and the final speed it can achieve given a grade and length of
grade.
• Weight/power ratio of trucks has decreased from 220 kg/kW in 1949 to

130 kg/kW in 1975 and to about 80 kg/kW today. The use of 120 kg/kW
for grade design is conservative.
• Speed-distance curves for recreational vehicles on upgrades (See Figure

23). This is not as critical as trucks except on recreational routes.

Figure 21: Speed-distance curves for a typical heavy truck of 120 kg/kW for
deceleration on upgrades
Figure 22: Speed-distance curves for acceleration of a typical heavy truck of

120 kg/kW on upgrades and downgrades

Figure 23: Speed-distance curves for a typical recreational vehicle on

selected upgrades
Control Grades and Critical Length of Grade
(1) Maximum Grades
• 5% for design speed of 110 km/h

• 7% to 12% for design speed of 50 km/h, depending on terrain, though 7%
to 8% are representative for typical highways
• Less than maximum grade should be used in most cases
(2) Minimum Grades
• Flat grades can be used if cross slope of uncurbed highway is adequate to

drain pavement surface laterally
• On curbed roads, longitudinal grades should be provided for surface
drainage. Typical minimum grade is 0.5%
(3) Critical Lengths of Grades
Critical length of grade = maximum length of an upgrade a loaded truck can

operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed
Design basis for critical length of grade:

• Too large a speed differential between trucks and average running speed
of traffic will lead to unacceptably high crash involvement rate of trucks.

• Crash involvement rate increases significantly when the truck speed

reduction exceeds 15 km/h (See Figure 25)
• Recommend 15 km/h reduction criterion as the general guide for
determining critical lengths of grade (see Figures 26 and 27).
• Acceptable to use the same curve for entering speeds if same permissible
speed reduction is adopted.
Design adjustments are needed if critical length of grade is exceeded:

• Change of alignment or location
• Add climbing lane for trucks
Figure 24: Crash involvement rate of trucks for which running speeds are
reduced below average running speed of all traffic

Figure 25: Critical lengths of grade for design, assumed typical heavy truck
of 120 kg/kW, entering speed = 110 km/h
Figure 26: Critical lengths of grade using an approach speed of 90 km/h for
typical recreational vehicle

(B) Sight Distances
Types of vertical curves: (a) Crest vertical curves (b) Sag vertical curves
Crest Vertical Curves
• Too large a speed differential between trucks and average running speed
of traffic will lead to unacceptably high crash involvement rate of trucks.
• Minimum length of crest vertical curves based on sight distance criteria

generally is satisfactory for safety, comfort and appearance.
• In terms of safety, the minimum length of Lm is such that when the driver
of a vehicle climbs over the crest he/she has enough stopping distance if
there is a 150 mm object on the road.
• In this case, the height of the driver’s eye (h1) and height of the object (h2)
are two important inputs. Other controlling factors are driver’s SSD,
absolute change in gradient before and after the crest curve ( A = G1 - G2 ,
in %).
Figure 27: Stopping sight distance considerations for crest vertical curves
• Minimum length of crest vertical curve Lm:

A ´S2
For S < Lm Lm =
( )
2
200 h1 + h 2
( )
2
200 h1 + h 2
For S > Lm Lm = 2 (S ) -
A
• Based on AASHTO criteria, h1 = 1.08 m and h2 = 0.6 m

A ´ SSD 2
For SSD < Lm Lm =
658
658
For SSD > Lm Lm = 2 (SSD ) -
A

Example: A vertical curve is to be constructed between a 3.5% grade and a -

4% grade. The required sight distance is 300 m. The dangerous object is
considered to be on the pavement surface, and the driver’s eye level is at
1.05 m above the pavement surface. Determine the length of the vertical
curve that will satisfy the sight distance requirement.
Solution:
Given h1 = 1.05 m, h2 = 0.00 m, SSD = 300 m, G1 =3.5%, G2 = -4%
We have A = G1 - G2 = 7.5%
First we assume Lm > SSD, we may use:
A ´ SSD 2 7.5 ´ 3002
Lm = = = 3214 m
( ) ( )
2 2
200 h1 + h 2 200 1.05 + 0
which is larger than SSD
Check:
( ) ( )
2 2
200 h1 + h2 200 1.05 + 0
Lm = 2 (SSD ) - = 2 ( 300 ) - = 572 m
A 7.5
which violates the Lm < SSD assumption.
Minimum curve length = 3,214 m
• Let L = KA, K is a convenient parameter for design control (known also as

the rate of vertical curvature). For AASHTO criteria and assuming L > SSD:
SSD 2
K =
658
With known SSD for a given speed and grade, K values can be computed
for crest vertical curves. Thus the minimum curve length can be obtained
by multiplying A by the K-value.
• L > SSD is almost always assumed in practice for crest vertical curve
design. In many cases, L is greater than SSD and when it is not (SSD > L),
the assumption will always give longer curve lengths which is on the
conservative and safe side.
• At the level point of the crest curve (e.g. high point of a Type I crest curve),
there is no drainage problem if a minimum grade of 0.3% is maintained at
a point 15 m from the level point. This corresponds to a K value of 50. If K
> 50, there is a need to ensure proper pavement drainage near the high
point.
• For night driving on roads without lighting, the length of visible roadway
illuminated by headlights may be less than the minimum stopping sight

distance, either adjustments in alignment design or speed control may be

necessary.
• For passing sight distance (is the section of the vertical curve is designed
as a passing zone), the object to be detected ahead is the opposing vehicle.
In this case h2 =1.080 m should be used.
Sag Vertical Curves
Criteria for length design:

(a) Headlight sight distance
(b) Stopping sight distance
(c) Passenger comfort
(d) Drainage control
(e) General appearance
Headlight Sight Distance
• During the night time when the driver’s sight is restricted by the area
projected by the headlight beams. This design control criteria is known as
headlight sight distance (HSD).
• The headlight height of H =0.6 m and upward angle for the headlight
projection cone of β = 1o is normally assumed.
Figure 28: Stopping sight distance considerations for sag vertical curves
• Minimum length of curve Lm:

AS 2
For S < Lm: Lm =
200 ( H + S tan b )
200 ( H + S tan b )
For S > Lm: Lm = 2S -
A
• Based on AASHTO criteria, H = 0.6 m

A (SSD )
2
For SSD < Lm: Lm =

120 + 3.5 ´ SSD
120 + 3.5 ´ SSD
For SSD > Lm: Lm = 2 ´ SSD -
A
• Let L = KA, K is a convenient parameter for design control (known also as

the rate of vertical curvature). For AASHTO criteria and assuming L > SSD:
SSD 2
K =
120 + 3.5 ´ SSD
With known SSD for a given speed and grade, K values can be computed
for crest vertical curves. Thus the minimum curve length can be obtained
by multiplying A by the K-value.
• L > SSD is almost always assumed in practice for sag vertical curve design.
In many cases, L is greater than SSD and when it is not (SSD > L), the
assumption will always give longer curve lengths which is on the
conservative and safe side.
For safety reason, a sag curve must be designed such that the headlight sight
distance is longer than the stopping sight distance.
Passenger Comfort
• Arising from gravitational and centripetal forces acting in different

directions.
• Riding is comfortable on sag vertical curves when centripetal acceleration

< 0.3 m/s2, i.e.
Av 2
L=
395
where L = curve length (m); v = speed (km/h)
• L for passenger comfort is only about 50% of L for headlight sight distance.
Drainage Control
• Drainage max K = 50, i.e. minimum 0.3% grade within 15 m of level point
• Sag vertical curve should be avoided in cuts unless adequate drainage can
be provided.

General Appearance
• Rule of thumb, minimum Lm = 30A
• For small A, minimum L = 0.6 (design speed in km/h)
• Longer curves are appropriate on high-type highways
Example: A sag vertical curve of a two-lane road has 3% grade downslope and
6% grade upslope eastbound. Determine the required curve length for a
design speed of 60 km/h.
Solution:
Eastbound traffic: For design speed of 60 km/h and -3% grade, SSD = 87 m.
( 3 - 6)( 87 ) = 160.4 m > SSD
2
AS 2
Lm = = (Okay)
200 ( H + S tan b ) 120 + ( 3.5 ´ 87 )
Westbound traffic: For design speed of 60 km/h and -6% grade, SSD = 92
m.
( 3 + 6)( 92) = 172.3 m > SSD
2
AS 2
Lm = = (Okay)
200 ( H + S tan b ) 120 + ( 3.5 ´ 92)
Westbound movement governs design Þ Lm = 172.3 m
Sag Vertical Curves for Underpasses
• For sag curves, we design for nighttime condition since driver can see the
entire sag curve during daytime. For underpasses, a driver’s line of sight
may be restricted such that the entire sag curve is not visible Þ Designer
should check if curve length is adequate for stopping.
Figure 29: Stopping sight distance considerations for underpass sag curves
• Minimum length of curve Lm:

AS 2
For S < Lm: Lm =
æ æ h + h2 ö ö
800 ç H c - ç 1 ÷÷
è è 2 øø
æ æ h + h2 ö ö
800 ç H c - ç 1 ÷÷
è è 2 øø
For S > Lm: Lm = 2S -
A
where Hc = clearance height of overpass structure above the roadway.
• Based on AASHTO criteria, h1 = 2.4 m for truck driver eye height (critical
case), h2 = 0.6 m for obstruction height
A (SSD )
2
For SSD < Lm: Lm =

800 ( H c - 1.5 )
800 ( H c - 1.5 )
For SSD > Lm: Lm = 2 ´ SSD -
A
• Note that minimum clearance height must be checked against maximum

vehicle height regulations (mostly between 4.1 m to 4.4 m) and AASHTO
recommendations (minimum clearance height of 5.0 m and desirable
clearance height of 5.0 m). Clearance height must be at least 0.3 m greater
than the maximum allowable vehicle height.
Example: An equal tangent sag curve has an initial grade of -4%, a final grade
of +3% and a length of 385 m. An overhead sign is to be placed over the PVI
of this curve. At what height above the roadway should the bottom of this sign
be placed?
Solution:
Assume L > SSD and using the sag curve equation to first estimate SSD (i.e.
case without sign)
A (SSD )
2
Lm =
120 + 3.5 ´ SSD
-4 - 3 (SSD )
2
385 =
120 + 3.5 ´ SSD
SSD = 222.2 m
Note that L is indeed larger than SSD.
With installation of sign post:

A (SSD )
2
Lm =
800 ( H c - 1.5 )

-4 - 3 ( 222.2)
2
385 =
800 ( H c - 1.5 )
Hc = 2.62 m < maximum vehicle height or AASHTO recommendation
Use maximum vehicle height regulations (mostly between 4.1 m to 4.4 m) or

AASHTO recommendations (minimum clearance height of 5.0 m and desirable
clearance height of 5.0 m) for sign post installation
COMBINED HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
So far, the discussion on highway alignment has treated vertical and

horizontal alignment independently. The combination of vertical and
horizontal alignments, however, is quite common in geometric design, and
often is a necessity. Obvious examples are highways through mountainous
terrains and freeway interchange ramps, which often have to make significant
changes in direction and elevation over a short distance.
Example: A two-way highway (two 3.6 m lanes) has a posted speed limit of 80
km/h and on one section, has both horizontal and vertical curves, as shown
in the figure below:
A recent daytime crash (driver traveling eastbound and striking a stationary

roadway object) resulted in a fatality and a lawsuit alleging that the 80 km/h
posted speed limit is an unsafe speed for the curves in question and was a
major cause of the crash. Evaluate and comment on the roadway design.
Solution:

Begin with an assessment of horizontal alignment. Two concerns must be

addressed: adequacy of curve radius and superelevation, and the adequacy of
sight distance on the eastbound (inside) lane.
For curve radius,

L = Station of PT – Station of PC = (4 + 600) – (4 + 160) = 440 m
180 180
R= L= ( 440) = 315.1 m
pD p ( 80 )
Using the posted speed limit of 80 km/h with e = 8%, we find that
( 80 ´ 0.2778) - 0.08 = 0.081
2
v2
fs = -e =
gRv 9.81( 315.1 - 1.8 )
Check against Figure 18 of notes, maximum allowable fs is 0.14. This means
that the radius and superelevation are sufficient for the 80 km/h design
speed.
For sight distance, the available Ms is 6 m plus 1.8 m distance to centre of

eastbound (inside) lane i.e. 7.8 m.
p Rv é -1 æ Rv - M s ö
ù p ( 315.4 - 1.8 ) é -1 ( 315.4 - 1.8 ) - ( 6 + 1.8 )
æ öù
SSD = êcos ç ÷ú = êcos çç ÷÷ ú
90 ë è Rv øû 90 êë è (315.4 - 1.8 ) ø úû
= 140.1 m
Since for safe stopping, AASHTO stopping sight distance is:
( 80 3.6)
2
v2 æ 80 ö
SSD = v ´ t R + =ç ÷ ´ ( 2.5 ) + = 132.6 m
2 [a ± Gg ] è 3.6 ø 2 éë3.4 + ( -0.02)( 9.81) ùû
This is smaller than the SSD provided and hence the design is safe for
stopping.
Let us now assess the vertical alignment. It is a sag vertical curve, so the
length of curve is:
Provided L = Station of PVT – Station of PVC = (4 + 290) – (4 + 140) = 150 m
For safe stopping, design Lm can be computed as:
A (SSD ) 6 (132.6 )
2 2
For SSD < Lm: Lm = = = 180.6 m

120 + 3.5 ´ SSD 120 + 3.5 ´ 132.6
Since design length should be 180.6 m and provided length is 150 m, the
design is inadequate for the posted speed limit. However, for sag curves, we
are concerned about safe stopping at night and there is no problem with
obstructed vision in daytime, we can safely conclude that the design of the
curve does not contribute to this daytime crash.

01 Geometric Design of Highway and Streets

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NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

CE 3121 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Semester 1, Academic Year 2021/2022

Part I: Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Lecturer: A/Prof Ong Ghim Ping Raymond

ELEMENTS OF HIGHWAY AND STREET

PROCESS OF HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Major Design Controls

Evaluation of Alternate Designs Detailed Designs

Figure 1: Key processes in highway geometric design

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS

• Functional needs (movement of • Sharing (vehicle, people, goods,

Key Considerations in Road Geometric Design

• Functional requirements • Safety

Types of Road Classification

• Administrative classification • Structural classification

Functional classification is the most appropriate for road location analysis,

Functional Classification of Roads

Significance of using Functional Classification

• Levels of functions (control on access, exit, stopping, facilities)

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

Figure 2: Schematic illustration of the functional classes for a suburban

Figure 3: Schematic illustration of a functionally classified rural highway

Figure 4: Relationship between functional classification with traffic speed

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

CROSS-SECTIONAL ELEMENTS OF ROADS

Dimensions of cross-sectional elements used in practice:

Cross-Sectional Dimension for Indicated Condition

Lane Widening % Reduction in Accidents

Lane width is also known to affect traffic speed.

Figure 5: Typical cross section for two-lane highways

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

Figure 6: Typical cross section for multilane highways (half section)

Figure 7: Cross section of the 30 m green separator

CHOICE OF DESIGN VEHICLE

Types of Design Vehicle

1) Passenger cars (including SUVs, minivans, vans and pickup trucks)

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

Figure 8: Example of different types of trucks

AASHTO Guidelines for Selecting Design Vehicle

• Parking lot or series of parking lots, private facilities – Passenger car

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

Dimension for Design Vehicles (AASHTO Standard Design Vehicle)

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

Minimum Turning Path/Radius

Control geometric parameters:

Some relevant definitions:

Swept path width = (Off-tracking) + (Vehicle width) = roadway width that a

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

Figure 10: Turning characteristics of a typical tractor-semitrailer

CE3121 Transportation Engineering © G P Ong 2021

AASHTO minimum turning radius of design vehicles: