Introduction to Algorithms

6.046J/18.401J/SMA5503

Lecture 12
Prof. Erik Demaine
 Computational geometry
Algorithms for solving “geometric problems”
in 2D and higher.
Fundamental objects:
point line segment line
Basic structures:

point set polygon

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.2
 Computational geometry
Algorithms for solving “geometric problems”
in 2D and higher.
Fundamental objects:
point line segment line
Basic structures:

triangulation convex hull

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.3
 Orthogonal range searching
Input: n points in d dimensions
• E.g., representing a database of n records
each with d numeric fields
Query: Axis-aligned box (in 2D, a rectangle)
• Report on the points inside the box:
• Are there any points?
• How many are there?
• List the points.

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.4

 Orthogonal range searching
Input: n points in d dimensions
Query: Axis-aligned box (in 2D, a rectangle)
• Report on the points inside the box
Goal: Preprocess points into a data structure
to support fast queries
• Primary goal: Static data structure
• In 1D, we will also obtain a
dynamic data structure
supporting insert and delete
© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.5
 1D range searching
In 1D, the query is an interval:

First solution using ideas we know:

• Interval trees
• Represent each point x by the interval [x, x].
• Obtain a dynamic structure that can list
k answers in a query in O(k lg n) time.

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.6

 1D range searching
In 1D, the query is an interval:

Second solution using ideas we know:

• Sort the points and store them in an array
• Solve query by binary search on endpoints.
• Obtain a static structure that can list
k answers in a query in O(k + lg n) time.
Goal: Obtain a dynamic structure that can list
k answers in a query in O(k + lg n) time.
© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.7
 1D range searching
In 1D, the query is an interval:

New solution that extends to higher dimensions:

• Balanced binary search tree
• New organization principle:
Store points in the leaves of the tree.
• Internal nodes store copies of the leaves
to satisfy binary search property:
• Node x stores in key[x] the maximum
key of any leaf in the left subtree of x.
© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.8
 Example of a 1D range tree

11 17
17 43
43

66 88 12
12 14
14 26
26 35
35 41
41 42
42 59
59 61
61

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.9

 Example of a 1D range tree
xx
17
17
≤x >x
88 42
42

11 14
14 35
35 43
43

11 66 12
12 17
17 26
26 41
41 43
43 59
59

66 88 12
12 14
14 26
26 35
35 41
41 42
42 59
59 61
61

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.10

 Example of a 1D range query
xx
17
17
≤x >x
88 42
42

11 14
14 35
35 43
43

11 66 12
12 17
17 26
26 41
41 43
43 59
59

66 88 12
12 14
14 26
26 35
35 41
41 42
42 59
59 61
61

RANGE-QUERY([7, 41])
© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.11
 General 1D range query
root

split node

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.12

 Pseudocode, part 1:
Find the split node
1D-RANGE-QUERY(T, [x1, x2])
w ← root[T]
while w is not a leaf and (x2 ≤ key[w] or key[w] < x1)
do if x2 ≤ key[w]
then w ← left[w]
else w ← right[w]
⊳ w is now the split node
[traverse left and right from w and report relevant subtrees]

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.13

 Pseudocode, part 2: Traverse
left and right from split node
1D-RANGE-QUERY(T, [x1, x2])
[find the split node]
⊳ w is now the split node
if w is a leaf
then output the leaf w if x1 ≤ key[w] ≤ x2
else v ← left[w] ⊳ Left traversal
while v is not a leaf
do if x1 ≤ key[v]
then output the subtree rooted at right[v]
v ← left[v]
else v ← right[v]
output the leaf v if x1 ≤ key[v] ≤ x2
[symmetrically for right traversal]

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.14

 Analysis of 1D-RANGE-QUERY
Query time: Answer to range query represented
by O(lg n) subtrees found in O(lg n) time.
Thus:
• Can test for points in interval in O(lg n) time.
• Can count points in interval in O(lg n) time
if we augment the tree with subtree sizes.
• Can report the first k points in
interval in O(k + lg n) time.
Space: O(n)
Preprocessing time: O(n lg n)
© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.15
 2D range trees
Store a primary 1D range tree for all the points
based on x-coordinate.
Thus in O(lg n) time we can find O(lg n) subtrees
representing the points with proper x-coordinate.
How to restrict to points with proper y-coordinate?

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.16

 2D range trees
Idea: In primary 1D range tree of x-coordinate,
every node stores a secondary 1D range tree
based on y-coordinate for all points in the subtree
of the node. Recursively search within each.

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.17

 Analysis of 2D range trees
Query time: In O(lg2 n) = O((lg n)2) time, we can
represent answer to range query by O(lg2 n) subtrees.
Total cost for reporting k points: O(k + (lg n)2).
Space: The secondary trees at each level of the
primary tree together store a copy of the points.
Also, each point is present in each secondary
tree along the path from the leaf to the root.
Either way, we obtain that the space is O(n lg n).
Preprocessing time: O(n lg n)
© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.18
 d-dimensional range trees
Each node of the secondary y-structure stores
a tertiary z-structure representing the points
in the subtree rooted at the node, etc.
Query time: O(k + lgd n) to report k points.
Space: O(n lgd – 1 n)
Preprocessing time: O(n lgd – 1 n)
Best data structure to date:
Query time: O(k + lgd – 1 n) to report k points.
Space: O(n (lg n / lg lg n)d – 1)
Preprocessing time: O(n lgd – 1 n)
© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.19
 Primitive operations:
Crossproduct
Given two vectors v1 = (x1, y1) and v2 = (x2, y2),
is their counterclockwise angle θ
• convex (< 180º), v2 v1
• reflex (> 180º), or θ v
1 θ v2
• borderline (0 or 180º)? convex reflex

Crossproduct v1 × v2 = x1 y2 – y1 x2
= |v1| |v2| sin θ .
Thus, sign(v1 × v2) = sign(sin θ) > 0 if θ convex,
< 0 if θ reflex,
= 0 if θ borderline.
© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.20
 Primitive operations:
Orientation test
Given three points p1, p2, p3 are they p3
• in clockwise (cw) order,
• in counterclockwise (ccw) order, or p2
• collinear?
p1
(p2 – p1) × (p3 – p1)
collinear
> 0 if ccw
< 0 if cw p2 p3
= 0 if collinear p1 cw p1 ccw
p3 p2

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.21

 Primitive operations:
Sidedness test
Given three points p1, p2, p3 are they p3
• in clockwise (cw) order,
• in counterclockwise (ccw) order, or p2
• collinear?
p1
Let L be the oriented line from p1 to p2.
collinear
Equivalently, is the point p3
• right of L, p2 p3
• left of L, or p1 cw p1 ccw
• on L? p p2
3

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.22

 Line-segment intersection
Given n line segments, does any pair intersect?
Obvious algorithm: O(n2).
e
d
a

c
f
b

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.23

 Sweep-line algorithm
• Sweep a vertical line from left to right
(conceptually replacing x-coordinate with time).
• Maintain dynamic set S of segments
that intersect the sweep line, ordered
(tentatively) by y-coordinate of intersection.
• Order changes when
• new segment is encountered, segment
• existing segment finishes, or endpoints
• two segments cross
• Key event points are therefore segment endpoints.
© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.24
 d e e e b
a a d d e d b e e
a c c c c d b d d d
a b b b b b b f f f f

e
d
a

b f

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.25

 Sweep-line algorithm
Process event points in order by sorting segment
endpoints by x-coordinate and looping through:
• For a left endpoint of segment s:
• Add segment s to dynamic set S.
• Check for intersection between s
and its neighbors in S.
• For a right endpoint of segment s:
• Remove segment s from dynamic set S.
• Check for intersection between
the neighbors of s in S.
© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.26
 Analysis
Use red-black tree to store dynamic set S.
Total running time: O(n lg n).

© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.27

 Correctness
Theorem: If there is an intersection,
the algorithm finds it.
Proof: Let X be the leftmost intersection point.
Assume for simplicity that
• only two segments s1, s2 pass through X, and
• no two points have the same x-coordinate.
At some point before we reach X,
s1 and s2 become consecutive in the order of S.
Either initially consecutive when s1 or s2 inserted,
or became consecutive when another deleted.
© 2001 by Erik D. Demaine Introduction to Algorithms Day 21 L12.28