Lesson 1.

1 – THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS It also allows us to perceive realities in different contexts that would
otherwise be intangible to us. It can be likened to our sense of sight and
touch. Mathematics is our sense to decipher patterns, relationships, and
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES logical connections. It is our whole new way to see and understand the
1. To understand the mathematics of the modern world. modern world.
2. To revisit and appreciate the mathematical landscape.
3. To realize the importance of mathematics as a utility.
4. To gain awareness of the role of mathematics as well as our role Mathematics, being a broad and deep discipline, deals with the logic of
in mathematics. shape, quantity, and arrangement.

Once, it was perceived merely a collective thoughts dealing with counting

numbers, but it is now being understood as a universal language dealing
In the book of Stewart, Nature’s Number, he that mathematics is a formal with symbols, arts, equations, geometric shapes and patterns.
system of thought that was gradually developed in the human mind and
evolved in the human culture. It is asserting that mathematics is a powerful tool in decision-making and it
is a way of life.
Thus, in the long course of human history, our ancestors at a certain point
were endowed with insight to realize the existence of “form” in their
surroundings.
In the figure illustrated by Nocon and Nocon, it portrays the function of
From their realization, a system of thought further advanced their mathematics.
knowledge into understanding measures.
As shown, it is stated that mathematics is a set of problem-solving tools.
They were able to gradually develop the science of measures and gained
the ability to count, gauge, assess, quantify, and size almost everything. It provides answers to existing questions and presents solutions to
occurring problems.

It has the power to unveil the reasons behind occurrences and it offers
From our ancestor’s realization of measures, they were able to notice and explanations.
recognize some rudiment hints about patterns.

Thus, the concept of recognizing shapes made its course towards

classifying contour and finally using those designs to build human culture:
an important ingredient for a civilization to flourish.

From then, man realized that the natural world is embedded in a

magnanimously mathematical realm of patterns----and that natural order
efficiently utilizes all mathematical patterns to its advantage.

As a result, we made use of mathematics as a brilliant way to understand

the nature by comprehending the structure of its underlying patterns and
regularities.
Moreover, mathematics, as a study of patterns, allows people to observe,
hypothesize, experiment, discover, and recreate. On the other hand,
Mathematics is present in everything we do; it is all around us and it is the mathematics is an art and a process of thinking.
building block of our daily activities.
For it involves reasoning, which can be inductive or deductive, and it
It has been at the forefront of each and every period of our development, applies methods of proof both in fashion that is conventional and
and as our civilized societies advanced, our needs of mathematics unventional.
pioneering arose on the frontier of our course as we prepare our human
species to traverse the cosmic shore.
MATHEMATICS IS EVERYWHERE

MATHEMATICS IS A TOOL We use mathematics in their daily tasks and activities. It is our important
tool in the field of sciences, humanities, literature, medicine, and even in
Mathematics, as a tool, is immensely useful, practical, and powerful. It is music and arts; it is in the rhythm of our daily activities, operational in our
not about crunching numbers, formulas, and symbols but rather, it is all communities, and a default system of our culture. There is mathematics
about forming new ways to see problems so we can understand them by wherever we go.
combining insights with imagination.
It helps us cook delicious meals by exacting our ability to measure and Further, mathematics also facilitate not only to weather, but also to control
moderately control of heat. It also helps us to shop wisely, read maps, use the weather ---- be it social, natural, statistical, political, or medical.
the computer, and remodel a home with constrained budget with utmost
economy. Applied mathematics, which once only used for solving problems in physics,
and it is also becoming a useful tool in biological sciences: for instance, the
spread of various diseases can now be predicted and controlled.

Even the cosmic perspective, the patterns in the firmament are always Scientists and researchers use applied mathematics in doing or performing
presented as a mystery waiting to be uncovered by us-the sentient being. researches to solve social, scientific, medical, or even political crises.

In order to unearth this mystery, we are challenged to investigate and

deeply examine its structure and rules to the infinitesimal level.
It is a common fact that mathematics plays an important role in many
The intertwined governing powers of cosmic mystery can only be decoded sciences. It is and it provides tools for calculations.
by seriously observing and studying their regularities, and patiently waiting
for the signature of some kind interference. We use of calculations in other disciplines whenever we are underrating
some kind of research or experiment.

The use of mathematical calculations is indispensable method in

scientifically approaching most of the problems.

In a similar way, mathematics, provides new questions to think about.

Indeed, in learning and doing mathematics, there will always be new

questions to answer, new problems to solve, and new things to think about
(Vistru- Yu PPT presentation).
Source: Space Telescope Science/NASA

THE MATHEMATICAL LANDSCAPE

It is only by observing the abundance of patterns scattered everywhere The human mind and culture developed a conceptual landscape for
that this irregularities will beg to be noticed. mathematical thoughts and ideas to flourish and propagate.
Some of them are boldly exposed in a simple and obvious manner while There is a region in the human mind that is capable of constructing and
others are hidden in ways that is impossible to perceive by easy to discern. discerning the deepest insights being perceived from the natural world.
While our ancestors were able to discover the presence of mathematics in
everything, it took the descendants, us, a long time to gradually notice the In this region, the mathematical landscape exists- wherein concepts of
impact of these patterns in the persistence of our species to rightfully numbers, symbols, equations, operations calculations, abstractions, and
exist. proofs are the inhabitants as well as the constructs of the impenetrable
vastness of its unchartered territories.

In this landscape, a number is not simply a mathematical tree of counting.

THE ESSENTIAL ROLES OF MATHEMATICS Also, infinite variables can be encapsulate to finite.
Mathematics has countless hidden uses and applications.

It is not only something that delights our mind but it also allows us to learn Even those something that is hard to express in decimal form can be
and understand the natural order of the world. expressed in terms of fractions.
This discipline was and is often studied as a pure science but it also finds
Those things that seemed eternal ℤ can further be exploited using
its place in other areas of perpetuating knowledge.
mathematical operations.
Perhaps, science would definitely agree that, when it comes to discovering
This landscape claimed complex numbers as the firmament and even
and unveiling the truth behind the inherent secrets and occurrences of the
asserted that imaginary numbers also exist.
universe, nothing visual, verbal, or aural come close to matching the
accuracy, economy, power and elegance of mathematics. To the low state negative numbers relentlessly enjoying recognition as
existent beings.
Mathematics helps us to take the complex processes that is naturally
occurring in the world around us and it represents them by utilizing logic to The wind in this landscape is unpredictable that the rate of change of the
make things more organized and more efficient. rate of change of weather is known as calculus.
And beneath the surface of this mathematical landscape are firmly-woven It is done with curiosity, with a penchant for seeking patterns and
proofs, theorems, definitions, and axioms which are intricately “fertilized” generalities, with a desire to know the truth, with trial and error, and
by reasoning, analytical, critical thinking and germicide by mathematical without fear of facing more questions and problems to solve. (Vistru-Yu)
logic that made them precise, exact and powerful.

With this landscape, the mathematician's instinct and curiosity entice to

explore further the vast tranquil lakes of functions and impassable MATHEMATICS IS FOR EVERYONE
crevasse of the unchartered territories of abstract algebra. The relationship of the mathematical landscape in the human mind with the
For to claim ownership is to understand the ebb and flow of prime numbers. natural world is so strange that in the long run, the good math provides
utilization and usefulness in the order of things.
To predict the behavior of its Fibonacci weather, to be amazed with awe and
wonder the patternless chaos of fractal clouds, and to rediscover that after Perhaps, for most people, they simply need to know the basics of the
all, the numbers in mathematics is not a "thing" but a process. mathematical operations in order to survive daily tasks; but for the human
society to survive and for the human species to persistently exist, humanity
Conventionally, we are just simply made ourselves comfortable on the needs, beyond rudiment of mathematics.
“thingification” of those processes and we forgot that 1+1 is not a noun but a
verb. To safeguard our existence, we already have delegated the functions of
mathematics across all disciplines.

There is mathematics we call pure and applied, as there are scientists we

HOW MATHEMATICS IS DONE call social and natural.

Math is a way of thinking, and it is undeniably important to see how that

thinking is going to be developed rather than just merely see face value of
the results. There is mathematics for engineers to build, mathematics for commerce
and finance, mathematics for weather forecasting, mathematics that is
For some people, few math theorems can bring up as much remembered related to health, and mathematics to harness energy for utilization.
pain and anxiety.
To simply put it, everyone uses mathematics in different degrees and
For others, this discipline is so complex and they have to understand the levels.
confusing symbols, the difficult procedures, and the dreaded graphs and
charts. Everyone uses mathematics, whoever they are, wherever they are, and
whenever they need to.
For most, mathematics is just nothing but something to survive, rather than
to learn. From mathematicians to scientists, from professionals to ordinary people,
they all use mathematics. For mathematics puts order amidst disorder.

It helps us become better persons and helps make the world a better place
To the untrained eye, doing mathematics is quite difficult and challenging. to live in. (Vistru-Yu).

It is ambiguous, for it follows a set of patterns, formulas, and sequences

that make it more demanding to do and to learn.
THE IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING AND LEARNING MATHEMATICS
It is abstract and complex ---- and for these reasons, a lot of people adopt
the belief that they are not math people. Why do we want to observe and describe patterns and regularities?

Mathematics builds upon itself. Why do we want to understand the physical phenomena governing our
world?

Why do we want to dig out rules and structures that lie behind patterns of
More complex concepts are built upon simpler concepts, and if you do not the natural order?
have a strong grasp of the fundamental principles, then a more complex
problem is more likely going to stump you. It is because those rules and structures explain what is going on.

It is because they are beneficial in generating conclusions and in predicting

If you come across a mathematical problem that you cannot solve, the first
events.
thing to do is to identify the components or the operations that it wants you
to carry out, and everything follows. It is because they provide clues.
Doing and performing mathematics is not that simple.
The clues that make us realize that interference in the motion of heavenly With patterns, we can discover and understand new things; we learn to
bodies can predict lunar eclipse, solar eclipse as well as comets’ predict and ultimately control the future for our own advantage.
appearances.

That the position of the sun and the moon relative to the earth can predict
high tide and low tide events affecting human activities. A pattern is a structure, form, or design that is regular, consistent, or
recurring.
And that human activities need clues for the human culture to meaningfully
work. Patterns can be found in nature, in human-made designs, or in abstract
ideas.
Mathematical training is vital to decipher the clues provided by nature.
They occur in different contexts and various forms.
But the role of mathematics goes clues and it goes beyond prediction.
Because patterns are repetitive and duplicative, their underlying structure
regularities can be modelled mathematically.

Once we understand how the system works, our goal is to control it to make
it do what we want.
In general sense, any regularity that can be explained mathematically is a
We want to understand the mathematical pattern of a storm to avoid or pattern.
prevent catastrophes.
Thus, an investigation of nature’s patterns is an investigation of nature’s
We want to know the mathematical concept behind the contagion of the numbers.
virus to control its spread.
This means that the relationships can be observed, that logical connections
We want to understand the unpredictability of cancer cells to combat it can be established, that generalizations can be inferred, that future events
before it even exists. can be predicted, and that control can possibly be possible.

Finally, we want to understand the butterfly effect as much as we are so

curious to know why the “die” of the physical world play god.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF PATTERN

“Whatever the reasons, mathematics is a useful way to think about nature. As we look at the world around us, we can sense the orchestrating great
What does it want to tell us about the patterns we observe? There are many regularity and diversity of living and non-living things.
answers. We want to understand how they happen; to understand why they The symphonies vary from tiny to gigantic, from simple to complex, and
happen, which is different; to organize the underlying patterns and from dull to the bright.
regularities in the most satisfying way; to predict how nature will behave;
to control nature for our own ends; to make practical use of what we have The kaleidoscope of patterns is everywhere and they make the nature look
learned about our world. Mathematics helps us to do all these things, and only fascinating but also intriguing.
often, it is indispensable.“ [Stewart]
Paradoxically, it seemed that everything in the world follows a pattern of
their own and tamed by the same time pattern of their own.

Lesson 1.2 - THE MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD

1. Patterns of Visuals
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES  Visual patterns are often unpredictable, never quite
repeatable, and often contain fractals.
1. To develop one’s understanding about patterns;  These patterns are can be seen from the seeds and
2. To identify different patterns in nature;
pinecones to the branches and leaves.
3. To recognize different symmetries in nature; and
 They are also visible in self-similar replication of
4. To explain the presence of Fibonacci numbers in nature
trees, ferns, and plants throughout nature.

The mathematics in our world is rooted in patterns. 2. Patterns of Flow

Patterns are all around us.  The flow of liquids provides an inexhaustible supply of
nature’s patterns.
Finding and understanding patterns give us great power to play like god.  Patterns of flow are usually found in the water, stone,
and even in the growth of trees.
  There is also a flow pattern present in meandering  Likewise, ripple patterns and dunes are formed by
rivers with the repetition of undulating lines. sand wind as they pass over the sand.

3. Patterns of Rhythm 2. SPOTS AND STRIPES

 Rhythm is conceivably the most basic pattern in  We can see patterns like spots on the skin of a giraffe.
nature.  On the other hand, stripes are visible on the skin of a
 Our hearts and lungs follow a regular repeated zebra.
pattern of sounds or movement whose timing is  Patterns like spots and stripes that are commonly
adapted to our body’s needs. present in different organisms are results of a
 Many of nature’s rhythms are most likely similar to a reaction-diffusion system (Turing,1952).
heartbeat, while others are like breathing.  The size and the shape of the pattern depend on how
 The beating of the heart, as well as breathing, have a fast the chemicals diffuse and how strongly they
default pattern. interact.

4. Patterns of Texture 3. SPIRALS

 A texture is a quality of a certain object that we sense  The spiral patterns exist on the scale of the cosmos to
through touch. the minuscule forms of microscopic animals on earth.
 It exists as a literal surface that we can feel, see, and  The Milky Way that contains our Solar System is a
imagine. barred spiral galaxy with a band of bright stars
 Textures are of many kinds. It can be bristly, and emerging from the center running across the middle
rough, but it can also be smooth, cold, and hard. of it.
 Spiral patterns are also common and noticeable
among plants and some animals. Spirals appear in
5. Geometric Patterns many plants such as pinecones, pineapples, and
 A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern which sunflowers.
consists of a series of shapes that are typically  On the other hand, animals like ram and kudu also
repeated. have spiral patterns on their horns.
 These are regularities in the natural world that are
repeated in a predictable manner. Geometrical
patterns are usually visible on cacti and succulents. 4. SYMMETRIES
 In mathematics, if a figure can be folded or divided
into two with two halves which are the same, such
PATTERNS FOUND IN NATURE figure is called a symmetric figure.
 Symmetry has a vital role in pattern formation. It is
Common patterns appear in nature. used to classify and organize information about
patterns by classifying the motion or deformation of
Just like what we see when we look closely at plants, flowers, animals, and
both pattern structures and processes.
even at our bodies.
 There are many kinds of symmetry, and the most
These common patterns are all incorporated in many natural things. important ones are reflections, rotations, and
translations.
 These kinds of symmetries are less formally called
1. WAVES AND DUNES flips, turns, and slides.
 A wave is any form of disturbance that carries
energy as it moves. i. Reflection symmetry, sometimes called line
 Waves are of different kinds: mechanical waves symmetry or mirror symmetry, captures
which propagate through a medium ---- air or water, symmetries when the left half of a pattern is the
making it oscillate as waves pass by. same as the right half.
 Wind waves, on the other hand, are surface waves
that create the chaotic patterns of the sea.
 Similarly, water waves are created by energy passing
through water causing it to move in a circular motion.
 ii. Rotations  This kind of symmetry is created when a pattern is
repeated until it covers a plane.
Also known as rotational symmetry, captures  Beehives are made of walls with each side having
symmetries when it still looks the same after the same size enclosed with small hexagonal cells.
some rotation (of less than one full turn).
 Inside these cells, honey and pollen are stored and
The degree of rotational symmetry of an object bees are raised.
is recognized by the number of distinct
orientations in which it looks the same for each
rotation. 4. STARFISH
 Starfish have a radial fivefold symmetry.
 Each arm portion of the starfish is identical to each
iii. Translations of the other regions.

This is another type of symmetry.

FIBONACCI IN NATURE
Translational symmetry exists in patterns that
By learning about nature, it becomes gradually evident that the nature is
we see in nature and in man-made objects.
essentially mathematical.
Translations acquire symmetries when units are This is one of the reasons why explaining nature is dependent on
repeated and turn out having identical figures, mathematics.
like the bees’ honeycomb with hexagonal tiles.
Mathematics has the power to unveil the inherent beauty of the natural
world.

SYMMETRIES IN NATURE

From the structure of subatomic particles to that of the entire universe, In describing the amazing variety of phenomena in nature we stumble to
symmetry is present. discover the existence of Fibonacci numbers.

The presence of symmetries in nature does not only attract our visual It turns out that the Fibonacci numbers appear from the smallest up to the
sense, but also plays an integral and prominent role in the way our life biggest objects in the natural world.
works.
This presence of Fibonacci numbers in nature, which was once existed
realm mathematician’s curiously, is considered as one of the biggest
mysteries why the some patterns in nature is Fibonacci.
1. HUMAN BODY
 The human body is one of the pieces of evidence that But one thing is definitely made certain, and that what seemed solely
there is symmetry in nature. mathematical is also natural.
 Our body exhibits bilateral symmetry.
 It can be divided into two identical halves.
For instance, many flowers display figures adorned with numbers of petals
that are in the Fibonacci sequence.
2. SUNFLOWER
The classic five-petal flowers are said to be the most common among them.
 One of the most interesting things about a sunflower
is that it contains both radial and bilateral symmetry. These include the buttercup, columbine, and hibiscus.
 What appears to be "petals" in the outer ring are
actually small flowers also known as ray florets. Aside from those flowers with five petals, eight-petal flowers like clematis
 These small flowers are bilaterally symmetrical. On and delphinium also have the Fibonacci numbers, while ragwort and
the other hand, the dark inner ring of the sunflower marigold have thirteen.
is a cluster of radially symmetrical disk
florets.
These numbers are all Fibonacci numbers.

Apart from the counts of flower petals, the Fibonacci also occurs in nautilus
3. HONEYCOMBS shells with a logarithmic spiral growth.
 Honeycombs or beehives are examples of wallpaper
symmetry. Multiple Fibonacci spirals are also present in pineapples and red cabbages.
The patterns are all consistent and natural. 1. ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE
 It is a sequence of numbers that follows a definite
pattern.
Lesson 1.3 - THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE  To determine if the series of numbers follow an
arithmetic sequence, check the difference between
two consecutive terms.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES  If common difference is observed, then definitely
arithmetic sequence governed the pattern.
1. To define sequence and its types
 To clearly illustrate the arrangement, consider the
2. To differentiate Fibonacci sequence from other types of
example below:
sequence
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …
3. To discover golden ratio and golden rectangle; and
4. To learn how to compute for the nth term in the Fibonacci
2 2 2 2
Sequence
 Notice in the given example above, the common
difference between two consecutive terms in the
As we have discussed in the preceding lesson, human mind is capable of sequence is two.
identifying and organizing patterns.  The common difference is the clue that must be figure
We were also to realize that there are structures and patterns in nature out in a pattern in order to recognize it as an
that we don’t usually draw attention to. arithmetic sequence.

Likewise, we arrived at a position that in nature, some things follow

mathematical sequences and one of them follow the Fibonacci sequence. 2. GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
We noticed that these sequences is observable in some flower petals, on  If in the arithmetic sequence we need to check for the
the spirals of some shells and even on sunflower seeds. common difference, in geometric sequence we need
to look for the common ratio.
It is amazing to think that the Fibonacci sequence is dramatically present in  The illustrated in the example below, geometric
nature and it opens the door to understand seriously the nature of sequence is not as obvious as the arithmetic
sequence. sequence.
 All possibilities must be explored until some patterns
of uniformity can intelligently be struck.
 At first it may seemed like pattern less but only by
SEQUENCE
digging a little bit deeper that we can finally delve
Sequence refers to an ordered list of numbers called terms that may have the constancy.
repeated values. 2, 8, 32, 128, …
2 8 32
 That is , , , … generate 4, 4, 4, …
The arrangement of these terms is set by a definite rule. (Mathematics in 8 32 128

the Modern World, 14th Edition, Aufmann, RN. et al.).

Consider the given below example: 3. HARMONIC SEQUENCE

 In the sequence, the reciprocal of the terms behaved
1, 3, 5, 7, …
in a manner like arithmetic sequence.
(1stterm) (2nd term) (3rd term) (4th term)  Consider the example below and notice an interesting
pattern in the series.
The elements in the sequence are called terms.  With this pattern, the reciprocal appears like
It is called sequence because the list is ordered and it follows a certain arithmetic sequence.
kind of pattern that must be recognized in order to see the expanse.  Only in recognizing the appearance that we can
finally decode the sequencing the govern the series.
The three dots at the end of the visible patterns means that the sequence is
infinite.

There are different types of sequence and the most common are the
arithmetic sequence, geometric sequence, harmonic sequence, and
Fibonacci sequence.
4. FIBONACCI SEQUENCE  Let us try for example: What is the 5th Fibonacci
 This specific sequence was named after an Italian number? By using the formula we’ll get:
mathematician Leonardo Pisano Bigollo (1170 - 1250).
 He discovered the sequence while he was studying
rabbits.
 The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers The amazing grandeur of Fibonacci sequence was
governed by some unusual arithmetic rule. also discovered in the structure of Golden rectangle.
 The sequence is organized in a way a number can be The golden rectangle is made up of squares whose
obtained by adding the two previous numbers. sizes, surprisingly is also behaving similar to the
Fibonacci sequence. Take a serious look at the figure:

The Golden Ratio

 Notice that the number 2 is actually the sum of 1 and

1.
 Also the 5th term which is number 5 is based on
addition of the two previous terms 2, and 3.
 That is the kind of pattern being generated by the
Fibonacci sequence.  As we can see in the figure, there is no complexity in
 It is infinite in expanse and it was once purely forming a spiral with the use of the golden rectangle
maintained claim as a mathematical and mental starting from one of the sides of the first Fibonacci
exercise but later on, it was observed that the square going to the edges of each of the next squares.
ownership of this pattern was also being claimed by  This golden rectangle shows that the Fibonacci
some species of flowers, petals, pineapple, pine cone, sequence is not only about sequence of numbers of
cabbages and some shells. some sort but it is also a geometric sequence
observing a rectangle ratio.
 To explore a little bit more about the Fibonacci  The spiral line generated by the ratio is generously
sequence, the location of the term was conventionally scattered around from infinite to infinitesimal.
tagged as Fib (n).
 This means that Fib(1)=1, Fib(2)=1, Fib(3)=2 and Fib(4)=3.
 In this method, the Fib (n) is actually referring to the
nth term of the sequence. It is also possible to make
some sort of addition in this sequence. For instance:

Fib (2) + Fib (6) = _?

Fib (2) refers to the 2nd term in the sequence which is
“1”.
And Fib (6) refers to the 6th term which is “8”.
So, the answer to that equation is simply “9”

 Formula for computing for the nth term in the

Fibonacci Sequence

Or

Where:
𝑋𝑛 , 𝑓𝑛 – stands for the Fibonacci
number we’re looking for
𝑛 – stands for the position of the
number in the Fibonacci
sequence
𝛷 – stands for the value of the
golden ratio
Lesson 2.1 - CHARACTERISTICS AND CONVENTIONS IN THE MATHEMATICAL Did you know that mathematics is a language in itself? Since it is a
LANGUAGE language also, mathematics is very essential in communicating important
ideas. But most mathematical language is in a form of symbols. When we
say that “Five added by three is eight”, we could translate this
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
insymbolas“5+3=8.” Here, the first statement is in a form of group of words
1. Understand what mathematical languages. while the translation is in a form of symbol which has the same meaning
2. Name different characteristics of mathematics. and if your will be reading this, for sure all of you have a common
3. Compare and differentiate natural language into a mathematical understanding with this. But let us take a look at this mathematical
language and expressions into sentences. symbols:
4. Familiarize and name common symbols use in mathematical
expressions and sentences.
5. Translate a sentence into a mathematical symbol.
Did you understand what these symbols are?

This mathematical sentence is a complex idea; yet, it is contained and

Introduction tamed into a concise statement. It may sound or look Greek to some
because without any knowledge of the language in which the ideas are
Have you read about one of the story in the bible known as “The Tower of
expressed, the privilege to understand and appreciate its grandeur can
Babel?” This story is about constructing a tower in able to reach its top to
never be attained.
heaven; the Kingdom of God. At first, the construction of a tower is smoothly
being done since all of the workers have only one and only one language. Mathematics, being a language in itself, may appear complex and difficult
But God disrupted the work of the people by making their language to understand simply because it uses a different kind of alphabet and
different from each other. There were a language barrier and the people grammar structure. It uses a kind of language that has been historically
were confused what the other people are talking about resulting the tower proven effective in communicating and transmitting mathematical realities.
was never finished and the people were spread in all over and different
places of the earth.
The language of mathematics, like any other languages, can be learned;
once learned, it allows us to see fascinating things and provides us an
Based on the story, what was the most important thing that people should advantage to comprehend and exploit the beauty of beneath and beyond.
have in order to accomplish a certain task?
Hence, in able to understand better different topics in mathematics, it is
Yes, a "language”. very important that you must learn first on how to read and understand
different symbols in mathematics which used in mathematical language.
Language is one of the most important thing among the people because it
has an important role in communication.

But the question is, what is language? CHARACTERISTICSOFMATHEMATICALLANGUAGE

Why is it so important? The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of
thoughts that mathematicians like to express.
In this module, we will be discussing about mathematical relative on what
you have learned in your English subject. It is:

1. Precise (able to make very fine distinction)

2. Concise (able to say things briefly);and
Discussion
3. Powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative cases)
For sure you may be asked what the real meaning of a language is.

Perhaps you could say that language is the one we use in able to
VOCABULARY VS. SENTENCES
communicate with each other or this is one of your lessons in English or in
your Filipino subject. Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and its rules for combining
these words into complete thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is no
According to Cambridge English Dictionary, a language is a system of
exception. As a first step in discussing the mathematical language, we will
communication consisting of sounds, words and grammar, or the system of
make a very broad classification between the ‘nouns’ of mathematics (used
communication used by people in a particular country or type of work.
to name mathematical objects of interest) and the ‘sentences’ of
mathematics (which state complete mathematical thoughts)’

You must study the Mathematics Vocabulary!

Student must learn on how to use correctly the language of Mathematics, 4. 5+3=9
when and where to use and figuring out the incorrect uses.

Students must show the relationship or connections the mathematics

language with the natural language. Connectives

Students must look backward or study the history of Mathematics in order A question commonly encountered, when presenting the sentence example
to understand more deeply why Mathematics is important in their daily 1 + 2 = 3 is that;
lives. If = is the verb, then what is +?

The answer is the symbol + is what we called a connective which is used to

Importance of Mathematical Language connect objects of a given type to get a ‘compound’ object of the same type.
Here, the numbers 1 and 2 are connected to give the new number 1 + 2.
 Major contributor to overall comprehension
In English, this is the connector “and”. Cat is a noun, dog is a noun, cat and
 Vital for the development of Mathematics proficiency
dog is a ‘compound’ noun.
 Enables both the teacher and the students to communicate
mathematical knowledge with precision

Truth of Sentences
COMPARISON OF NATURAL LANGUAGE INTO MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE Sentences can be true or false. The notion of “truth” (i.e., the property of
being true or false) is a fundamental importance in the mathematical
English Mathematics
language; this will become apparent as you read the book.
Expressions
Name given
Noun such as person, place and
to an object
things and pronouns
of interest Conventions in Languages
Example: 2
a) Ernesto 3-2 Languages have conventions. In English, for example, it is conventional to
b) Batangas City 3x capitalize name (like Israel and Manila).
c) Book 3x + 2
This convention makes it easy for a reader to distinguish between a
d) He Ax + by + c
Sentence common noun (carol means Christmas song) and proper noun (Carol i.e.
It has a Group of words that express a name of a person).
complete statement, question or Mathematics also has its convention, which help readers distinguish
thought command.
between different types of mathematical expression.
Example:
a) Ernesto is a boy.
3+2=5
b) He lives in Batangas City
a+b=c Expression
c) Allan lovesto read book.
ax + by + c = 0
d) Run!
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy +y2 An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a
e) Do you love me?
correct arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a
mathematical object of interest.

EXPRESSIONS VERSUS SENTENCES An expression does NOT state a complete thought; in particular, it does not
make sense to ask if an expression is true or false.
Ideas regarding sentences a re-explored. Just as English sentences have
verbs, so do mathematical sentences. In the mathematical sentence;

3 + 4 =7 CONVENTIONS IN MATHEMATICS

The verb is =. If you read the sentence as ‘three plus four is equal to seven, Conventions in mathematics, some commonly used symbols, its meaning
the nit’s easy to hear the verb. Indeed, the equal sign = is one of the most and an example.
popular mathematical verb.

Example:

1. The capital of Philippines is Manila.

2. Rizal Park is in Cebu.
3. 5+3=8
 1. Sets and Logic since its use as a
variable*
SYMBOL NAME MEANING EXAMPLE Division sign; a, b 10 ÷ 5
Union of set A and ÷ or ∕
∪ Union AB divides b|a 5 | 10
set B Composition of
Intersection of set ∘ f of g of x f ∘ g(x)
∩ Intersection AABB function
A and set B a=a 5=5
Intersection of set = Equal sign
∈ Element xA a+b=b+a 3 +2 = 2 +3
A and set B ≠ Not equal to ab 3≠4
x is not an element > Greater than ab 10 > 5
∉ Not an element of xA
of set A < Less than ba 5 < 10
{} A set of… A set of an element {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}
Greater than or
⊂ Subset A is a subset of B AB ≥ ab 10 ≥ 5
equal to
A is not a subset of Less than or equal
⊄ Not a subset of AB ba 5 ≤ 10
B ≤
to
There are still ∗ Binary Operation ab a*b = a + 17b
a, b, c, …
… Ellipse other
a+b+c+,…
Items to follow
⋀ Conjunction A and B AB 3. Set of Numbers
⋁ Disjunction A or B AB
∼ Negation Not A A SYMBOL NAME MEANING EXAMPLE
Implies(If-then Natural
→ If A, then B AB numbers/who
statement)
↔ If and only if A if and only if B AB ℕ0 le numbers ℕ0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … } 0 ∈ ℕ0
∀ For all For all x x set (with
∃ There exist There exist an x zero)
∴ Therefore C Natural
| Such that x such that y x|y numbers/who
∎ End of proof Therefore C ℕ1 le numbers ℕ1 = {1, 2, 3 ,4, 5, … } 6 ∈ ℕ1
A is equivalent to B set(without
AB zero)
≡ Congruence/Equivalent a is congruent to b
a b mod n Integer
modulo n ℤ ℤ = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …} -6 ∈ ℤ
Variables numbers set
*First part of English Rational ℚ
ℚ 2/6 ∈ ℚ
Alphabet uses as fixed numbers set ={𝑥|𝑥 = 𝑎| b, a, b ∈ b ≠ 0}

a, b, c, variable* Real 6.343434

ℝ ℝ ={𝑥|−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞}
…, z *Middle part of English numbers set ∈ℝ
alphabet use as (a xo)p (5 x 2) 6 Complex ℂ 6+2i ∈
ℂ
(lower subscript and super numbers set ={𝑧|𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, −∞ < 𝑎 < ∞, −∞ < 𝑏 < ∞}
ℂ
case) script variable*
*Last part of an
TRANSLATING WORDS INTO SYMBOL
English alphabet uses
as unknown variable* Practical problems seldom, if ever, come in equation form. The job of the
problem solver is to translate the problem from phrases and statements
2. Basic Operations and Relational Symbols into mathematical expressions and equations, and then to solve the
equations.
SYMBOL NAME MEANING EXAMPLE
a plus b As problem solvers, our job is made simpler if we are able to translate
+ Addition; plus sign a added by b 3+2 verbal phrases to mathematical expressions and if we follow step in
a increased by b solving applied problems. To help us translate from words to symbols, we
a subtracted by b can use the Mathematics Dictionary.
Subtraction; minus
− a minus b 3−2
sign Examples:
a diminished by b
Multiplication sign 1. Twelve more than a number.
*we do not use x as Ans.: 12+x
⋅ a multiply by b
a symbol for
() a times b 2. Eight minus a number.
multiplication in
Ans.: 8−x
our discussion
3. An unknown quantity less fourteen.
 Ans.: x−14 a. A set of counting numbers from 1 to 5.
4. Six times a number is fifty-four. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Ans.: 6x=54 b. A set of English alphabet from a to d.
5. Two ninths of a number is eleven. B = {a, b, c, d}
Ans.: 2/9x=11 c. A set of all even positive integers.
6. Three more than seven times a number is nine more than five C = {2, 4, 6, 8, …}
times the number. d. A set of an integers.
Ans.: 3+7x=9+5x D = {…,-3,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
7. Twice a number less eight is equal to one more than three times
Now, if S is a set, the notation x ∈ S means that x is an element
the number.
of S. The notation x ∉ S means that x is not an element of S.
Ans.: 2x−8=3x+1 or 2x−8=1+3x
So, what is an element of a set?

Element of a set each number of the set is called an element and

Lesson 2.2 - FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS
the notation means that an item belongs to a set.

Illustration:
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Say A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
1. Define what a set and its basic terminologies. 1 ∈ A; 3 ∈ A; 5 ∈ A
2. Differentiate two ways in describing sets.
Is 6 is an element of set A? Since in a given set A above, we
3. Perform basic operations on set.
could not see six as an element of set A, thus we could say that;
4. Define what a relation and a function is.
6 is not an element of set A or 6 ∉ A.
5. Translate relation and function into a diagram.
6. Name and apply the different properties of a relation and
function.
7. Identify the domain and range in a relation and function. Terminologies
8. Evaluate a function.
1. Unit set is a set that contains only one element.
9. Define and perform a binary operation.
Illustration:
A = {1}; B = {c}; C = {banana}

INTRODUCTION 2. Empty set or Null set; ∅

In this lesson, it will be discussed the four basic concepts in mathematics Empty or null set is a set that has no element.
such as sets and its basic operation, the functions, relations and the binary Illustration:
operations. A={}
A set of seven yellow carabaos

3. Finite set is a set that the elements in a given set is

I. SETSAND SUBSETS
countable. Illustration:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} B= {a, b, c, d}
A. The Language of Sets

Use of the word “set” as a formal mathematical term was 4. Infinite set is a set that elements in a given set has no
introduced in1879 by Georg Cantor. For most mathematical end or not countable.
purposes we can think of a set intuitively, as Cantor did, simply Illustration: A set of counting numbers
as a collection of elements. A = {…-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}

So, by definition: 5. Cardinal number are numbers that used to measure the
number of elements in a given set. It is just similar in
A set is a collection of well-defined objects. Illustration:
counting the total number of element in a set.
A set of counting numbers from 1 to 10. Illustration:
A = {2, 4, 6, 8} n= 4
A set of an English alphabet from a toe. A set of even numbers B = {a, c, e} n= 3
A set of an integers.

Note: A set is denoted with braces or curly brackets { } and label

or name the set by a capital letter such as A, B, C, … etc.
 6. Equal set
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equal if and only if A subset is called a proper subset, A is a proper subset of B, if A
they have equal number of cardinality and the element/s ⊂ B and there is at least one element of b that is not in A:
are identical. There is a 1-1 correspondence.
Illustration: If x ⊂ A, then x ⊂ B and there is an element b such that b ∈ B
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {3, 5, 2, 4, 1} and b ∉ A.

7. Equivalent set Note 1: The empty set or { } has no elements and is a subset of
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equivalent if and every set for every set A, A ⊂ A.
only if they have the exact number of element. There is a
1–1 correspondence.
Illustration: The number of subsets of a given set is given by 2n, where n is
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {a, b, c, d, e} the number of elements of the given set.

Illustration:
8. Universal set is the set of all elements under discussion. How many subsets are there in a set A = {1, 2, 3}?
Illustration: A set of an English alphabet List down all the subsets of set A. Number of subsets = 2n = 23 = 8
U = {a, b, c, d,…, z} subsets
With one element With three elements
9. Joint Sets {1}; {2}; {3} {1,2,3}
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be joint sets if and only With two elements With no elements
if they have common element/s. {1,2}; {1,3}; {2,3} {}
A = {1, 2, 3} B = {2, 4, 6}
Here, sets A and B are joint set since they have common
element such as 2. C. ORDERED PAIR

10. Disjoint Sets Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be disjoint if and only if pair consisting of a and b together with the specification that “a”
they are mutually exclusive or if they don’t have common is the first element of the pair and “b” is the second element.
element/s.
A = {1, 2, 3} B = {4, 6, 8} Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if a = c and b = d.
Symbolically; (a, b) = (c, d) means that a= c and b = d

TWO WAYS OF DESCRIBING A SET

1. Roster or Tabular Method It is done by listing or Illustration:

tabulating the elements of the set. a) If (a, b) = (3, 2), what would be the value of a and b.
Here by definition that two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d)
2. Rule or Set-builder Method It is done by stating or are equal if a = c and b = d.
describing the common characteristics of the elements Hence, a = 3 and b = 2.
of the set. We use the notation A = {x/x…}
Illustration: b) Find x and y if (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, –2).
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Solution:
A = {x|x is a counting number from1 to 5} A = {x|x N, x<6} Since (4x +3, y) = (3x + 5, –2), so 4x + 3 = 3x + 5
B= {a,b,c, d,…,z } Solving for x, we got x = 2 and obviously y = –2.
B= {x|x English alphabet}
B= {x|x is an English alphabet}
D. OPERATION ON SETS

B. SUBSETS Sets can be combined in a number of different ways to produce

another set.
A subset A ⊆ B, means that every element of A is an element of Here are the basic operations on sets.
B. If x ∈ A, then x ∈ B. In particular, every set is a subset of
itself, A ⊆ A.
1. Union of Sets Illustration:
If A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b}, what is A x B?
The union of sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B is the set A x B = {(1,a),(1,b),(2,a),(2,b)}.
defined as: How many elements in a A x B?
AB = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
Example 1:
Example 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B= {a, b}.
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}, then Then A x B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}.
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Example 2:
Example 2: For the same A and B as in Example 1,
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}, then B x A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}.
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 4, 5}

E. VENN DIAGRAM
2. Intersection of Sets
A Venn diagram is an illustration of the relationships between
The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B is the and among sets, groups of objects that share something in
set defined as: A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B} common. Usually, Venn diagrams are used to depict set
intersections (denoted by an upside-down letter U).
Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}, then
A ∩ B = {1, 2} This type of diagram is used in scientific and engineering
Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}, then presentations, in theoretical mathematics, in computer
A∩B=∅ applications, and in statistics.

3. Difference of Sets

The difference of sets A from B, denoted by A-B is the set

A-B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∉ B}

Example 1:
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}, then A-B = {3}
Example 2:
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}, then A-B = {1, 2, 3}
Example 3:
If A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {a, c, e}, then A-B = {b, d} II. FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS

A. THE LANGUAGE OF RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

4. Compliment of Set
For a set A the difference U - A, where U is the universe, Sometimes, we asked ourselves that, “What is my
is called the complement of A and it is denoted by Ac. relationship with other people, with the environment and
Thus Ac is the set of everything that is not in A. most of all, with the God?”

Example: How strong is your relationship with your parents,

Let U = {a, e, i, o, u} and A = {a, e}, then Ac = {i, o, u} brother, sister, friends and even your teacher?

Are we related by blood?

5. Cartesian Product
Are we related through sharing a common ideas and
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, ideology?
denoted by A x B and read as “A cross B”, is the set of all
ordered pair (a, b) where a is in A and b is in B.
Symbolically:
A x B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
Also, we talked about relationship between student and mathematicians and logician C.S. Peirce in the nineteenth
teacher, a manager and the subordinates or even people century.
who share common religion, ethnic or culture.

How are we going to relate the word relation in What is a relation?

Mathematics?
1. A relation from set X to Y is the set of ordered
The objects of mathematics may be related in various pairs of real numbers (x, y) such that to each
ways. A set “A” maybe said to be related to a set “B” if A element x of the set X there corresponds at least
is a subset of B, or if A is not a subset of B, or if A and B one element of the set Y.
have at least one element in common. A number x maybe
said to be related to a number y if x<y, or if x is a factor 2. Let A and B sets. A relation R from A to B is a
of y, or if x2 + y2 = 1. subset of AxB. Given an ordered pair (x, y) in AxB,
x is related to y by R, written xR y, if and only if,
(x, y) is in R. The set A is called the domain of R
To be able to understand better what a relation is all and the set B is called its co-domain.
about more specifically if we talked about relation in
mathematics, let us have a simple illustration.
Notation:
Let A= {1,2,3} and B = {2,3, 4} and let us say that an The notation for a relation R maybe written symbolically
element x in A is related to an element y in B if and only as follows:
if, x is less than y and let us use the notation x R y as
translated mathematical term for the sentence “x is xR y meaning (x, y) ∈ R.
related to y.
The notation xR y means that x is not related to y by R;
Then, it follows that: xR y meaning (x, y) ∉ R.
1R2since 1< 2 2R3since 2< 3
1R3since 1< 3 2R4since 2< 4 Example:
1R4since 1< 4 3R4since 3<4. 1. Given a set of an ordered pairs:
Now, can we say that 1R1? Is 3R2? {(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1), (5, 0)}
The domain are x= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Recall the Cartesian product. What are the elements of 2. Let A= {1, 2} and B= {1, 2, 3} and define a
AxB? It is clearly stated AxB = {(1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,2), (2,3), relation R from A to B as follows: Given an
(2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)}. Here, the elements of some y∈(x, y)A x B, (x, y)∈R means that (x-y)/2 is an
ordered pairs in AxB are related, whereas the element of integer;
other ordered pairs are not. a. State explicitly which ordered pairs
are in A x B and which are in R.
What are the elements (ordered pair) in AxB, based on the b. Is 1R3? Is 2R3? Is 2R2?
given conditions that are related? Perhaps your answer c. What are the domain and the co-
would be: {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4),(3,4)} domain of R?

Solution:
Observe that knowing which ordered pairs lie in this set a. AxB = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)}.
is equivalent to knowing which elements are related to
which. To determine explicitly the composition
of R, examine each ordered pair in AxB to
The relation can be therefore be though to the totality of see whether its element satisfy the
ordered pairs whose elements are related by the given defining condition for R.
condition.
(1, 1) ∈ R because (1-1)/2=0/2=0, which is
The formal mathematical definition of relation, based on an integer.
this idea, was introduced by the American (1, 2) ∉ R because (1-2)/2=-1/2, which is
not an integer.
 (1, 3) ∈ R because (1-3)/2=(0-2)/2=-1,
which is an integer.
(2, 1) ∉ R because (2-1)/2=1/2, which is
not an integer.
(2, 2) ∈ R because (2-2)/2=0/2=0, which
is an integer. D. PROPERTIES OF A RELATION
(2, 3) ∉ R because (2-3)/2=-1/2, which is
not an integer. When a relation R is defined from a set A into the same
set A, the three properties are very useful such as
Thus, R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2)} reflexive, symmetric and the transitive.

b. Yes! 1R3 because (1, 3) ∈ R 1. Reflexive

No! 2R3 because (2, 3) ∉ R
Yes! 2R2 because (2, 2) ∈ R A relation R on A is said to be reflexive if every
element of A is related to itself. In notation, a R a
for all a ∈ A.
C. ARROW DIAGRAM OF A RELATION
Examples of reflexive relations include:
Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. The arrow  “is equal to” (equality)
diagram for R is obtained as follows:  “is a subset of” (set inclusion)

1. Represent the elements of A as a points in one An example of an on reflexive relation is the

region and the elements of B as points in relation "is the father of "on a set of people since
another region. no person is the father of them self.
2. For each x in A and y in B, draw an arrow from
x to y, and only if, x is related to y by R. When looking at an arrow diagram, a relation is
reflexive if every element of A has an arrow
Example: pointing to itself.
1. Draw an arrow from x to y
For example, the relation in a given figure below is
If and only if, xR y
If and only if, (x, y) R. a reflexive relation.
Given a relation {(1, 2),(0, 1),(3,4),(2,1),(0,−2)}.
Illustrate the given relation into an arrow
diagram.

2. Symmetric

A relation R on A is symmetric if given a R b then b

2. What is the domain and co-domain of an
R a.
example 1?
The domain are as follows: {0, 1, 2, 3}
For example, "is married to“ is a symmetric
The co-domain are as follows: {-2, 1, 2, 4}
relation, while, "is less than“ is not.
3. Let A= {1, 2, 3} and b= {1, 3, 5} and define
The relation "is the sister of“ is not symmetric on a
relations S and T from A to B as follows:
set that contains a brother and sister but would be
For all (x, y)∈ AxB, (x, y)∈ S means that x<y,
symmetric on a set of females. The arrow diagram
i.e., S is a “less than” relationship.
of a symmetric relation has the property that
whenever there is a directed arrow from a to b,
T= {(2, 1), (2, 5)}
there is also a directed arrow from b to a.
Solution:
AxB =
{(1,1),(1,3),(1,5),(2,1),(2,3),(2,5),(3,1),(3,3),(3,5)}.
It is given by x<y so S={(1,3),(1,5),(2,3),(2,5),(3,5)}
 3. Transitive A function F from a set A to a set B is a relation with
domain and co-domain B that satisfies the following two
A relation R on A is transitive if given a Rb and b properties:
Rc then a Rc. 1. For every element of x in A, there is an
element y in B such that (x, y)∈F.
Examples of reflexive relations include: 2. For all elements x in A and y and z in B. If (x,
 "is equal to"(equality) y)∈F, then y=z.
 "is a subset of“ (set inclusion)
 "is less than or equal to "and“ is greater These two properties; (1) and (2) can be stated less
than or equal to“ (inequality) formally as follows:
 "divides“ (divisibility). 1. Every element of A is the first element of an
ordered pair of F.
On the other hand, "is the mother of“ is not a 2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the
transitive relation, because if Maria is the mother same first element.
of Josefa, and Josefa is the mother of Juana, then
Maria is not the mother of Juana. Is a function a relation? Focus on the x-coordinates,
when given a relation.
The arrow diagram of a transitive relation has the
property that whenever there are directed arrows If the set of ordered pairs have different x-coordinates, it
from a to b and from b to c then there is also a is a function.
directed arrow from a to c:
Note:
a) Y-coordinates have no bearing in determining
functions
b) Function is a relation but relation could not be
said as function.
A relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive is called an equivalence relation on A.
Example 1: Determine if the following is a function or not
a function.
Examples of equivalence relations include:
1. {(0,-5),(1,-4),(2, -3),(3,-2),(4, -1),(5,0)}
 The equality ("=") relation between real
2. {(-1,-7),(1,0),(2, -3),(0,-8),(0,5),(-2,-1)}
numbers or sets.
3. 2x+ 3y–1=0
 The relation "is similar to“ on the set of
4. x2+y2=1
all triangles.
5. y2=x+ 1
 The relation "has the same birthday
as“ on the set of all human beings.
Example 2.Which of the following mapping represent a
function?
On the other hand, the relation “ “ is not an
equivalence relation on the set of all subsets of a
set A since this relation is not symmetric.

1 2
E. A WHATIS A FUNCTION?

A function is a relation in which every input is paired Function Notations:

with exactly one output. A function from set X to Y is the
The symbol f(x) means function of x and it is read as “f of
set of ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) in which no
x.” Thus, the equation y = 2x + 1 could be written in a form
two distinct ordered pairs have the same first
off (x) = 2x +1 meaning y = f(x). It can be stated that y is a
component. Similar to a relation, the values of x is called
function of x.
the domain of the function and the set of all resulting
value of y is called the range or co-domain of the Let us say we have a function in a form of f(x) = 3x – 1. If
function. we replace x = 1, this could be written as f(1) = 3(1) – 1.
The notation f(1) only means that we substitute the value
of x = 1resulting the function value.
Thus, f(x) = 3x – 1; let x = 1 III. BINARY OPERATION
f(1) = 3(1) – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2. A binary operation on a set G, then, is simply a method (or
Another illustration is given a function formula) by which the members of an ordered pair from G
g(x) = x2 – 3 and let x = -2, then g(-2) = (-2)2 – 3 = 1 combine to yield a new member of G. This condition is called
closure. The most familiar binary operations are ordinary
addition, subtraction, and multiplication of integers. Division of
Operations on Functions integers is not a binary operation on the integers be cause an
integer divided by an integer need not bean integer.
The following are definitions on the operations on
functions.

a. The sum or difference of f and g, denoted by f ± g

is the function defined by (f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x).
b. The product off and g, denoted by fg is the
Definition of Binary Operations
function defined by
(fg)(x) = f(x)·g(x).
Let G be a non-empty set. An operation *on G is said to be a
c. The quotient of f and g denoted by f/g is the
binary operation on G if for every pair of elements, a, b is in G
function defined by
that is a, b∈G; the product a*b∈G.
f(x)/g(x), where g(x) is not equal to zero.
d. The composite function of f and g denoted by fοg
Note: For each (a,b)∈G, we assign an element a *b of G.
is the function defined by (fοg)(x) = f(g(x)).

Illustrative examples:
Similarly, the composite function of g by f,
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.
denoted by gοf, is the function defined by
( gοf)(x) =g(f(x)).
1) G ∈ Z define a*b = a + b (usual addition on Z)
Solution:
Let a ∈ Z and b ∈ Z. If we add a and b, then the sum a + b
Examples:
∈ Z.
Hence, …
1. If f(x) = 2x+ 1andg(x) = 3x+2, what is (f+g)(x)?
Solution: (f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
= (2x+ 1) + (3x+2) 2) G ∈ Z define a*b = ab (usual multiplication on Z)
= 2x+ 3x+ 1+2 Solution:
= 5x+ 3 Let a, b ∈ Z. Then the product of a and b, that is ab ∈ Z.
Hence, a*b = ab is a binary operation.
2. What is (f • g)(x) if f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) =3x+ 2?
Solution: (f • g)(x) = f(x) • g(x) 3) G ∈ R +, defined by a*b = a + 17b
= (2x+ 1)(3x+ 2) Solution:
= 6x2+ 7x+ 2 Let a, b ∈ R +. If we take the sum of a + 17b ∈ R +.
Hence, it is a binary operation.
3. What is (f/g)(x) id=f f(x) = 2a + 6b and g(x) = a + 3b?
Solution: (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(X) 4) G ∈ Z +, defined *by a*b = a-b for all set a, b ∈ Z +.
= 2a+ 6b/a+ 3b Solution:
= [2(a+3b)]/[a+3b] If a>b=a-b>0∈Z+
If a<b=a-b<0∉Z+
4. If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (g∘f)(x)? Therefore, *is NOT a binary operation.
Solution: (g∘f)(x) = g(f(x))
= g(2x+1) 5) G ∈ R, defined by a*b = ab
= 3(2x+1)+2 To be able to determine if the above statement is a binary
= 6x+3+2 operation or not, we need to have a counter example.
= 6x+5 If a=0 and b=0, then ab, does not exist, hence it is not an
R = {(x, y)|y = x + 6/x; ehere x, y ∈N, x<6} element of R
If a=-4 and b=1/2, then ab would be an element of a
complex number C, so ab∉R.
 6) G ∈ Z/{-1}, defined *by a*b = a + b + ab for all set a,b ∈ Z. Solution:
Solution: Let a*b = ab/2.
Let a, b ∈ Z except -1, then a>-1 and b>-1 and a<-1 and We need to show that a*b= b*a. In b*a = ba/2. But by
b<-1. If a*b = a + b + ab, it follows that a*b = a + b + ab ∈ Z commutative properties under multiplication, that is ab =
since in both case such … ba, then it follows that b*a = ab/2. Hence, a*b= b*a

CLOSED Definition:
Let be a binary operation of a set S. Then;
Definition: A set is “closed” under operation if the operation (a) Is associative if for all a, b, c∈S, (ab)c = a(bc)
assigns to every ordered pair of elements from the set an (b) Is commutative if for all a, b∈S, ab = ba
element of the set. (c) An element e∈S is called a left identity element if
for all a∈S, we have ea = a
(d) An element e∈S is called a right identity element if
Illustrative examples: for all a ∈S, we have ae = a
(e) An element e∈S is called an identity element if for
1) Is S = {±1,±3,±5,±7,…} is closed under usual addition? all a∈S, we have ae + a and ea = a
Solution: (f) Let e be an identity element is S and a∈S, then b is
By giving a counter example, S = {±1,±3,±5,±7,…} is NOT called an inverse of the …
closed under usual addition. Why? Let us say we are
going to a1and 3.The sum of 1and 3 is 4 where 4 is not an
element of S. Hence, it is not closed.
Example:
2) Let + and ⋅ be usual binary operations of addition and Let S = Z+ as define on S by ab = a + b – ab, Show the
multiplication of Z and let H = {n2|n ∈ Z+}. Is H closed associativity and the communitativity of S in a binary
under addition? Under multiplication? Solution: operation. Find also its identity and inverse if any.
a. To be able to determine if H is closed under
addition, we need to have a counter-example. (a) Associativity
Let us take two elements in Z, say 1 and 4. If Let a, b c ∈ Z+. Then; (ab)c = a(bc)
we are going to add this two numbers, the
result would be 5 and obviously, 5 ∈ n2 or 5 is For (a b)c (a b) c = (a + b –ab) + c-(a + b-ab)c = a + b+
not a perfect square. Hence, H is not closed c-ab- ac –bc + abc
under addition. For a (bc)a (bc) = a (b+ c –bc) = a + (b+ c-bc)-(a)(b+ c-
b. Let r ∈ H and s ∈ H. Using H x H ∈(r,s) = r⋅s. bc) = a + b+ c-bc –ab-ac+ abc
Since r∈H and s∈H, that means there must be
an integers n and m ∈ Z + such that r = n2 and (b) Commutative a*b = b*a
s = m2. So; (r, s) = r⋅s = n2⋅m2 = (nm)2 and n, m ∈ a + b – ab = b + a – ba
Z+. It follows that nm ∈ Z+, then (nm)2 ∈ H. a + b –ab = a + b – ab
Hence, H is closed under multiplication. Hence is commutative on S∈Z+.

Example: (c) Identity a *e = a e *a = a

a + e – ae = a e + a –ea = a
Consider the binary operation ∗on R given by x∗y = x+ y − e –ae = a –a e –ea = a-a
3. (x∗y)∗z = (x + y − 3)∗z = (x + y − 3) + z − 3 = x + y + z − e(1 –a) = 0 e(1-a) = 0
6, x∗(y∗z) = x∗(y+ z − 3) =x+ (y+ z − 3) −3= x+ y+ z −6. e=0 e=0

Therefore, ∗is associative. Since x∗y = x + y − 3 = y + x − Example:

3 = y∗x, ∗ is commutative.
Let S = Z+ as define* on S by a*b = a2 + ab + b2. Is the
Example: operation* associative? Commutative? What is its
identity? What is its inverse?
Consider the binary operation *on R given by a*b = ab/2.
(a) Commutative a*b = b*a
Show that a*b = b*c.
a2+ ab +b2 = b2+ ba + a2
a2+ ab +b2 = a2+ ab + b2
Hence, the operation * is commutative.
 (b) Associative (a*b)*c = a*(b*c) On this module, we will studying the fundamental concept of logic but
(a2+ab+b2)*c = a*(b2+bc+c2) basically logic as mathematical language.
since in both case such …

WHAT IS LOGIC?
Cayley Tables
In this particular module, we are going to talk about logic as a
A (binary) operation on a finite set can be represented by a table. mathematical language but a deeper discussion logic as a science as well
This is a square grid with one row and one column for each as its application will be tackled in lesson 6.
element in the set. The grid is filled in so that the element in the
row belonging to x and the column belonging to y is x*y. It is very essential to understand better what logic is as a language.

A binary operation on a finite set (a set with a limited number of But first, let us have a definition in logic. In your social science courses,
elements) is often displayed in a table that demonstrates how logic could define as the study of the principles of correct reasoning and it
the operation is performed. is not a psychology of reasoning.

Example: Based on the definition which is logic is the study of the principle of correct
reasoning, one of the principles in logic that is very much important to
The table below is a table for a binary operation on the set {a, b, study is on how to determine the validity of one’s argument.
c, d}
Studying mathematics is also studying theorems.
* a b C d
The proof of the theorem uses the principle of arguments in logic.
a a b C d
b b c D a So, in this case, we could say actually that the language of mathematics is
c c f A b logic.
d d a B c
In short, mathematical statement is also a grammar.
a. Is the * commutative?
b. Is the * associative?
c. What is its identity? In English, when we construct a sentence or sentences, we always check if
it is grammatically correct but in Mathematics, we check mathematical
statement or sentence in a logical structure.
Lesson 2.3 - LOGIC AND FORMALITY
Wherever you go, we have a common language in mathematics.

In order not to conflict with in an English word, we use appropriate symbols

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
in mathematics so that there will no ambiguity on how to communicate as
1. Define what logic is. to the meaning of a mathematical expression or even in mathematical
2. Tell whether the statement is formal or non-formal. sentences.
3. Show the relationship between grammar in English and logic in
Mathematics.
FORMALITY

As stated by Heylighen F and Dewaele J-M in the “Formality of Language:

INTRODUCTION
Definition and Measurement”, an expression is completely formal when it is
What comes first in your mind when we speak about logic? Do you have any context-independent and precise (i.e. non-fuzzy), that is, it represents a
idea what logic is all about? clear distinction which is in variant under changes of context. In
mathematics, we are always dealing in a formal way.
Could we say that if a person thinks correctly, then he has logic?

Perhaps until now, there are some people arguing whether a logic is an art
or it is a science. Suppose that somebody asked you that the result of adding 5 to 3 is 8 or let
us say that if a variable x is an even number then the square of this
Now, whether it is an art or a science, studying logic could be very variable x would be also an even number, you would agree that both
important not only in the field of mathematics but in other sciences such as mathematical sentences or statements are true and there is no reason for
natural science and social science. you to doubt.
Those two examples statements are precise and it is also an independent.  You will encounter this word in all books of
mathematics especially if it is pure mathematics.
These are the two characteristics in mathematics that the statement must  In your algebra subject during your high school days,
have to say the mathematical sentence is in a formal manner. have you studied different laws and principles in
Speaking of statement, statement is the main component of logic in mathematics?
mathematics.  These are just really theorems that proven true and
justified using the concept of mathematical logic and
all you need to do is to apply those laws and principles,
isn’t it?
When we say mathematical logic, it is a statements about mathematical
objects that are taken seriously as mathematical objects in their own right.

More generally, in mathematical logic we formalize, that is, we formulate in  But what does theorem means?
a precise mathematical way its definition, theorem, lemma, conjecture,  A theorem is a statement that can be demonstrated to
corollary, propositions and the methods of proof which will be discussed in be true by accepted mathematical operations and
our next lesson. arguments.
 In general, a theorem is an embodiment of some
general principle that makes it part of a larger theory.
These are the major part of formality in mathematics.  The process of showing a theorem to be correct is
called a proof.
a) Definition  An example of a theorem that we all know is the
Pythagorean Theorem.
 One of the major parts of formality in mathematics is  This is a very well-known theorem in mathematics.
the definition itself. When we say definition, it is a
formal statement of the meaning of a word or group of
words and it could stand alone.
 The theorem stated that the square of the hypotenuse
 Example of this is a definition of a right triangle.
of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of
 What is the exact or formal definition of this?
the other two sides. If the hypotenuse (the side
opposite the right angle, or the long side) is called c
 A right triangle consists of two legs and a hypotenuse.
and the other two sides are a and b, then this theorem
The two legs meet at a 90° angle and the hypotenuse is
with the formula a2+b2 = c2.
the longest side of the right triangle and is the side
 You will notice that the theorem is precise in a form of
opposite the right angle. Here, you will see the
if-then statement.
exactness and the precision of the definition of a right
 The if-then statement is one of the statements in logic.
triangle.
 So, a statement could not be considered theorem
 Now suppose we are going to define “carabao”. Can you
unless it was proven true using mathematical logic.
give a definition for this?
 Maybe, some of you will define a carabao is a black
and strong animal helps the farmer in plowing the rice
field. c) Proof

 But, have you noticed that this is not a formal  To be able to say that a theorem is true, it should be
definition? undergo on the process of proving. But what do we
 How about the cow and the horse? mean by proof or a mathematical proof. Proof is a
 These are also an animal that could also help the rigorous mathematical argument which unequivocally
farmers in plowing the field. How about the machine demonstrates the truth of a given proposition.
tractor? Are we not consider this machine that could  The different methods on proof are as follows:
possibly help our farmers in plowing the rice field? 1. Deductive 4. Indirect Proof
 So, we cannot say that is a formal definition since it 2. Inductive 5. Proof by Counterexample
cannot stand alone. 3. Direct Proof 6. Proof by Contradiction
 All of these methods of proof are written together with
the correct mathematical logic and precise. Discussion
and illustrative examples on these different methods
b) Theorem
of proof will be tackled in lesson3.
 Another statement that could we consider as a formal
statement is the theorem.
d) Proposition two statements by the word “or” the new
combined statement is “Life is beautiful or
 When we say proposition, it is a declarative statement life is challenging.”
that is true or false but not both.
 This statement is another major part of formality since
all types of proposition are precise and concise. 4. Conditional

 The fourth type of proposition is that what

Different propositions that can be also said as logical we called conditional.
connectives are as follows:  To be able to easily identify that the
proposition is in a form of conditional
1. Negation
statement, you will notice of the word “If-
 How does the statement translate into its
then”.
negation? Say, given any statement P, another
 Most of mathematical definition is in a form
statement called the negation of P can be of this statement.
formed by writing “It is false that…” before P,  So, in other words, it is state that a true
or if possible, by inserting in P the word “not”. statement cannot imply a false statement.
 For example, the given statement is “Roderick  In this proposition, the first statement would
attends Mathematics class”. Translating this be a premise and the second statement is
into its negation, the new statement would be the conclusion.
“Roderick will not attend Mathematics class”  Let us have an example for this. Say the
or it could be “It is false that Roderick attends premise is “If x is positive, then its square is
Mathematics class”. also positive.” We can show the proposition
is true with the use of one of the methods of
proving.
2. Conjunction

 Another logical connective is what we 5. Bi-conditional

called conjunction. If two statements are
combined by the word “and”, then the  The last type of proposition is the bi-
proposition is called conjunction. In other conditional. Its uses a connector for two
words, any two statements can be combined statements “if an only if”.
by the word “and” to form a composite
 If your statement is in this form, then your
statement which is called the conjunction of
statement is called bi-conditional.
the original statements.
 Here is one of the examples of a bi-
 An example for this is, let us say the first
conditional statement. Let us say our first
statement is “Ernesto is handsome” and the statement is “I will attend mass.”
second statement is “Ernesto is rich”. The  The second statement is “Tomorrow is
new statement after connecting this two Sunday.” So, the new statement using bi-
statements by the word “and”, this would conditional statement would be “I will
become “Ernesto is handsome and Ernesto is attend mass if and only if tomorrow is
rich market”. Sunday.”
 Now, supposedly our statement goes like
this. “Let’s go!” Can we considered this as a
3. Disjunction precise formal statement?
 Perhaps you will be saying no since you may
 Disjunction is another form of proposition. be asking;
 Any two statements can be combined by the  Who will be my companion?
word “or” to form a new statement which is  What time are we going to go?
called the disjunction of the original two  Where will we go?
statements.  This statement is not precise hence it is not
 Let us have an example for this kind of formal.
proposition. Say, the first statement is “Life  All of these statements can be transformed
is beautiful” while the second statement is into symbols.
“Life is challenging”. Now, combining these
  More details and specific lesson about this counter example we found at least one that says the
will be tackled lesson 6. statement is false.
 Let us say we have 75 different balls in a bingo urn
labelled as1–75. What will be our conjecture? We could
e) Corollary say that “All number in an urn is a counting number
from1 to 75.
 What is corollary?  Based on the previous discussion, you will observe that
 When we say corollary in mathematics, it is also a all of these statement follows the characteristics of
proposition that follows with little or no proof required mathematics and that is they are all precise and
from one already proven. independent.
 An example of this is it is a theorem in geometry that
the angles opposite two congruent sides of a triangle
are also congruent. A corollary to that statement is
that an equilateral triangle is also equiangular.

f) Lemma

 Another formal statement is a lemma and it can also

be considered as a theorem.
 The only difference of a lemma into a theorem is that
lemma is a short theorem used in proving a larger
theorem.
 As we all know that a theorem is a precise statement
since it was proved to be true with the use of
mathematical logic.
 So, it is precise. If lemma is a shorter version of a
larger theorem and theorem is a precise statement, we
could say that a lemma is also a precise statement.

 Let us have a concrete presentation for a lemma. Let

us say the theorem stated that “Let f be a function
whose derivative exists in every point, then f is a
continuous function.”
 Then another theorem about Pythagorean and this
theorem is about right triangles that can be
summarized in an equation x2+y2 = z2.
 The consequence on the previous theorem is stated in
a corollary which is “There is no right triangle whose
sides measure 3cm, 4cm and 6cm. Now, we can more
simplify our given theorem in a form of “Given two line
segments whose lengths are a and b respectively,
there is a real number r such that b = ra”.

g) Conjecture

 A proposition which is consistent with known data, but

has neither been verified nor shown to be false.
 It is synonymous or identical with hypothesis also
known as educated guess. We can only disproved the
truthfulness of a conjecture when after using a
Lesson 3.1 - INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING counter- example. Definition for counter example will be discussed on the
latter part of our lecture.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES Let us have some examples on how to deal with this kind of reasoning.

1. Define inductive and deductive reasoning.

2. Differentiate inductive reasoning from deductive reasoning.
3. Demonstrate the correct way in using the two kinds of reasoning. Examples:
4. Apply the concept of patterns in mathematics to solve problems 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of
in inductive and deductive reasoning which lead into correct the following list: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
conjecture by creating their own reasoning.
Explanation:
The given sequence of number is clearly seen that each
INTRODUCTION successive number is three (3) larger than the preceding
number, which is if the first number is increased by 3 the result
In mathematics, sometimes we need to use inductive and deductive is 6. Now, when this 6 is increased by 3 the next number would
reasoning to be able to solve some practical problems that we may be 9. If we are going to continue the process, if 15 is increased by
encounter in our daily lives. During your senior high school, your teacher
3 then the next number would be18. Hence the required number
taught you on how to solve problems in a most scientific way and there are
is 18.
steps to be followed in order to solve problems in a particular math subject,
specifically in Algebra.
2. Write a conjecture that describe the pattern 2, 4, 12, 48, 240.
Some of these problems are the number problem, age problem, coin Then use the conjecture to find the next item in the sequence.
problem, work problem, mixture problem, etc.
Step1. Look for a pattern 2, 4, 12, 48, 240…?
In this module, we will be studying on how to solve problems in a different Step2. Analyze what is happening in the given pattern. The
way. We will be using what we called an inductive and deductive reasoning numbers are multiplied by 2, then 3, then 4, then 5. The next
way. But before we give an example on how to use this method, let us number will be the product of 240 times 6 or 1,140.
define first what inductive and deductive reasoning. Step3: Make a conjecture

Now, the answer is 1,140.

INDUCTIVE REASONING
3. Write a conjecture that describes the pattern shown below. How
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of many segments could be formed on the fifth figure?
specific examples is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by
using inductive reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it may or may
not be correct or in other words, it is a concluding statement that is
reached using inductive reasoning.
Step1. Look for a pattern 3-segments, 9-segments, 18-segments
Inductive reasoning uses a set of specific observations to reach an Step2. Analyze what is happening in the given pattern.
overarching conclusion or it is the process of recognizing or observing
patterns and drawing a conclusion.

So in short, inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general

conclusion by examining specific examples. This could be written in a form of: (3)(2), (3)(3), (3)(4), (3)(5)
The figure will increase by the next multiple of 3. If we add 15,
Take note that inductive reasoning does not guarantee a true result, it only the next or the fifth figure is made of 45 segments.
provides a means of making a conjecture. Step3. Make a conjecture. Hence the fifth figure will have 45
segments.
Based on the given definition above, we could illustrate this by means of a
diagram.
APPLICATION OF INDUCTIVE REASONING
(USING INDUCTIVE REASONING TO SOLVE A PROBLEM)

Inductive reasoning is very essential to solve some practical problems that

Also, in inductive reasoning, we use the “then” and “now” approach. The you may encounter. With the use of inductive reasoning, we can easily
“then” idea is to use the data to find pattern and make a prediction and the predict a solution or an answer of a certain problem.
“now” idea is to make a conjecture base on the inductive reasoning or find a
Here, we can see an illustrative examples on how to solve a certain
problem using inductive reasoning.

So, if each subsequent square increases by four, we could say

Example 1. that the 5th, 6th, 10th, and the15th figure should have 20, 24, 40
and 60 squares respectively. Hence, the complete table would
Use the data below and with the use of inductive reasoning, answer each of
be;
the following questions:

1. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its

period?
2. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what
happens to its period? Example 3.
Note: The period of a pendulum is the time it takes for the pendulum to Two stamps are to be torn from the sheet shown below. The four stamps
swing from left to right and back to its original position. must be intact so that each stamp is joined to another stamp along at least
one edge.

Solution:
What would be the possible patterns for these four stamps after the two
1. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root
stamps were torn?
of its length.
Thus, we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 49 units Solution:
will have a period of 7 heart beats.
2. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period 1. The first possible pattern is if we tear the two right most stamps
that is twice that of pendulum with a length of 1unit. A as shown below.
pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is twice that
of pendulum with a length of 4units. It appears that quadrupling
the length of a pendulum doubles its period.

2. Next is if we tear the two stamps on the lower right portion as

Example 2. shown below.

The diagram below shows a series of squares formed by small square tiles.
Complete the table below.

3. Then, the next possible pattern if we tear the lower right most
and left most stamp as shown below.

Let us make a table.

4. Also, if we tear the upper rightmost and upper leftmost stamp

could be another possible pattern as shown below.
Solution:

1. Based on the given figures from the first up to fourth, we need to

observe and analyze what is really happening in the said figures.
2. Next, take a look if there is a pattern. Is there any pattern that
you may observe? If so, what it is? For sure you could say that
from the first figure, each subsequent square increases by four
(4) tiles. How? Let us take a look at this.
 5. Next possible pattern is if we tear the two upper rightmost
stamps as shown below.

6. Then, it could be followed two stamps to be torn on the lower

leftmost as shown below.

Example1.

7. Next is the two stamps at the upper rightmost as shown below. First Premise: All positive counting numbers whose unit digit is divisible
by two are even numbers.

Second Premise: A positive counting number 1,236 has a unit digit of 6

which is divisible by two.

Conclusion: Therefore, 1,236 is an even number.

8. The eight possible pattern is if we tear one stamp at the upper
leftmost and one stamp at the lower rightmost as shown.

Example2.

First Premise: If the Department of Education strictly observed health

conditions of the students due toCovid19, then there is no face-to-face
9. Lastly, if we tear one stamp at the upper rightmost and another teaching and learning activity in a classroom.
one stamp on the lower leftmost as shown.
Second Premise: The Philippines is currently experiencing Covid 19
pandemic.

Conclusion: Therefore, there will be no face-to-face teaching and learning

style in a classroom.
10. Hence, below are the different possible pattern based on the
given question above.

Lesson 3.2 - INTUITION, PROOF AND CERTAINTY

DEDUCTIVE REASONING SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. It is a basic form of 1. Define and differentiate intuition, proof and certainty.
valid reasoning starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and 2. Make use of intuition to solve problem.
examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. So, we 3. Name and prove some mathematical statement with the use of
could say also that this kind of reasoning works from the more general to different kinds of proving.
the more specific.

INTRODUCTION
By definition, deductive reasoning is the process of reaching specific
Sometimes, we tried to solve problem or problems in mathematics even
conclusion by applying general ideas or assumptions, procedure or
without using any mathematical computation and we just simply observed,
principle or it is a process of reasoning logically from given statement to a
example a pattern to be able on how to deal with the problem and with this,
conclusion.
we can come up with our decision with the use of our intuition. On the other
The concept of deductive reasoning is often expressed visually using a hand, we use another method to solve problems in mathematics to come up
funnel that narrows a general idea into a specific conclusion.
with a correct conclusion or conjecture with the help of different types of The upper yellow line looks longer because of the converging sides of a
proving where proofs is an example of certainty. railway.

The farther the line, it seems look line longer that the other yellow line
below.
INTUITION
Now, have you tried to use a ruler?
There are a lot of definition of an intuition and one of these is that it is an
immediate understanding or knowing something without reasoning. It does What have you noticed?
not require a big picture or full understanding of the problem, as it uses a
lot of small pieces of abstract information that you have in your memory to
create a reasoning leading to your decision just from the limited PROOF AND CERTAINTY
information you have about the problem in hand. Intuition comes from
noticing, thinking and questioning. Another equally important lesson that the student should be learned is on
how to deal with mathematical proof and certainty. By definition, a proof is
an inferential argument for a mathematical statement while proofs are an
example of mathematical logical certainty.
As a student, you can build and improve your intuition by doing the
following: A mathematical proof is a list of statements in which every statement is
a. Be observant and see things visually towards with your critical one of the following:
thinking. (1) An axiom
b. Make your own manipulation on the things that you have noticed (2) Derived from previous statements by a rule of inference
and observed. (3) A previously derived theorem
c. Do the right thinking and make a connections with it before doing
the solution. There is a hierarchy of terminology that gives opinions about the
importance of derived truths:

(4) A proposition is a theorem of lesser generality or of lesser

Illustration importance.
(5) A lemma is a theorem whose importance is mainly as a key step
in something deemed to be of greater significance.
(6) A corollary is a consequence of a theorem, usually one whose
proof is much easier than that of the theorem itself.

METHODS OF PROOF
What are you going to do to be able to answer the question? Your own In methods of proof, basically we need or we have to prove an existing
intuition could help you to answer the question correctly and come up with mathematical theorem to be able to determine if this theorem is true or
a correct conclusion. false. In addition, there is no need to prove any mathematical definition
simply because we assumed that this is already true or this is basically
For sure, the first thing that you are going to do is to make a keen
true. Usually, a theorem is in the form of if-then statement. So, in a certain
observation in the figure and you will be asking yourself (starting to
theorem, it consists of hypothesis and conclusion.
process your critical thinking) which of these two yellow lines is longer
compare to other line or is it really the yellow line above is more longer Let us say P and Q are two propositions. In an if-then statement, proposition
than the yellow line below? P would be the hypothesis while the proposition Q would be our conclusion
denoted by: PQ
But what would be the correct explanation?
Example:
If you will be observing these two yellow lines, your mind tells you that
upper yellow line looks longer that the below yellow line. If a triangle is a right triangle with sides a, b, and c as hypotenuse, then a2
+ b2 = c2.
But in reality, the two lines has equal length.
There are two ways on how to present a proof. One is with the use of an
For sure, you will be using a ruler to be able to determine which of the two
outline form and the other one is in a paragraph form. Either of the two
is longer than the other one.
presentations could be used by the student.
The exact reasoning could goes like this.
TWO WAYS ON HOW TO PRESENT THE PROOF Example 1.

Prove that if x is an even integer, then x2–6x+5 is odd.

a. Outline Form Proof: (by outline form)

Proposition: If P then Q.
1. Suppose/Assume P 1. Assume that x is an even integer.
2. Statement 2. By definition of an even integer, x=2a for some aZ.
3. Statement . . . Statement therefore Q. 3. So, x2–6x+5=(2a)2–6(2a)+5=4a2–12a+4+1=2(2a2–6a+2)+1
where 2a2–6a+2k.
b. Paragraph Form 4. Therefore, 2(2a2–6a+ 2) + 1=2k+ 1, sox2–6x+ 5 is odd.
Proposition: If P then Q.
Assume/Suppose P. . . . ... . . . therefore Q.
Example2.

Let us have a very simple and basic example on how to prove a certain With the use of direct proving, prove the following in both form
mathematical statement. (outline and paragraph).

Illustration 1: Prove: (in an outline form) If a and b are both odd integers, then
the sum of a and b is an even integer.
Prove (in outline form) that “If x is a number with 5x+3=33, then x=6”
Proof:
Proof:
1. Assume that a and b are both odd integers.
1. Assume that x is a number with5x+ 3=33. 2. There exists an integer k1 and k2 such that a=2k1+1
2. Adding-3 both sides of an equation will not affect the equality and b= 2k2+2k1(by definition of an odd number).
of the two members on an equation, thus 5x+ 3–3=33–3 3. Now, a+b=(2k1+1)+(2k2+1)=2k1+2k2+2. Factoring 2, it
3. Simplifying both sides, we got 5x=30. follows that a+b=2(k1+ k2 +1).
4. Now, dividing both member of the equation by 5 will not be 4. So; a+b=2(k1+k2 +1). Letk1+k2 +1=kZ, hence a+b=2k.
affected the equality so 5x/5=30/5. 5. Therefore, if a and b are both odd integer, then a+ b is
5. Working the equation algebraically, it shows that x=6. even.
Therefore, if 5x+3=33, then x=6.
Prove: (in paragraph form)
Illustration 2:
Assume that a and b are both odd integers. By definition of an
Prove (in paragraph form) that “If x is a number with 5x+3=33, then x=6” odd number, there exists an integer k1and k2 such that a=2k1+1
Proof: and b=2k2+1. Now, adding a and b, that is,
a+b=(2k1+1)+(2k2+1)=2k1+2k2+2. Factoring 2, it follows that
1. If 5x+3=33, then 5x+3−3=33−3 since subtracting the same a+b=2(k1+k2+1). So; a+b=2(k1+k2+1) and let k1+k2+1= kZ, hence
number from two equal quantities gives equal results. a+=2k. Therefore, if a and b are both odd integers, their sum is
2. 5x+3−3=5x because adding 3 to 5x and then subtracting 3 just always and even integer.
leaves 5x, and also, 33− 3=30.
3. Hence 5x= 30. That is, x is a number which when multiplied by
5 equals 30. The only number with this property is 6. Example 3.
4. Therefore, if 5x+3=33 then x= 6.
With the use of direct proving, prove the following in paragraph
Note: It is up to the student which of the two forms would be their preferred form.
presentation.
Prove:

If x and y are two odd integers, then the product of x and y is

KINDS OF PROOF also an odd integer.
1. DIRECT PROOF Proof:
DEFINITION. A direct proof is a mathematical argument that uses
rules of inference to derive the conclusion from the premises. 1. Assume that x and y are two different odd integers.
In a direct proof, let us say we need to prove a given theorem in There exists k1and k2Z such that x=2k1+1 and y=2k2+1
a form of PQ. The steps in taking a direct proof would be: by definition of an odd number.
1. Assume P is true. 2. Now, taking the product of x and y, we got
2. Conclusion is true. xy=(2k1+1)(2k2+1)=4k1k2+2k1+2k2+1=2(2k1k2+ k1+ k2)+1.
 3. Let 2k1k2+k1+k2=kZ. Example 1.
4. Hence (2k1+1)(2k2+1)=2k+1. Therefore, xy=2k+1 where
the product of two odd integers is also an odd integer. Using indirect/contra positive proof, prove that “If x is divisible
by 6, then x is divisible by 3”.

Here in example1, we let that p: x is divisible by 6 and q:x is

Example 4. divisible by 3. So, this original statement to become a contra
positive could be transformed into “If x is not divisible by 3, then
Prove the proposition (in outline form) that is “If x is a positive x is not divisible by 6”.
integer, then x2 is also an odd integer”.
Note that, we let p:x is divisible by 6 and q:x is divisible by 3.
Prove: (In outline form) With the use of indirect proof, we assume that q is true and the
1. Suppose x is odd. conclusion p is also true.
2. Then by definition of an odd integer, x=2a+1 for some So, the formal proof would be;
aZ.
3. Thus x2=(2a+ 1)2=4a2+4a+1=2(2a2+a)+1. Proof:
4. So x2=2b+1 where b is the integer b=2a2+2a.
5. Thus x2=2b+1 for an integer b. 1. Assume x is not divisible by3.
6. Therefore x2 is odd, by definition of an odd number. 2. Then x 3k for all kZ
3. It follows that x(2m)(3) for all mZ
4. So, x 6m for all mZ
5. Therefore, x is not divisible by 6.
Example 5.

Prove:
Example 2.
Let a, b and c be integers. If a|b and b|c, then a|c.
Prove using indirect proof or contraposition.
Proof (in outline form)
Let x be an integer. Prove that, if x2 is even, then x is even. Note
1. Suppose a, b and c are integers and a|b and b|c. that, we let p:x2 is even and q:x is even. With the use of indirect
2. We all know that if a|b, there is a certain integer say d proof, we assume that q is true and the conclusion p is also true.
which is b=ad.
3. Similarly, when b|c, there is an integer say e which is So, the original statement would become “If x is odd, then x2 is
c=be. odd”.
4. Now, since b=ad, substitute the value of b in c=be, it
Now, the formal proof would be;
follows that c=(ad)e=a(de).
5. So, c=a(de)=ax for x=deZ. Proof:
6. Therefore a|c.
7. Now, it’s your turn to do some direct proving. You can 1. Assume x is odd.
use any of the two forms of presentation for proving. 2. Thenx=2k+1for some kZ
3. It follows that x2=(2k+1)2= 4k2+4k+1=2(2k2+ 2k)+1
where q=2k2+2k
4. So, x2=2q+1
2. INDIRECT PROOF (CONTRA POSITIVE PROOF)
5. Therefore, x2 is odd.
DEFINITION: Indirect proof or contra positive proof is a type of
proof in which a statement to be proved is assumed false and if Again, it is your turn to prove the following propositions with the
the assumption leads to an impossibility, then the statement use of indirect or contra positive proof.
assumed false has been proved to be true.

Recall that the proposition pq is a conditional statement. This

3. PROOF BY COUNTER EXAMPLE (DISPROVING UNIVERSAL
proposition is logically equivalent to qp. Now, the expression qp
STATEMENTS)
is the contra positive form of the statement pq.
A conjecture may be described as a statement that we hope is a
In an indirect proof, let us say we need to prove a given theorem
theorem. As we know, many theorems (hence many conjectures)
in a form of PQ. The steps or outline in taking an indirect proof
are universally quantified statements. Thus it seems reasonable
would be: a direct proof would be:
to begin our discussion by investigating how to disprove a
1. Assume/Suppose Q is true.
universally quantified statement such as
2. Therefore P is true.
∀x∈ S, P(x).
 Note that the negation of this would be “For some nZ, the integer
To disprove this statement, we must prove its negation. f(n)=n2–n+1 is composite.
∼(∀x∈ S,P(x)) = ∃x∈ S,∼P(x).
We all know that a prime number is a number whose factors are
1 and the number itself, thus if p is prime number then p=(p)(1)
Things are even simpler if we want to disprove a conditional
where pZ to be able to resolve the truth or falsity of the above
statement P(x)⇒ Q(x). This statement asserts that for every x
statement, let us construct a table for f(n) for some integers n. If
that makes P(x) true, Q(x) will also be true. The statement can
we could find at least one number for f(n) which is not prime
only be false if there is an x that makes P(x) true and Q(x) false.
(composite), then we could conclude that the statement is false.
This leads to our next outline for disproof.

The question is “How to disprove P(x)⇒ Q(x)”? The answer is

simple.
In every case, f(n) is prime, so you may begin to suspect that the
conjecture is true. Before attempting a proof, let’s try one more
Produce an example of an x that makes P(x) true and Q(x) false.
n. Unfortunately, f(11)=112−11+11=112 is not prime. The conjecture is
false because n=11 is a counter example.
In both of the above outlines, the statement is disproved simply
by exhibiting an example that shows the statement is not always We summarize our disproof as follows:
true. (Think of it as an example that proves the statement is a
promise that can be broken.) There is a special name for an Disproof. The statement “For every n∈Z, the integer f(n)=n2−n+11
example that disproves a statement: It is called a counter is prime,” is false. For a counter example, note that for n=11, the
example. integer f(11) =121=11·11 is not prime.

Example 1: 4. PROOF BY CONTRADICTION

Another method of proving is what we called “Proving by
Prove or disprove: All prime numbers are odd. Contradiction”. This method works by assuming your implication
is not true, then deriving a contradiction.
*Negation: Some prime numbers are even.

By counter example: Let n=2. By definition of a prime, 2 =(2)·(1). Recall that if p is false then pq is always true, thus the only way
But 2 is even where the only factor of 2 is 2 and 1 so we could our implication can be false is if p is true and q is false.
say that 2 is a prime number. So, if we let pq be a theorem, a proof by contradiction is given by
this way;
Since we have found an even prime number so the original 1. Assume p is true.
statement is not true. 2. Suppose that q is also true.
3. Try to arrive at a contradiction.
4. Therefore q is true.
Example 2.
So, in practice then, we assume our premise is true but our
Prove or disprove: For all integers x and y, if x+y is even, then conclusion is false and use these assumptions to derive a
both x and y are even. contradiction.
*Negation: For some integers x and y, if x+y is odd, then x and y
is odd. This contradiction may be a violation of a law or a previously
established result. Having derived the contradiction you can then
Proof: conclude that your assumption (that pq is false) was false and so
the implication is true.

Be careful with this method: make sure that the contradiction

arise because of your original assumptions, not because of a
By giving a counter example, if x=1 and y=1, then x+y=2. But x and
mistake in method. Also, if you end up proving ~p then you could
y are both odd, therefore the theorem is false.
have used proof by contraposition.

Example 3.
Example 1.
Prove that “For every nZ, the integer f(n)=n2–n+1 is prime
Prove by contradiction that “If x+x=x, then x= 0.
 Proof:

1. Assume that x+x= x. GEORGE POLYA’S METHOD

2. Suppose that x 0.
3. Now, x+x=x, so 2x=x and since x0,we could George Polya is one of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study
multiply both sides of the equation by the of problem solving in 1940. He is also known as “The Father of Problem
reciprocal of x, i.e., 1/x. Solving”.
4. Multiplying by the reciprocal of x, it follows that He made fundamental contributions to combinatorics, number theory,
2=1 which is a contradiction. numerical analysis and probability theory. He is also noted for his work in
5. Therefore, the original implication is proven to be heuristics and mathematics education. Heuristic, a Greek word means that
true. "find“ or "discover" refers to experience-based techniques for problem
solving, learning, and discovery that gives a solution which is not
guaranteed to be optimal.
Example 2.

Prove by contradiction that “If x is even then x+3 is odd.

Proof: The George Polya’s Problem-Solving Method are as follows:

1. Assume x is even, so x=2k. Step 1. Understand the Problem.

2. Suppose x+3 is even. Since x+3 is even, there exist This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must have a
kZ such that x+3=2k. clear understanding of the problem. To help you focus on understanding the
3. It follows that x=2k-3. We can rewrite this as problem, consider the following questions. These are some questions that
x=2k4+1. Now, x=2(k–2)+1. you may be asked to yourself before you solve the problem.
Let k–2=q. So, x=2q+1. It is clearly seen that x is an
odd number. This is a contradiction to the a. Are all words in a problem really understand and clear by the
assumption. reader?
4. Therefore, x+3 is odd. b. Do the reader really know what is being asked in a problem on
how to find the exact answer?
c. Can a reader rephrase the problem by their own without deviating
Lesson 3.3 - POLYA’S FOUR STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING to its meaning?
d. If necessary, do the reader can really visualize the real picture of
the problem by drawing the diagram?
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES e. Are the information in the problem complete or is there any
missing information in a problem that could impossible to solve
1. Tell all the Polya’s four steps in problem solving.
the problem?
2. Select the appropriate strategy to solve the problem.
3. Solve problems with the use of Polya’s four step. Step 2. Devise a Plan

Sometimes, it is necessary for us to be able to solve a problem in

mathematics, we need to devise a plan. Just like a Civil Engineer that
INTRODUCTION
before he constructs a building, he needs to do a floor plan for a building
One of the major problems of a student in mathematics is on how to solve that he wants to build. To be able to succeed to solve a problem, you could
worded problems correctly and accurately. Sometimes, they have difficulty use different techniques or ways in order to get a positive result. Here are
understanding in grasping the main idea of a problem on how to deal with it some techniques that could be used. You could one of these or a
and to solve it. It is very important that there is always a clear combination to be able to solve the problem.
understanding on how to solve problems most especially in a Mathematics a. As much as possible, list down or identify all important
as a course. information in the problem.
When you were in your senior high school, your teacher in mathematics b. Sometimes, to be able to solve problem easily, you need to draw
especially in the course of Algebra taught you on how to solve problem figures or diagram and tables or charts.
using scientific method. Some of these problems are number problem, age c. Organized all information that are very essential to solve a
problem, coin problem, work problem, mixture problem, etc. But not all problem.
problems in mathematics could be solve on what you have learned in your d. You could work backwards so that you could get the main idea of
senior high school. the problem.
e. Look for a pattern and try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
Here, in this “Polya’s Four Steps in Solving Problem”, we will be learning on f. Create a working equation that determines the given (constant)
how to solve mathematical problem in a different way. and variable.
 g. You could use the experiment method and sometimes guessing is 1. The sum of three consecutive positive integers is 165. What are
okay. these three numbers?

Step 3. Carry out the plan Step 1. Understand the problem

After we devised a plan, the next question is “How are we going to carry out When we say consecutive numbers, these are like succeeding
the plan?” Now, to be able to carry out the plan, the following suggestions numbers. Say, 4, 5, 6 are three consecutive numbers for single-
could help us in order to solve a problem. digit numbers. For the two-digit number, example of these three
a. Carefully and accurately working on the problem. consecutive is 32, 33, and 34. Noticing that the second number
b. There must be a clear and essential information or data in the added by1 from the first number and the third number is
problem. increased by 2 from the first number.
c. If the first plan did not materialize, make another plan. Do not
Step 2. Devise a plan
afraid to make mistakes if the first plan that you do would not
materialize. There is a saying that “There is a second chance.” From the previous discussion of this lesson, devising a plan is
very essential to solve a problem. We could use an appropriate
Step 4. Look back or Review the Solution plan for this kind of problem and that is formulating a working
Just like on what you do in solving worded problems in Algebra, you should equation. Since we do not know what are these three
always check if your answer is correct or not. You need to review the consecutive positive integers, we will be using a variable, say x
solution that you have made. How will you check your solution? The to represent a particular number. This variable x could be the
following could be your guide. first number. Now, since it is consecutive, the second number
will be increased by 1.
a. Make it sure that your solution is very accurate and it jibed all
important details of the problem. So, the possible presentation would be x+1. The third number
b. Interpret the solution in the context of the problem. was increased by 2 from the first number so the possible
c. Try to ask yourself that the solutions you’ve made could also be presentation would be x +2. Since, based on the problem that the
used in other problems. sum of these three consecutive positive integers is165, the
working equation is:
As it was mentioned in this lesson, there are different strategies
(x) +(x+1)+(x+ 2) = 165
that you could employ or use to solve a problem. These strategies
will help you to solve the problem easily. These are the following Where x be the first positive integer, x+1 be the second number
strategies that you could be used: and x+2 be the third number.

1. Draw a picture, diagram, table or charts. Label these Step 3. Carryout the plan
with correct information or data that you could see in We already know the working formula. To be able to determine
the problems. Sometimes, there are hidden the three positive consecutive integers, we will be using the
information that is very much important also to solve concept of Algebra here in order to solve the problem.
the problem. So, be cautious.
2. Identify the known and unknown quantities. Choose Manipulating algebraically the given equation; x+ x+1+ x+2= 165
appropriate variable in identifying unknown quantities. Combining similar terms; 3x+ 3=165
For example, the unknown quantity is height. You could Transposing 3 to the right side of the equation; 3x= 165–3
use “h” as your variable. Simplifying; 3x= 162
3. You have to be systematic. Dividing both side by 3 to determine the value of x; x= 54 and this
4. Just like on what we have in devising a plan, look for a would be the first number. Now, the second number is x+1 and
pattern and try to solve a similar but simpler problem. we already know the value of x= 54.
5. Sometimes, guessing is okay. There is no problem in
So, the next number is 55. Then the third number would be x+2
guessing and it is not a bad idea to be able to begin in
and again we know that x=54 so the third number is 56. Hence,
solving a problem. In guessing, you could examine how
the three positive consecutive integers whose sum is 165 are 54,
closed is your guess based on the given problem.
55 and 56.

Step 4. Look back and review the solution

Illustrative examples will be solved with the use of Polya’s four step
We need to review our solution to check if the answer is correct.
method.
How are we going to do that? Just simply add the identified three
consecutive positive integers and the result should be 165. So,
adding these three numbers, 54+ 55+ 56 will give us a sum of
165.
2. There are ten students in a room. If they give a hand shake for number of points to produce a line is two. So, two points
his classmate once and only once, how many handshakes can be determine a line.
made?
Step 2. Device a plan
Step 1. Understand the problem The best way in order to determine the number of lines that can
Let us say that you are one of those ten students in a room. To produce in a five different points where no three points are
know how many handshakes could be made with of those ten collinear is to plot those five points in a plane and label it as A,
students, we need name those ten students as A, B, C.…, I, and J. B, C, D, and E. Then list down all the possible lines. Take note that
If you would be the A student you can give a handshake to line AB is as the same as line BA
different nine students. Now, if you give your hand to B, i.e., A to Step3. Carryout the plan
B, it is can be said the giving handshake by B to A is just only one
count. Obviously, you cannot make a handshake to yourself as List:
well as B to himself and soon.
AB BC CD DE
Step 2.Devising a plan
AC BD CE
To determine the total number of handshakes, it is very easy if
AD BE AE
we are going to create a table. Say,
Step4. Look back and review the solution

Counting all possible lines connected in five different points

where no three points are collinear is still we could check that
the total number of line could be produced of these five points
are ten lines.

The x symbol represent that you cannot make a handshake to

yourself and symbol meaning that a handshake was made. Lesson 3.4 - MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING PATTERNS
Step 3. Carry out the plan

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. Demonstrate appreciation in solving problems involving patterns.

2. Show the appropriate strategies in solving problems which
involve patterns.
So, adding this 1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9= 45. Hence, there are a total of 3. Apply the Polya’s 4-step rule method in solving problems with
45 handshakes if these ten students give a handshake for his patterns.
classmate once and only once. 4. Make a correct conclusion based on their final result.

Step4. Look back and review the solution

Trying to double check the diagram, it is clearly seen that the INTRODUCTION
total number of handshakes that could be made which is 45 is There are some problems that patterns may involve. One of the examples of
correct. problems that patterns are involve is an “abstract reasoning” where this
kind of pattern is one of the type of exam that most of the Universities used
in their entrance examination.
3. Five different points, say A, B, C, D, and E are on a plane where no
three points are collinear. How many lines can be produced in
these five points? DISCUSSION

Step 1. Understand the problem Solving problems which involve pattern do not follow the steps on how to
solve the problem on its traditional way. To be able to solve for this kind of
Based on the given problem, five points are on a plane where no problem, the following may be used as a guide:
three points are collinear. If you want to determine the number
of lines from these five points, remember that the minimum 1. Showing an understanding of the problem,
2. Organizing information systematically,
 3. Describing and explaining the methods used and the results information to continue filling in the table until we get to week
obtained, six.
4. Formulating a generalization or rule, in words or algebraically.

The following sample of questions gives an indication of the variety likely to

occur in the examination.

1. A group of businessmen were at a networking meeting. Each

businessman exchanged his business card with every other Apply Strategy/Solve
businessman who was present. To get the answer we read the entry for week six. Answer: In
week six Josie jogs a total of 120 minutes
a) If there were 16 businessmen, how many business cards
were exchanged?
Solution: 3. You arrange tennis balls in triangular shapes as shown. How
15+14+13+12+11+10+9+ 8+7+6+ 5+4+3+2+1=120 exchanges many balls will there be in a triangle that has 8 rows?
120×2=240 business cards. If there were 16 businessmen,
240 business cards were exchanged.

b) If there was a total of 380 business cards exchanged,

how many businessmen were at the meeting?
Solution: Solution:
380÷ 2=190
190= (19× 20)÷2=19+18+17+…+3+ 2+1 Understand
If there was a total of 380 business cards exchanged, We know that we arrange tennis balls in triangles as shown.
there were 20 businessmen at the meeting. We want to know how many balls there are in a triangle that has
8 rows.

2. Josie takes up jogging. On the first week she jogs for10 minutes Strategy
per day, on the second week she jogs for 12 minutes per day. A good strategy is to make a table and list how many balls are in
Each week, she wants to increase her jogging time by 2 minutes triangles of different rows.
per day. If she jogs six days each week, what will be her total One row: It is simple to see that a triangle with one row has only
jogging time on the sixth week? one ball.

Solution: Two rows: For a triangle with two rows, we add the balls from
the top row to the balls from the bottom row. It is useful to make
Understand a sketch of the separate rows in the triangle.
We know in the first week Josie jogs 10 minutes per day for six
days. We know in the second week Josie jogs 12 minutes per day
for six days. Each week, she increases her jogging time by 2
3=1+2
minutes per day and she jogs 6 days per week. We want to find
Three rows: We add the balls from the top triangle to the balls
her total jogging time in week six.
from the bottom row.
Strategy
A good strategy is to list the data we have been given in a table
and use the information we have been given to find new 6=3+3
information. Now we can fill in the first three rows of a table.
We are told that Josie jogs10 minutes per day for six days in the
first week and 12 minutes per day for six days in the second
week. We can enter this information in a table:
We can see a pattern. To create the next triangle, we add a new
bottom row to the existing triangle. The new bottom row has the
same number of balls as there are rows. (For example, a triangle
You are told that each week Josie increases her jogging time by with 3 rows has 3 balls in the bottom row.) To get the total
2 minutes per day and jogs 6 times per week. We can use this
 number of balls for the new triangle, we add the number of balls Answer: Andrew gets six $10 bills and six $20 bills.
in the old triangle to the number of balls in the new bottom row.

Apply strategy/solve: Check

We can complete the table by following the pattern we six $10 bills and six $20 bills → 6($10)+6($20)=$60+$120=$180
discovered. Number of balls=number of balls in previous triangle The answer checks out.
+ number of rows in the new triangle Let’s solve the same problem using the method “Look for a
Pattern.”

Method 2: Looking for a Pattern

Understand
Andrew gives the bank teller a $180 check.
The bank teller gives Andrew 12 bills. These bills are a mix of $10
Answer: There are 36 balls in a triangle arrangement with 8
bills and $20bills. We want to know how many of each kind of
rows.
bill Andrew receives.
Check
Strategy
Each row of the triangle has one more ball than the previous
Let’s start by making a table just as we did above. However, this
one. In a triangle with 8 rows, row 1has 1ball, row 2 has 2 balls,
time we will look for patterns in the table that can be used to
row 3 has 3 balls, row 4 has 4 balls, row 5 has 5 balls, row 6 has
find the solution.
6 balls, row 7 has 7 balls, row 8 has 8 balls.
When we add these we get: 1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8=36 balls
Apply strategy/solve
Let’s fill in the rows of the table until we see a pattern.
4. Andrew cashes a $180 check and wants the money in $10 and
$20 bills. The bank teller gives him 12 bills. How many of each
kind of bill does he receive?

Solution
We see that every time we reduce the number of $10 bills by one
Method 1: Making a Table and increase the number of $20 bills by one, the total amount
increases by $10. The last entry in the table gives a total
Understand amountof$140, so we have $40 to go until we reach our goal.
Andrew gives the bank teller a $180 check. This means that we should reduce the number of $10 bills by
The bank teller gives Andrew 12 bills. These bills are a mix of $10 four and increase the number of $20 bills by four. That would
bills and $20 bills. We want to know how many of each kind of give us six $10 bills and six $20 bills.
bill Andrew receives.
6($10)+6($20)=$60+120=$180
Strategy Apply strategy/solve

Let’s start by making a table Lesson 3.5 - RECREATIONAL PROBLEMS USING MATHEMATICS
of the different ways Andrew
can have twelve bills in tens
and twenties.
Andrew could have twelve
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
$10 bills and zero $20 bills,
or eleven $10 bills and one 1. Demonstrate appreciation of recreational games using the
$20 bill, and soon. We can concept of mathematics.
calculate the total amount of 2. Show student’s interest in a mathematical games by solving
money for each case. 3. Mathematical games.
4. Develop a sense of correct thinking to finish the game
In the table we listed all the possible ways you can get twelve successfully.
$10 bills and $20 bills and the total amount of money for each
possibility. The correct amount is given when Andrew has six $10
bills and six $20 bills.
INTRODUCTION

Puzzle, number games and mathematical riddles are some exciting games
that we can solve or play. There are very essential most especially for the
students in order to develop their critical thinking, enhance students’
computational work, deepen understanding with numbers and use different
strategies and style of techniques through recreational games.
2. How many squares could you find at the picture below?
In this new modern day, there are a lot of games that you may encounter
not only in social media but also in different internet site. Games are now
easily downloaded and we can play this game on our palm hand. At the
same time, person or persons that has high skills and knowledge in
mathematics are those persons who could solve problems or games in
mathematics easily. Some students would count manually the number of squares on
the figure above. It is very tedious on the part of the student and
it is prone to error. You cannot get the answer correctly at once
if manually counting would be done. Not unless if you are very
DISCUSSION
lucky to get the correct number of squares. But if we use the
Now-a-days, there are a lot of recreational games that we could play concept of mathematics here, you could be able to get
whether it is an online or an offline games. Sometimes, we call this game accurately the total number of squares in the figure. Remember
as brain booster since our mind needs a lot of correct thinking on how to that a square has an equal sides. Let us say an “n by n” is a
deal with the games and finish the game successfully. square.

In this lesson, there would be an illustrative example that the students may The question is, how many squares are really on the figure
look into on how to deal with a game using mathematical concept. above? First, let us always think that the square has an equal
side. Let us ignore first the squares within the big square.

1. With the use of pencil or pen, connect by means of a line the nine
dots (see figure below) without lifting a pen and re-tracing the
line.
On this figure, there are different “nxn” size of a square. The size
of a big square is a 1x1(12). But there is also a 2x2(22) square on
it as well as 3x3 and a 4x4 square. So, how many squares are
there.
To begin, you may think that it is easy for you to connect these
nine dots by means of a line with the use of your pen or pencil If we look at the mathematical concept and we want to know the
with lifting the pen and re-tracing the line. On your first attempt, number of square, we need to add the different sizes of the
it could be like this. squares such as;

12+22+32+42=1+ 4+9+16= 30squares

Now, let us take a look on the squares within the big square.
But as you can see, there is one dot left which is disconnected.

Trying for the second time, perhaps your presentation may looks
like this.
If you want to know the number of squares are there, let us use
the upper selected square.

The number of squares on the upper part would be; 12+22=1+

4=5squares
But still, there are dots which are disconnected.
The same as the selected square below, that is; 12+22=1+ 4=5
squares
Let us use the technique called “think outside the box strategy”
Hence the total number of squares on the given figure is
and for sure we can solve the puzzle. With this, we could extend
30+5+ 5=40squares.
the line or lines to connect the dots just like this one below.
3. A 3x3 grid table is given below. Filled out each cell of a digit
from 1–9 except 5 since it is already given and without repetition
where the sum of horizontal, vertical and diagonal are all equal
to15.

There are several ways to present the 3x3 grid table magic
square number. First thing that you’re going to do is just to add
all digits from 1 to 9 giving a sum of 45.

In a 3x3squarenumber, you have to add three numbers again and

again hence it will give an average that the sum of three number
is 15, i.e. 45/3=15.

This number15 is what we called the magic number of a 3x3

square number where when you add three numbers horizontally,
vertically and diagonally will give us a sum of 15. To achieve
this, the number 5 should be placed in the middle part of a 3x3
square number just like in the given figure above. You can also
achieve 15, if you add the middle number 5 three times.

You can reduce 15 in a sum of three sum m and s eight times:

The odd numbers 1, 3, 7, and 9 occur twice in the reductions, the

even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8 three times and the number 5 once.
Therefore you have to place number 5 in the middle of the magic
3x3 square.

The remaining odd numbers have to be in the middles of a

side and the even numbers at the corners.

Under these circumstances there are eight possibilities building

a square and two of these are presented below.

4. The figure below is arranged using 16 matchsticks to form 5

squares.

Rearrange exactly 2 of the match sticks to form 4 squares of the

same size, without leaving any stray match sticks.

Solution:
Lesson 4.1 - MODULAR ARITHMETIC Figure 1

If we want to determine a time in the future or in the past, it is necessary to

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES consider whether we have passed 12 o’clock. To determine time 8 hours
after 3 o’clock, we add 3 and 8. Because we did not pass 12 o’clock, the time
1. Define modular arithmetic. is 11 o’clock.
2. Compare a clock arithmetic into modular arithmetic.
3. Explain comprehensively modular arithmetic.
4. Name different properties of modular arithmetic.
5. Tell whether the congruence is a congruence or not.
6. Solve and perform operations on clock and in modular
arithmetic.
7. Construct a clock and a modulo in addition table. Figure2

However, to determine the time 8 hours after 9 o’clock, we must take into
consideration that once we have passed 12 o’clock, we begin again with 1.
INTRODUCTION
Hence, 8 hours after 9 o’clock is 5 o’clock as shown in figure 2. We will use
Special type of arithmetic which involves only integer (Z) is what we called symbol + to denote addition on a 12-hour clock and-to denote subtraction.
“modular arithmetic”. Usually, this topic is being discussed in number
Now, let us use this notation for a 12-hour clock.
theory studying the integers and its properties and it is very essential for
students like you who are taking up science and technology as their Let the clock would be:
program to learn the concept of modular arithmetic since one the
applications of this topic is on how to code and decode or encrypt and
decrypt secret message for privacy and security purposes. Basically, the
modular arithmetic emphasized the concept of remainder theorem when
solving problems.

DISCUSSION Example1: Perform the + or- operator.

Before we define modular arithmetic and study some of its application, let
us use a12-hour clock as an illustration to get an idea what a modular
arithmetic.

Example 2.

If it is11 o'clock and you have to finish your math home working 18 hours,
what hour will it be at that time?

Most of our clock has a 12-hour design. This design designated whether the Answer:
time is before noon or afternoon with the use of an abbreviation A. M. and P. 11+18=5. Hence the time that the homework could it be finished is 5 o’clock.
M. The abbreviation A. M. and P. M. came from the Latin word antemeridian
means before mid-day and post meridiem means after midday. Now, let us
take a look the 12-hour clock. As what you have observed, after we
Example 3.
reached the 12 o’clock, we begin again with 1. Right?
If it is 12:00 now, what time is it in 12 hours? What is the remainder when
To understand better the “modular arithmetic”, let us have a simple
you divide 12 by 12?
illustration with the use of the 12-hour clock below. Here, we use the
numbers 0-11 instead of the numbers 1-12 to deal with modular arithmetic. Answer:
The reason is that 0-11 are the remainders modulo 12. In general, when we
work modulo n were place all the numbers by their remainders modulo n. Using the 12-hour clock based on the given figure above, if it is now 12:00,
So, 12 here is replaced by zero. the time after another 12 hour is also 12 o’clock and it has an equivalent
number as zero (0). If we are going to divide12 by 12, it is very obvious that
the remainder is 0.
Example 4. Let us take a look a comparison between the 12-hour clock addition table
and the modulo 12 addition table.
If it is12:00 now, what time is it in 18 hours? What is the remainder when
you divide 18 by 12? Clock Addition Table

Answer:

Similar on what we do to example 3, if it is now 12:00, adding 18 hours

starting from 12 (0) would give us 6 o’clock. Dividing 18 by 12, the remainder
would be 6. Hence, the time after 18 hours starting to 12 o’clock is 6 o’clock.

A similar example which involve the modular arithmetic is the day-of-the-

week. If we assigned a number for each day of the week as shown below,
then 6 days after Friday is Thursday and 16 days after Monday is Modulo 12 Addition Table
Wednesday. We could write this as;

Another way to determine the day of the week is to note that when the sum
Based on the given table 10 + 7= 5 or we could say that 17 ≡ 5 mod 12. Let us
4 +6 =10is dividedby7, the number of days in a week, the remainder is 3,
which is assigned to Thursday. have some illustrative example using modulo 12 addition table.

When 0+16 = 16 is divided by 7, the remainder 2 is the number assigned in

Wednesday. Example1.
This works because the days of the week repeat every 7 days. This could be Based on the given table above, each expression follows the modular
done also to 12-hour clock arithmetic. arithmetic under modulo 12.

a) 12≡ 0(mod12)
Example5. b) 21≡ 9(mod12)
Let us say today is Wednesday. What would be the day 11 days after c) 37≡ 1 (mod12)
Wednesday? What would be the remainder if we are going to divide 11 by 7? d) 17≡5 (mod12)
Answer: Based on our given days in a week above, the equivalent number
for Wednesday is 2. Adding 11 days after Wednesday, we got Sunday where
this day has an equivalent number as 6. Adding 2 by 11, the result is 13 and Example 2.
if we are going to divide 13 by 7, the result is 6. Hence, 2 + 11 = 6.
Write in the form a ≡ b(mod n) the statement 3|6.

Answer:
MODULAR ARITHMETIC
3|6 could be written as 3|(18–12); here n= 3, a=18 and b=12. So, we could
i. Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, where write this as 18 ≡ 12(mod 3) or 12 ≡ 18(mod 3)
n∈N, if a-b/n is an integer. In this case, we write a ≡ b(mod n)
Note: There are more possible answers that you can give in our example 2.
The number n is called the modulus. The statement a ≡ b(mod n) Can you think another possible answer?
is called a congruence. This could be stated in this form.

ii. If a,b∈Z and n∈Z+, then a ≡ b(mod n) if and only if n|a-b. So, Example3.
looking back in our clock arithmetic, instead of 13≡1, in modular
arithmetic, we write 13≡1(mod120 and read it “13 is congruent …” Is 53 ≡ 17(mod 3)? How about 53 ≡ 14(mod 3)?

What about 53 ≡ 11(mod 3)?

Answer:
The 53 ≡ 17(mod 3) can be written in a form of a-b/n.
Now, let a=53, b=17 and n=3. (53−17)/3= 36/3=11 ∈Z. Proof:

So the congruence is true. () Assume that a ≡ b(mod n). Let a≡nq1+r1 and b=nq2+r2 where 0≤r1<n and
0≤r2<n. We need to show that r1=r2. Since a ≡ b(mod n), then a-b≡nk for
Now, let us take a look for 53 ≡ 14(mod 3).
some integer k. By substitution; nq1+r1- nq2+r2=nk.
Let a=53, b=14 and n=3.

It is seen that (53−14)/3=39/3= 13 ∈Z. Now n|r1-r2. We claim that r1-r2=0. Suppose r1-r2 is not equal to zero, then
n<|r1-r2|. Therefore, r1-r2=0 which implies that r1=r2.
So, it is congruence and so as 53 ≡ 11(mod 3).
Assume that a and b leaves the same remainder when divided by n. Then,
a=nq1 + r and b=nq2 + r. Now, a-b = (nq1 + r)-(nq2 + r)
= nq1 + r - nq2 – r
Example 4. = nq1 - nq2
= n(q1- q2) where (q1- q2)∈Z ..
Another way to be able to write in a congruence modulo n is by dividing by
n and take the remainder. Let us say n= 3. Then; Then, n|a–b.
14(mod 3)2; that is 14 = (3)(4) + 2. The remainderis2. Therefore, a ≡ b(mod n).
9(mod 3)0; that is 9 = (3)(3) + 0. The remainder is 0.
Theorem: Properties on congruence
2(mod 3)2; since 2 = (3)(0) + 2.
Let n >0 be fixed and a, b, c and d are arbitrary integers. Then,
-1(mod 3)2; since -1 = (3)(-1) + 2
a) a ≡ a(mod n)
-5(mod 3)1; since -5 = (3)(-2) + 1. The remainder is 1.
b) if a ≡ b(mod n) then b ≡ a(mod n)
c) if a ≡ b(mod n) and b ≡ c(mod n), then a ≡ c(mod n)
Example 5. d) if a ≡ b(mod n) and c ≡ d(mod n), then a+c=b+d(mod n) and

Tell whether the congruence is true or not. ac ≡ bd (mod n)

e) if a ≡ b(mod n), then a+c ≡ b+c(mod n) and ac ≡ bc(mod n)
29 ≡ 8 mod 3 This is a true congruence! Why?
f) If a ≡ b (mod n), then ak ≡ bk(modn)
71 ≡ 2 mod 5 This is a true congruence! Why?
15 ≡ 4 mod 6 This is not a true congruence. Why? Proof:

a) Let a∈Z. If a=a, then a-a=0. It follows that n|0 which implies that
An alternative method to determine a true congruence in a ≡ b(mod n),
n|a-a. Hence, a≡a(mod n).
where a and b are whole numbers, then when a and b is divided by n, they
must have the same remainder.
Illustration:
1) 6≡6 (mod 2)
Example 6. 2) (x+1) ≡(x+1) (mod 3)

Let us say the given modulo is 53 ≡ 17(mod 3). Now, if we divide 53 to 3, b) Assume that a≡b (mod n) if and only if n|a-b or a-b=nk for some
then; 53= (3)(17) + 2.
integer k. From a-b≡nk, it follows that –[a-b]=-nk, i.e.
The remainder is 2 and if we divide17 to 3, we get; 17= (3)(5) +2. The multiplying both sides by -1.
remainder is also 2.
Then b-a=-nk or b-a=n(-k) where -k∈Z. It only shows that n|b-a.
Hence b≡a(mod n).
Hence, 53 ≡ 17(mod 3) is a true congruence. Or
Illustration:
So, the theorem states that:
1) If 13≡10 (mod 3), then 10≡13 (mod 3)
For arbitrary integers a and b, a ≡ b(mod n) if and only if a and b have the 2) 2≡12 (mod 5) is the same as 12≡2 (mod 5)
same remainder when divided by n
c) Assume that a≡b (mod n) and b≡c (mod n). Ina a≡b (mod n), it true for k=n, i.e. an ≡ bn(mod n). We need to show that an+1 ≡
follows that a-b=nk1(eq.1) and for b≡c (mod n) we have b- bn+1(mod n). But a ≡ b(mod n) and an ≡ bn(mod n). With the use of
c≡nk2(eq.2) for k1, k2 Z. In eq.1, b=a-nk1 and in eq.2 we have property (d),we can see that (a)(an) ≡(b)(bn)(mod n). It could be
b=nk2+c. written in a form of an+1 ≡ bn+1(modn) wheren+1=k.

Then a-nk1 =nk2+c. It follows that a-c=nk2+nk1=n(k2+k1) for

Hence, ak ≡ bk(mod n).
(k2+k1)∈Z. It only shows that n|a-c. Hence, a≡c (mod n).

Illustration:
Illustration:
1) Given that 25 ≡ 7 (mod 3) and k= 2, then
1) If 2≡14 (mod 3) and 14≡5 (mod 3), then 2≡5 (mod 3)
252≡72(mod 3)
2) If 7≡19 (mod 2) and 19≡15 (mod 2), then 7≡15 (mod 2)

d) Assume that a≡b (mod n) and c≡d (mod n). Hence, n|a-b and
n|c-d respectively.

In n|a-b it follows that a-b=nk1 and for n|c-d we have c-d=nk2 for
k1, k2∈Z. But a-b+cd=nk1+nk2.

Using the commutative property on the left side, we have (a+c)+(-

b-d)=nk1+nk2. Now, (a+c)-(b+d)= nk1+nk2.

Then (a+c)-(b+d)=n(k1+ k2) for k1, k2∈Z. It is clearly seen that

n|(a+c)-(b+d). Hence (a+c)≡(b+d) (mod n).

Similarly, let a=nq1+b and c=nq2+d for any q1, q1∈Z. Multiplying a
and c, we got
ac=(nq1+b)(nq2+d)=n2q1q2+dnq1+bnq2+bd=bd+n(nq1q2+bq2+dq1) for
(nq1q2+bq2+dq1)∈Z.

It follows that ac-bd=nq. It only shows that n|ac-bd. Hence

ac≡bd (mod n).

Illustration:
1) If 7≡19 (mod 2) and 27≡11 (mod 2), then
(7+27)≡(19+11)(mod 2)
2) If 7≡19 (mod 2) and 27≡11 (mod 2), then
(7∙27)≡(19∙11)(mod 2)

e) Assume that a ≡ b(mod n). We know that c ≡ c(mod n). By

property (d) a+c ≡(b+c)(mod n) and ac ≡ bc(mod n).

Illustration:
1) Given that 3 ≡ 13(mod 2). Let c=3, then
(31+3)≡(13+3)(mod 2) and (31∙3) ≡(13∙3)(mod 2)

f) Assume that a ≡ b(mod n). By the property of mathematical

induction, if k=1then a ≡ b(mod n) is true. Now, assume that it is