arithmetic operation mod n is always whole number

less than n.
Lesson 4.2 - OPERATIONS ON MODULAR ARITHMETIC
Illustration:

Let n = 3, then
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
14(mod3)2 since 14=3∙4+2(2 is the remainder)
1. Name and explain the different operations on 9(mod3)0 since 9=3∙3+ 0(0 is the remainder)
modular arithmetic. 2(mod3)2 since 2=3∙0+ 2(2 is the remainder)
2. Perform and solve the operations on modulon
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, the A. Addition Modulo n
additive and multiplicative inverse. To do the addition modulo n, let us have some
3. Solve the congruence equation. example.

Evaluate (23+38) mod 12.

INTRODUCTION
Solution:
During your senior high school, you have learned how to Add 23+38 to produce 61. To evaluate 61 mod
perform the four fundamental operations in 12, divide 61 by modulus, 12. The answer is the
mathematics in a higher level compare your lesson remainder.
during elementary days. You encounter on how to deal
with the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
of numbers as well as the different properties of real
numbers.

For this lesson, you will be encountering another So (23+38) mod12 1since 61=12∙5+1 where 1 is
operation but this time it will be dealing in different the remainder.
operations in modulo n.
In modular arithmetic, adding the modulus to
a number does not change the equivalent
value of the number.
DISCUSSION
For instance;
In the previous theorem for a≡b(mod n), property (d) 13≡6 (mod 7)
and (e) is a part of arithmetic operations modulo n. The
20≡6(mod 7) add 7 to13
different arithmetic operations modulo n are as follows:
27≡6(mod 7) add 7 to 20 and soon.
1) addition modulo n,
Another example is;
2) subtraction modulo n,
3) multiplication modulo n and 12≡7(mod 5)
4) the additive and multiplicative inverses 17≡7(mod 5) add 5 to 12
In 29≡8(mod3), we could verify that its congruence is 22≡7(mod 5) add 5 to 17 and soon.
true since both 29 and 8 have remainder 2 when divided
by 3 which is the modulus. There are many other This property of modular arithmetic is
numbers congruent to 8 modulo 3, but of all these, only sometimes used in subtraction. It is possible
one is a whole number less than the modulus. This to use negative numbers modulo n. For
number is the result when evaluating a modulo instance;
expression, and in this case we use an equal sign. -2≡5 mod 7 is a true congruence. Why?
Because 2≡8 mod 3 and 2 is less than the modulus, we Applying the definition; ab(modn) where n|a–
can write 8 mod 3=2. In general, m mod n becomes the b, then
remainder when m is divided by n.

Arithmetic modulo n (where n is a natural number)

requires us to evaluate a modular expression after
using the standard rules of arithmetic. Thus, we
perform the arithmetic operation and then divide by the
modulus. The answer is the remainder. The result of an B. Subtraction Modulo n
 The following examples give you on how be i.e. a+(-a)=0, then the numbers are
able to perform subtraction. additive inverses of each other. For
instance, 5+(-5)=0. So 5 is the additive
A. Evaluate (33–16)mod 6. inverse of -5 and -5 is the additive
inverse of 5.
Here, subtracting 16 from 33, we will be
able to get a positive result, i.e. 17. Divide The same concept applies in modular
the difference by the modulus, 6 we get: arithmetic. For example; (3+ 5)≡0 mod 8.
17= 6∙2+ 5. So, (33–16) mod 6= 5
Thus, in mod 8 arithmetic, 3 is the
additive inverse of 5, and 5 is the additive
B. Evaluate (14–21) mod5.
inverse of 3..
f we subtract 21 from 14, we will get a
negative answer, i.e., -13. On that case,
Here, we consider only those whole
we must find x so that -13xmod5. Thus
number smaller that the modulus. Note
we must find x so that the value of
that 3+5=8; that is, the sum of a number
(-13-x)/5=-(13+x)/5 is an integer. Trying
and its additive inverse equals the
the whole number values of x less than
modulus. Using this fact, we can easily
5, the modulus, i.e. x= 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4,
find the additive inverse of a number for
then;
any modulus. For instance, in mod11
arithmetic, the additive inverse of 5 is 6
because 5+6=11.

Let us have additional example.

Find the additive inverse of 7 in mod16
arithmetic.

Solution:
In mod16 arithmetic, 7+ 9=16.
So, the only value for x is 2. Hence, (14–
So, the additive inverse of 7 is 9.
27)mod5=2.
b. If the product of two number is 1, then
the numbers are multiplicative inverses
of each other. This is one of the
C. Multiplication Modulo n properties of real number, i.e., (a)(1/a)=1
Like in addition and subtraction, let us
evaluate given example under multiplication So, the multiplicative inverse of 2 is 1/2
modulo n to perform the operation and the multiplicative inverse of 1/2 is2.
multiplication.
The same concept applies to modular
Evaluate (15∙23) mod 11. arithmetic (although the multiplicative
inverses will always be natural number).
We need to find the product of 15 and 23. The
product is 345. This product must be divided For example in mod 7 arithmetic, 5 is the
by the modulus,11 to be able to find its multiplicative inverse of 3 (and 3 is the
remainder. multiplicative inverse of 5) because
345= 11∙31+ 4
5∙3≡1 mod 7.
Hence, (15∙23)mod11= 4

Here, we will concern ourselves only

with natural numbers less than the
D. Additive and Multiplicative Inverses in
modulus. To find the multiplicative
Modular Arithmetic
inverse of a mod m, solve the modular
equation ax=1mod m for x.
a. Recall that if the sum of two numbers is
zero(0),
Example:
 In mod 7 arithmetic, find the Now, if we continue trying to find the other values to be
multiplicative inverse of 2. a solution, we could find that 10 and 14 are also a
solution. Note that 6, 10 and 14 are all congruent to 2
Solution: mod4. Thus the solutions of 3x+5 3mod4 are 2, 6, 10, 14,
To find the multiplicative inverse of 2, 18, …
solve the equation 2x≡1mod7 by trying
different natural number values of x less
than the modulus.

Here, x= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
2x≡1mod 7
2(1)≡1mod 7(this is not a true
congruence)
2(2)≡1mod 7(this is not a true
congruence)
2(3)≡1mod 7(this is not a true
congruence)
2(4)≡1mod 7(this is a true
congruence)
2(5)≡1mod 7(this is not a true
congruence)
2(6)≡1mod 7(this is not a true
congruence) LESSON 4.3 - APPLICATIONS OF MODULAR ARITHMETIC
Hence, in mod 7 arithmetic, the
multiplicative of 2 is 4.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. To apply the concept of modular arithmetic to

SOLVING CONGRUENCE EQUATION determine the validity of a certain serial number
such the UPC, ISBN and the credit card.
Solving a congruence equation means finding all whole 2. To explain the validity and invalidity of the
numbers values of the variable for which the product code.
congruence is true. 3. To differential cryptography to cryptography.
Let us have an example on how to solve the congruence 4. To make use of modular arithmetic to encrypt
equation. and decrypt the text.
5. To apply modular operations in making a
Example: modulo art.
Solve 3x+5≡3mod 4. Here, we need to search for whole
number values of x for which the congruence is true.
INTRODUCTION

All of us are familiar with the number of hours in a day,

number of days in a week, number of months in a year,
etc. But what have you observed? Say, in a12-
hourclock.Itgoesonandon and on and after reaching in
a12 o’clock, it starts again to 1 o’clock and running all
over again. This is the concept of modular arithmetic
where numbers “wrap around” as what as stated
previously.
The concept of modular arithmetic has an important 4x2= 8(mod 5)=3 4x4=16(mod 5)=1
role in different industry and some of these industries
are banking and finance, information and technology, 2x4= 8(mod 5)=3 0x0=0(mod 5)=0
medicine and health, trade and industry, and in In a 12-hour clock, we go to 1 then 2 then 3, until we
education sector. Perhaps you may be wondering why reach 12. This is an example of modulos 12. We use
this modular arithmetic is so important. When we speak {1,2,3,…12} but in modulus it could be presented as
the determination of validity and invalidity of credit card, {1,2,3,…,0}. These are the same because we consider 0
on how be able to manage book catalogue, how to have and 12 be the same in terms of wrapping around.
correct serial number of a particular product that the
consumer could be bought, how to create an art and
how to make a security code most especially in the
APPLICATIONS OF MODULAR ARITHEMETIC
banking sector, these are just some applications of a
modular arithmetic. A. International Standard Book Number (ISBN)

One of the applications of modular arithmetic is

DISCUSSION
on how to check or how to determine whether
Remember in our previous lesson, in modular the ISBN (International Standard Book Number)
arithmetic, we select an integer, n, to be our “modulus". is valid or not. Every book that is catalogued in
Then our system of numbers only includes the numbers the Library of Congress must have an ISBN. The
0, 1, 2, 3, ..., n-1. In order to have arithmetic make sense, ISBN consists of 13 digits and this was created to
we have the numbers “wrap around" once they reach n. help to ensure that orders for books are filled
accurately and that books are catalogued
If we pick the modulus 5, then our solutions are correctly.
required to be in the set

Z5 = {0,1,2, 3, 4}. We have 2+1=3 and 2+2=4 as usual. The first digits of an ISBN are 978 (or 979),
followed by 9 digits that are divided into three
Then 2+3=5, which is not in our set, so it wraps around groups of various lengths. These indicate the
giving 2+3=0. country or region, the publisher, and the title of
the book. The last digit (13th digit) is called a
Then 2+4=6, which wraps around to be 1.
check digit.
Z5= {1, 2, 3, 4, 0}
Illustration: 978–971–23–9357–0

If we label the first digit of an ISBN as d1, the

But how are we going to write again the illustration second digit as d2, and soon to the 13th digit as
above in modular arithmetic? Some examples are d3, then the check digit is given by the modular
written below. formula as
2+ 1= 3(mod 5) = 3 3+ 4= 7(mod 5) = 2
d13=10-
4+ 2= 6(mod 5) = 1 4+ 4= 8(mod 5) = 3 (d1+3d2+d3+3d4+d5+3d6+d7+3d8+d9+3d10+3d11+3
d12)mod10
2+ 4= 6(mod 5) = 1 0+ 0= 0(mod 5) = 0 If d13 = 10, then the check digit is 0.
Now, this could be done also in multiplication.
Example 1:
Z5= {1, 2, 3, 4, 0} The ISBN of Richard Aufmann’s book entitled
“Mathematics in the Modern World” published by
Rex Book store in 2018 is:
978–971–23–9357–0

Is ISBN valid?

2x1= 2(mod 2)=2 3x4=12(mod 5)=2

Solution:
 d13=10- Since the computed check digit is not the last
(d1+3d2+d3+3d4+d5+3d6+d7+3d8+d9+3d10+3d11+3 digit in a given code, then the barcode is not
d12)mod10 valid.
d13=10–
[9+3(7)+8+3(9)+7+3(1)+2+3(3)+9+3(3)+5+3(7)]mod1 In terms of checking the credit card numbers if it
0. is valid, this modular arithmetic can be used
d13=10–[9+ 21+ 8+ 27+ 7+ 3+ 2+ 9+ 9+ 9+5+ whether a credit card is valid or not. This is
21]mod10. especially important in e- commerce, where
d13=10–130mod10 130= (10)(13) + 0 credit card information is frequently sent over
d13=10–0=10. the internet. The primary coding method is based
Since d13=10, then its check digit is 0. on the Luhn Algorithm, which h uses mod 10
Therefore, it is a valid ISBN. arithmetic. Credit card is usually or normally
have 13 to 16 digits long. The first one to six digits
are used to identify the card issuer.
B. Universal Product Code (UPC) and Credit Card
The table below shows some of the identification
Another coding scheme that is closely related to prefixes used by four popular card issuers.
the ISBN is the. This number is placed on many
items and is particularly useful in grocery
stores. A check-out clerk passes the product by
a scanner, which reads the number from a
barcode and records the price on the cash The Lugh algorithm, used to determine whether
register. If the price of an item changes for a a credit card is valid. It is calculated as follows:
promotional sale, the price is updated in the
computer, thereby relieving a clerk of having to 1. Beginning with the next-to-last digit (the last
reprice each item. In addition to pricing items, digit is the check digit) and reading from right to
the UPC gives the store manager accurate left.
information about inventory and the buying 2. Double every other digit. If a digit becomes a two
habits of the store’s customers. digit number after being doubled, treat the
number as two individual digits.
The UPC is a 12-digit number that satisfies a 3. Find the sum of the new list of digits. The final
modular equation that is similar to the one for sum must be congruent to 0 mod10.
ISBNs. The last digit is the check digit. The
formula for the UPC check digit is:

d12=10-
(d1+3d2+d3+3d4+d5+3d6+d7+3d8+d9+3d10+3d11) Example:
mod10. Determine whether 5234-8213-3410-1298 is a
If d12= 10, then the check digit is 0. valid card number.
Solution:
Example.
The staple wire has a barcode of 9-02870-
766290. Is the UPC number of this product a Then; (1+0)+2+6+4+(1+6)+2+2+3+6+4+2+0+2+2+(1+
valid number? 8)+8=60
Solution: Since 60≡0mod10, this is a valid card number.
d12=10-
(d1+3d2+d3+3d4+d5+3d6+d7+3d8+d9+3d10+3d11) C. Cryptology and Cryptography
mod10.
d12=10–[3(9)+0+3(2)+ 8+3(7)+0+3(7)+ Another usage of modular arithmetic is
6+3(6)+2+3(9)]mod10 cryptography. But what is the difference between
d12=10–(27+0+ 6+ 8+21+ 0+ 21+ 6+ 18+ 2+ cryptology and cryptography? Based on
27)mod10 dictionary.com, cryptology is the study of codes
d12=10–136mod10 but 136= (10)(13)+ 6 while cryptography is the art of writing and
d12=10–6=4 solving them.
Let us have simple activity to be able to n=26 is the modulus since there are 26 letters in
understand what we mean by cryptography. an English alphabet.
Here is the activity to be done by the students.
Try to decrypt the secret code. Table
Cyclical English Alphabet
a b c d e f g h i j
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
- - - - - - - - - -
25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16
k l m n o p q r s t
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
- - - - - -
-9 -8 -7 -6
15 14 13 12 11 10
u v w x y z
21 22 23 24 25 0
Riddle No. 1. They come out at night without
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
being called, and are lost in the day without
being stolen. What are they?
Note that the letter Z is coded as zero because
Answer: JKRI=___________
26≡0mod26.
Riddle No. 2. What has a face and two hands but So, with the use of modular arithmetic, how are
no arms and legs? we going to convert the plain text “LOVE” into its
Answer: TCFTB=___________ cipher text if each letter was shifted in 22
positions(m =22)?
Riddle No. 3: Why was the math book sad?
Answer: ZK YRU KFFDREPGIFSCVDJ=___________ For L: c≡(12+ 22)mod26=34 mod26= 8. So the
coded letter for L would be H.
Now, cryptology is the study of making and
breaking secret codes. It is very important to For O: c≡(15+ 22)mod26=37 mod26=11. So the
learn because there are industries or coded letter for O would be K.
government agencies that need to transmit For V: c≡(22+ 22)mod26=44 mod26=18. So the
secret message or information that it cannot be coded letter for V would be R.
understood by an unauthorized person most
For E: c≡(5+22)mod26=27 mod26=1. So the coded
especially if this message is intercepted.
letter for E would be A.
Different answer from our previous activity are
encrypted words that need to decrypt to be able Hence, the encrypted code for the word LOVE is
to break the code. The encrypted word is called HKRA.
the cipher text while the decrypted word is
called the plaintext. So, plain text is a message But how are we going to break the encrypted
before it is coded while the cipher text is the word. There must be a method by which the
message after it has been written in code. The person who received encrypted message into its
method of changing from plain text to cipher text original message (plaintext). For the cyclical
is called encryption. code, the congruence is;
p≡(c + n) mod26
But how the modular arithmetic can be used in where p and c are defined as before and n=26–m.
encrypting and decrypting the code? If the
The letter H in cipher text is decoded below
encrypting code is to shift each letter of the plain
text message in “m” positions, then the using the congruence p≡(c +n)mod26 such as;
corresponding letter in the cipher text message
is given by; Code:
c≡(p+ m)mod 26 H: n= 26–22=4, then p≡(8+ 4) mod26= 12 mod26=
where c is the encrypted code, p is the number 12
corresponds to a letter in an English alphabet in Hence, if you are going to decode H, it would be
a normal position, m is the shifted position and letter L.
The practicality of a cyclical alphabetic coding equation by the multiplicative of 5 which is 21
scheme is limited because it is relatively easy since (21)(5)=1mod26, it will become;
for a cryptologist to determine the coding 21(c –2)=(21)(5p)
scheme. A coding scheme that is a little more [21(c–2)]mod26p.
difficult to break is based on the congruence; Using this congruence, we can decode the
c≡(ap+ m) mod26 ciphertext message JGSAN.
where a and 26 do not have a common factor. J: p ≡[21(10–
For example, “a” cannot be 14 because 14 and 26 2)]mod26=(21)(8)mod26=168mod26=12.
have a common factor of 2. The reason why “a” So J will be decoded as L.
and 26 cannot have a common factor is related G: p≡[21(7–2)]mod26=(21)(5)mod26=105mod26=1.
to the procedure for determining the decoding
So G will be decoded as A.
congruence.
S: p≡[21(19–2)]
Example: mod26=(21)(17)mod26=357mod26=19.
Use the congruence c≡(5p+ 2)mod26 to encode So S will be decoded as S.

the message LASER. A: p≡[21(1–2)] mod26= (21)(-1)mod26= (-21)

mod26= 5.
Solution: So A will be decoded as E.
The encrypting congruence is c≡(5p+2)mod26.
Note: To decode A, it is necessary to determine
We replace p by the numerical equivalent of each
(-21)mod26. Recall that this requires adding the
letter from the given previous table (Cyclical
modulus until a whole number less than 26
English Alphabet). So, the coded for each letter
results.
in a word LASER are as follows:
So,(-21)+26=5, we have (-21)mod26=5
L: c≡[(5)(12)+2]mod26=62 mod26=10
Since 62=(26)(2)+10. So we could code L as N: p≡[21(14–2)] mod26=
J
(21)(12)mod26=252mod26=18.
A: c≡[(5)(1)+2]mod26=7 mod26=7 since So N will be decoded as R.
7=(26)(0)+7.
So we could code A as G Hence, the decoded word for “JGSAN” would be
S: c≡[(5)(19)+2]mod26=97 mod26=19. “LASER”.
So we could code S as S
E: c≡[(5)(5)+2]mod26=27 mod26=1.
D. Modulo Operation in Designing Modulo Art
So we could code E as A.
R: c≡[(5)(18) +2] mod26= 92 mod26= 14. We could not deny the fact that all of us love to
So we could code R as N. see the beauty of our nature and environment.
But have you observed that all things that you
So, the encrypted word for LASER would be can see with your naked eyes formed patterns?
JGSAN after using the congruence Straight, curve and circular patterns are just
c≡(5p+2)mod26. some design that you might see on the things
that you will observe and mathematics has an
important role to play on this.
If we want to decode an encrypted word using
the congruence c≡(ap+m)modn, it require us to According to Mr. Livin G. Rejuso, based on his
solve the congruence for p. To be able to solve it, slide share presentation that Mathematics can
we are going to use the method which relies on be considered as study of patterns.
multiplicative inverses.
One of the ways in which we use number
In previous congruence, i.e. c≡(5p+2)mod26, patterns is in the creation of unique and
artistically pleasing design.
c=5p+2. Subtracting both sides by 2 we got c–
2=5p. Now, multiply each member of the
This design is from number pattern in Modular
Arithmetic formed modulo art.

Now, let us take a look once again our modulo 4

addition table.

Rotated:

We got;

And let us take the encircled part.

We may use also the converging pattern,
standard kaleidoscope and the circular
kaleidoscope. The illustration for these design
are beyond on this lesson.
Can you see a pattern?
Now, let us make a design based on the modulo
4 addition table. Our legend would be as follows:

Substituting each legend on the modulo 4

addition table, what we have got? After
substituting the figure above based on the Lesson 4,4 - GROUP THEORY
legend on the table, the pattern for this modulo 4
addition would be like this.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
This design is also known as a Latin square 1. Relate clock arithmetic into the fundamental
design and the created pattern could be concept of group.
repeated, reflected or rotated. 2. Explain the concept of group theory in
permutation.
3. Define and differentiate group from an a belian
group.
4. Name and list all the properties in order to says
that the elements in a given set could be said a
group.
5. Show that the integers under its operation form
Repeated:
a group.
6. Define what an order of a group is.
7. Construct Cayley’s table.
8. Explain what a symmetry of group and symbolic
notation is.
9. Compare and evaluate symmetry of group and
its symbolic notation.

Reflected:
INTRODUCTION

Another important topics in the field of mathematics is

what we called a group theory and of course, this could
be important and very useful tool in teaching some
topics in mathematics. Based on “The Evolution of Group
Theory: A Brief”, the four major sources of group theory:

a) Classical Algebra by J. L. Lagrange (1770)

b) Number Theory by C. F. Gauss (1801)
c) Geometry by F. Klein (1874)
d) Analysis by S. Lie(1874) and by H. Poincare and
F. Klein( 1876).

DISCUSSION

A. Introduction to Group
Before we define group, let us recall the clock
arithmetic!
Now, let’s do the clock arithmetic. In arithmetic, there are only two operations, the
3+5 = addition and the multiplication.
4+3=
1–5= The opposite of addition is subtraction and the
opposite of multiplication is its reciprocal.
Here, we could say that clock arithmetic is also a
modular arithmetic.

In 7 hours clock, this would be in an integer 7 or

modulo 7.
Thus, Z7 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,,0}

Now, what is a GROUP?

In our previous lesson, we discussed operations

modulo n. Now, let us consider the set of
elements {0,1,2,3,4,5} and the operation is
addition modulo 6.

Here, we have only one operation.

Let us answer the question, “How many ways

can you rotate/flip the triangle so that it looks
the same before and after”?

The previous table is an example of an algebraic

system called group.

An algebraic system is a set of elements along

with one or more operations for combining the
elements. The real numbers with the operations
of addition and multiplication are an example of
an algebraic system. Mathematicians classify
this particular system as a field.

Definition: Group
A group is a set of elements, with one operation P2. Let a, b, and c are element of an integer. The
and it must satisfy the following four properties: associative property of addition holds true for
the integers, i.e. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
P1: The set is close with respect to the operation. P3. Let Z = {...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}. The identity
For all a, b 𝜖 G, then a * b 𝜖 G. element of Z is 0 and 0 is an integer. Hence,
Note that the operation would be + or • or in there is an identity for addition.
general *. P4. Let Z = {...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}. Each element of
P2: The operation satisfies the associative law. Z has an inverse, i.e. if a 𝜖 Z, then –a is the
For all a, b, c 𝜖 G, then (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) inverse of a.
P3: There must be an identity element.
For every e 𝜖 G, such that e * a = a * e = a for all Because each of the four conditions of a group is
a𝜖G satisfied, the integers with addition as the
P4: Each element has an inverse. operation form a group or (Z, +) is a group.
For each a 𝜖 G then for every a-1 𝜖 G, such that Because each of the four conditions of a group is
a*a-1 = a-1*a = e. satisfied, the integers with addition as the
operation form a group or (Z, +) is a group.
Example 1:
The binary operator addition mod 5, denoted by *
is defined on the set Z={0,1,2,3,4}. Complete the
table and show that (Z, *) is a group.

Groups in which the operation satisfies the

commutative property are called commutative
group or abelian group (came after the name of
Neil Abel).

If the group is a non-commutative property, it is

P1: (Z, +) is closed since all members of the called a non-abelian group.
Cayley Table are in Z.
P2: In number theory, (a + b) + c mod n = a + (b + Example 3:
c) mod n. Hence, it is associative The binary operator multiplication mod 5,
P3: The identity element is 0, e = 0. denoted by * is defined on the set Z = {0,1,2,3,4}.
P4: Each element has an inverse. 0-1=0; 1-1=4; 2- Complete the table and show that (Z, *) is a
1=3; 3-1=2; 4-1= 1 group.
Since all the properties satisfied, hence it is a
group.
So, for all n 𝜖 N, the integers mod n, which we
denote Zn, forms a group under addition.
Then, the identity is 0, and the inverse of x is −x.
Example 2:
Show that the integers with addition as the
operation form a group.
Condition one, 1 ≤ m ≤ 5 and condition two, m
Solution: and 5 must be relative prime, i.e. gcd(m,5) = 1U(5)
To be able to show that the integers with addition = {1,2,3,4} and we claim that U(5) is a group under
as the operation form a group, the four multiplication.
properties must be satisfied.
Note that U(n) is called units mod n.
P1. Let a, b Z. Now, a + b 𝜖 Z and (–a) + (– b) 𝜖 Z.
Hence it is closed under addition.
 For a given integer n > 1, let m be an integer s.t. 1
≤ m < n and gcd(m,n) = 1. Then the set of all such
integers m forms a group, denoted by U(n), A group must have an operation, a method by
called the units modulo n. which two elements of the group can be
combined to form a third element that must also
be a member of the group. The operation we will
B. Cayley Tables of Groups use is called “followed by” and it symbolized by
In our previous lesson, we discuss about ∆.
“Cayley’s Table”. Here, we are going to define
first the meaning of an order of the group.

Definition: Order of the group is just the number

of element in a group and it is denoted by |G|.

Illustration above is what we called a group of

order 1. This group is called as a trivial group.

Example 1: Find f ∆ R120

This group is called a group of order 2.

And this one is a group of order 3. Can you

complete the table?

Example 2: Find R120 ∆ R240

Example 3: Find f ∆ (Rf ∆ R120).

C. Symmetry of Groups
The concept of group is very general. The
elements that make up a group do not have to be
numbers, and the operation does not have to be
addition or multiplication. Symmetry group is
another type of group and it is based on regular
polygon (polygon whose sides are on the same
length and with the same angle measure).
 Example 4: Is Rf ∆ R240 = R240 ∆ Rf?

D. Symbolic Notation
The operation notation for symmetry triangle can
be presented into other notation called as
symbolic notation and/or permutation.

Also, to find the inverse of any of these

arrangement, say A, we need to follow the
notation such that;
A ∆ A-1 = I.
or in other words that A followed by A-1 is equal
to its identity.
Now, what would be the inverse of A-1=
To be able to find the inverse of A, remember
that
A ∆ A-1 = I. So;

Let us check: