Three Dots Sewamarg Public School,

Aligarh
An E-Learning Initiative for continuous
learning
Class-XII / Subject-PHYSICS/ July/2021-22

CHAPTER NAME: Moving charge & Magnetism (Chapter-4)

EXPLANATORY NOTES:
Introduction:
 Earlier it was believe that there is no connection between electric and magnetic force and both of them
are completely different.
 But in 1820 Oersted showed that the electric current through a wire deflect the magnetic needle placed
near the wire and the direction of deflection of needle is reversed if we reverse the direction of current
in the wire.
 So, Oersted's experiments establishes that a magnetic field is associated with current carrying wire.
 Again if we a magnetic needle near a bar magnet it gets deflected and rests in some other direction.
 This needle experiences the torque which turn the needle to a definite direction.
 Thus, the region near the bar magnet or current carrying where magnetic needle experience and suffer
deflection is called magnetic field.

The Magnetic Field

 We can describe the interaction of moving charges that, a moving charge exert a magnetic field in the
space surrounding it and this magnetic field exert a force on the moving charge.
 Like electric field, magnetic field is also a vector quantity and is represented by symbol B
 Like electric field force which depend on the magnitude of charge and electric field, magnetic force is
proportional to the magnitude of charge and the strength of magnetic field.
 Apart from its dependence on magnitude of charge and magnetic field strength magnetic force also
depends on velocity of the particle.
 The magnitude magnetic force increase with increase in speed of charged particle.
 Direction of magnetic force depends on direction of magnetic field B and velocity v of the charged
particle.
 The direction of magnetic force is not along the direction of magnetic field but direction of force is
always perpendicular to direction of both magnetic field B and velocity v
 Test charge of magnitude q0 is moving with velocity v through a point P in magnetic field B experience
a deflecting force F defined by an equation
F=qv X B
 As mentioned earlier this force on charged particle is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B and
its direction is determined right hand thumb rule.
  When moving charge is positive the direction of force F is the direction of advancement of right hand
screw whose axis is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B.

 Direction of force would be opposite to the direction of advancement of right hand screw for negative
charge moving in same direction.
 Magnitude of force on charged particle is
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑜 𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃, where θ is the angle between v and B.
 If v and B are at right angle to each other i.e. θ=90 then force acting on the particle would be maximum
and is given by
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑜 𝑣𝐵 ----(3)
 When θ=180 or θ=0 i.e. v is parallel or anti parallel to B then force acting on the particle would be zero.
 Again from equation 2 if the velocity of the particle in the magnetic field is zero i.e., particle is
stationery in magnetic field then it does not experience any force.
 SI unit of strength of magnetic field is Tesla (T). It can be defined as follows
𝐵 = 𝐹/(𝑞𝑜 𝑣 sin 𝜃)
for 𝐹 = 1𝑁, 𝑞 = 1𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 1𝑚/𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 90
1𝑇 = 1𝑁𝐴−1 𝑚−1
Thus if a charge of 1C when moving with velocity of 1 m/s along the direction perpendicular to the
magnetic field experiences a force of 1N then magnitude of field at that point is equal to 1 Tesla (1T).
 Another SI unit of magnetic field is Weber/m2 Thus
1𝑊𝑏
= 1𝑇 = 1𝑁𝐴−1 𝑚−1
𝑚2

In CGS system, the magnetic field is expressed in 'gauss'. And 1T= 104 gauss. Dimension formula of
magnetic field (B) is [MT-2A-1]

Biot Savart Law

 We know that electric current or moving charges are source of magnetic field
 A Small current carrying conductor of length dl (length element ) carrying current I is a elementary
source of magnetic field .The force on another similar conductor can be expressed conveniently in
terms of magnetic field dB due to the first
 The dependence of magnetic field dB on current I ,on size and orientation of the length element dl and
on distance r was first guessed by Biot and savart
 The magnitude of the magnetic field dB at a distance r from a current element dl carrying current I is
found to be proportional to I ,to the length dl and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
|r|
 The direction of the magnetic Field is perpendicular to the line element dl as well as radius r
 Mathematically, Field dB is written as

Here (μ0/4π) is the proportionality constant such that

μ0/4π=10-7 Tesla Meter/Ampere(Tm/A)
 Figure below illustrates the relation between magnetic field and current element

 If in figure, Consider that line element dl and radius vector r connecting line element mid point to the
field point P at which field is to be found are in the plane of the paper
 From equation (1) ,we expect magnetic field to be perpendicular to both dl and r.Thus direction of dB is
the direction of advance of right hand screw whose axis is perpendicular to the plane formed
by dl and r and which is rotated from dl to r ( right hand screw rule of vector product)
 Thus in figure ,dB at point P is perpendicular directed downwards represented by the symbol (x) and
point Q field is directed in upward direction represented by the symbol (•)
 The magnitude of magnetic field is

where θ is the angle between the line element dl and radius vector r
 The resultant field at point P due to whole conductor can be found by integrating equation (1) over the
length of the conductor i.e.
B=∫dB
Relation between permeability (μ0 and permittivity (ε0) of the free space
 We know that
𝜇𝑜
= 10−7 𝑁/𝐴2 ----(a)
4𝜋
and
1
= 9 ∗ 109 𝑁𝑚2 /𝐶 2 ----(b)
4𝜋𝜖𝑜
Dividing equation a by b we get
μ0ε0 =1/(9*1016) (C/Am)2
we know that
1C=1A-s
So μ0ε0 =1/(3*108 m/s)2
And 3*108 m/s is the speed of the light in free space
So μ0ε0=1/c2
or c=1/√(μ0ε0)

Magnetic Field along axis of a circular current carrying coil

 Let there be a circular coil of radius R and carrying current I. Let P be any point on the axis of a coil at a
distance x from the center and which we have to find the field
 To calculate the field consider a current element Idl at the top of the coil pointing perpendicular
towards the reader
 Current element Idl and r is the vector joining current element and point P as shown below in the
figure

 From Biot Savart law, the magnitude of the magnetic field due to this current element at P is

where Φ is the angle between the length element dl and r

 Since Idl and r are perpendicular to each other so Φ=90.Therefore

 Resolving dB into two components we have dBsinθ along the axis of the loop and another one is
dBcosθ at right angles to the x-axis
 Since coil is symmetrical about x-axis the contribution dB due to the element on opposite side (along -y
axis ) will be equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and cancel out. Thus we only have dBsinθ
component
 The resultant B for the complete loop is given by,
B=∫dB

 sinθ=R/r =R/√(R2 + x2) So

 If the coil has N number of turns then

Direction of B
 Direction of magnetic field at a point on the axis of circular coil is along the axis and its orientation can
be obtained by using right hand thumb rule .If the fingers are curled along the current, the stretched
thumb will point towards the magnetic field
 Magnetic field will be out of the page for anti-clockwise current and into the page for clockwise
direction
Field at center of the coil
 At the center of the coil x=0
so

Field at point far away from the center x>>>R

 In this case R in the denominator can be neglected hence

 For coil having N number of turns

 If the area of the coil is πR2 then

  m=NIA represents the magnetic moment of the current coil. Thus from equation (17) we have

Ampere's circuital law

 Ampere's circuital law in magnetism is analogous to gauss's law in electrostatics
 This law is also used to calculate the magnetic field due to any given current distribution
 This law states that
" The line integral of resultant magnetic field along a closed plane curve is equal to μ0 time the total
current crossing the area bounded by the closed curve provided the electric field inside the loop
remains constant" Thus

where μ0 is the permeability of free space and Ienc is the net current enclosed by the loop as shown
below in the figure

 The circular sign in equation (21) means that scalar product B.dl is to be integrated around the closed
loop known as Amperian loop whose beginning and end point are same
 Anticlockwise direction of integration as chosen in figure 9 is an arbitrary one we can also use
clockwise direction of integration for our calculation depending on our convenience
 To apply the ampere's law we divide the loop into infinitesimal segments dl and for each segment, we
then calculate the scalar product of B and dl
 B in general varies from point to point so we must use B at each location of dl
 Amperian Loop is usually an imaginary loop or curve, which is constructed to permit the application of
ampere's law to a specific situation.

Proof of Ampere's Law

 Consider a long straight conductor carrying current I perpendicular to the page in upward direction as
shown below in the figure
From Biot Savart law, the magnetic field at any point P which is at a distance R from the conductor is
given by
  Direction of magnetic Field at point P is along the tangent to the circle of radius R with conductor at the
center of the circle
 For every point on the circle magnetic field has same magnitude as given by

And field is tangent to the circle at each point

 The line integral of B around the circle is

since ∫dl=2πR ie, circumference of the circle so,

This is the same result as stated by Ampere law

 This ampere's law is true for any assembly of currents and for any closed curve though we have proved
the result using a circular Amperian loop
 If the wire lies outside the Amperian loop, the line integral of the field of that wire will be zero

but does not necessarily mean that B=0 everywhere along the path ,but only that no current is linked
by the path
 While choosing the path for integration, we must keep in mind that point at which field is to be
determined must lie on the path and the path must have enough symmetry so that the integral can be
evaluated.

Magnetic field of a solenoid

 A solenoid is a long wire wound in a close-packed helix carrying a current I and the length of the
solenoid is much greater then its diameter
 Figure below shows a section of a stretched out solenoid in xy and yz plane

 The solenoid magnetic field is the vector sum of the field produced by the individual turns that make
up the solenoid
  Magnetic field B is nearly uniform and parallel to the axis of the solenoid at interior points near its
center and external field near the center is very small
 Consider a dashed closed path abcd as shown in figure .Let l be the length of side ab of the loop which
is parallel to the is of the solenoid
 Let us also consider that sides bc and da of the loop are very-very long so that side cd is very much far
away from the solenoid and magnetic field at this side is negligibly small and for simplicity we
consider its equal to 0
 At side a magnetic field B is approximately parallel and constant. So for this side
∫B.dl=Bl
 Magnetic field B is perpendicular to sides bc and da ,hence these portions of the loop does not make
any contributions to the line integral as B.dl=0 for the side bc and da
 Side cd lies at external points solenoid where B.dl=0 as B=0 or negligibly small outside the solenoid
 Hence sum around the entire closed path reduces to Bl
 If N are number of turns per unit length in a solenoid then number of turns in length l is nl.The total
current through the rectangle abcd is NIl and from ampere 's law
Bl=μ0NlI
or B=μ0NI (22)
 we have obtained this relation for infinitely long solenoids considering the field at external points of
the solenoid equal to zero.
 However for real solenoids external field is relatively weak rather then equal to zero
 Thus for actual solenoids relation 22 holds for internal points near the center of the solenoid
 Field at internal points of the solenoid does not depend on length and diameter of the solenoid and is
uniform over the cross-section of a solenoid.

Magnetic Field of a toroid

 We will now apply Ampere circuital law to calculate magnetic field of a toroid
 A toroidal solenoid is a hollow circular ring with a large number of turns of a wire carrying current
wound around the ring
 Suppose we have to find the magnetic field B at a point P inside the toroid as shown below in figure

 In this case amperion loop would be a circle through point P and concentric inside the toroid
 By symmetry field will have equal magnitude at all points of this circle and this field is tangential to
every point in the circle
Thus
  If there are total N number of turns ,net current crossing the area bounded by the circle is NI where I is
the current in the toroid
 using Ampere law

Thus we see that field B varies with r i.e. field B is not uniform over the cross-section of the core
because the path l=2πr is longer at the outer side of the section then at the inner side
 Imagine a concentric circle through point P' outside the toroid
 The net current passing through this circular disc is zero, since the current NI passes in and same
current passes out. Thus using Ampere's circuital law, the field B=0 outside the toroid.
Lorentz Force
 We know that force acting on any charge of magnitude q moving with velocity v inside the magnetic
field B is given by
F=q(v X B)
and this is the magnetic force on charge q due to its motion inside magnetic field.
 If both electric field E and magnetic field B are present i.e., when a charged particle moves through a
region of space where both electric field and magnetic field are present both field exert a force on the
particle and the total force on the particle is equal to the vector sum of the electric field and magnetic
field force.
𝑭 = 𝑞𝑬 + 𝑞(𝒗 𝑋 𝑩) ……………….. (4)
 This force in equation (4) is known as Lorentz Force.
 Where important point to note is that magnetic field is not doing any work on the charged particle as it
always act in perpendicular direction to the motion of the charge.

Motion of Charged Particle in the Magnetic Field

 As we have mentioned earlier magnetic force 𝐹 = (𝑣𝑋𝐵) does not do any work on the particle as it is
perpendicular to the velocity.
 Hence magnetic force does not cause any change in kinetic energy or speed of the particle.
 Let us consider there is a uniform magnetic field B perpendicular to the plane of paper and directed in
downward direction and is indicated by the symbol C in figure shown below.
 Now a charge particle +q is projected with a velocity v to the magnetic field at point O with velocity v
directed perpendicular to the magnetic field.
 Magnetic force acting on the particle is
𝑭 = 𝑞(𝒗 𝑋 𝑩) = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Since v is perpendicular to B i.e., angle between v and B is θ=90 Thus charged particle at point O is
acted upon by the force of magnitude
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
and the direction of force would be perpendicular to both v and B
 Since the force f is perpendicular to the velocity, it would not change the magnitude of the velocity and
the effect of this force is only to change the direction of the velocity.
 Thus under the action of the magnetic force of the particle will more along the circle perpendicular to
the field.
 Therefore the charged particle describe an anticlockwise circular path with constant speed v and here
magnetic force work as centripetal force. Thus
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 = 𝑚𝑣 2 /𝑟
where radius of the circular path traversed by the particle in the magnetic in field B is given as
𝑟 = 𝑚𝑣/𝑞𝐵 ---(5)
thus radius of the path is proportional to the momentum mv of the charged particle.
 2πr is the distance travelled by the particle in one revolution and the period T of the complete
revolution is
𝑇 = 2 𝜋𝑟 /𝑣
From equation(5)
𝑟/𝑣 = 𝑚/𝑞𝐵
time period T is
𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑚/𝑞𝐵 (6)
and the frequency of the particle is
1 𝑞𝐵
𝑓= = (7)
𝑇 2𝜋𝑚
 From equation (6) and (7) we see that both time period and frequency does not dependent on the
velocity of the moving charged particle.
 Increasing the speed of the charged particle would result in the increase in the radius of the circle. So
that time taken to complete one revolution would remain same.
 If the moving charged particle exerts the magnetic field in such a that velocity v of particle makes an
angle θ with the magnetic field then we can resolve the velocity in two components
vparallel: Components of the velocity parallel to field
vperpendicular: Component of velocity perpendicular to magnetic field B
 The component vpar would remain unchanged as magnetic force is perpendicular to it.

 In the plane perpendicular to the field the particle travels in a helical path. Radius of the circular path
of the helix is
𝑚𝑣𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑟= = (8)
𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENT CARRYING WIRES:

 By Biot-Savaret’s Law:
Magnetic field produced by the current element

 For experienced by the current element I2dl2 in this magnetic field is dF=I2dl2dB1

Force between parallel conductors carrying currents in the same direction (parallel currents) is attractive, it
is repulsive in nature. If the currents are in the opposite directions (Anti Parallel Currents).
* When a charged particle moves perpendicular to a magnetic field its momentum changes but its KE and
speed remain constant. Because motion of a charged particle in a perpendicular magnetic field is circle.
* Torque acting on a dipole in a magnetic field is   𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (N-Number of truns, A-area, q angle
between m and B. 𝑚 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴, Magnetic moment, Hence   𝑚𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Torque on Current Loop

Let us consider a rectangular loop such that it carries a current of magnitude I. If we place this loop in
a magnetic field, it experiences a torque but no net force, quite similar to what an electric
dipole experiences in a uniform electric field.
Now consider the case when the magnetic field B is in the plane with the rectangular loop. No force is
exerted by the field on the arms of the loop that is parallel to the magnets, but the arms perpendicular
to the magnets experience a force given by F1,

This force is directed into the plane.

Similarly, we can write the expression for a force F2 which is exerted on the arm CD,

We see that the net force on the loop is zero and the torque on the loop is given by,

Where ab is the area of the rectangle. Here, the torque tends to rotate the loop in the anti-clockwise
direction.
Let us consider the case when the plane of the loop is not along the magnetic field. Let the angle
between the field and the normal to the coil be given by θ. We can see that the forces on the arms BC
and DA will always act opposite to each other and will be equal in magnitude. Since these forces are
the equal opposite and collinear at all points, they cancel out each other’s effect and this results in
zero-force or torque. The forces on the arms AB and CD are given by F1 and F2. These forces are equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction and can be given by,

These forces are not collinear and thus act as a couple exerting a torque on the coil. The magnitude of
the torque can be given by,

Moving Coil Galvanometer

A moving coil galvanometer is an instrument which is used to measure electric currents. It is a
sensitive electromagnetic device which can measure low currents even of the order of a few
microamperes.
Moving-coil galvanometers are mainly divided into two types:
 Suspended coil galvanometer
 Pivoted-coil or Weston galvanometer
Moving Coil Galvanometer Principle
A current-carrying coil when placed in an external magnetic field experiences magnetic torque. The
angle through which the coil is deflected due to the effect of the magnetic torque is proportional to
the magnitude of current in the coil.

Sensitivity Of Moving Coil Galvanometer

The general definition of the sensitivity experienced by a moving coil galvanometer is given as the
ratio of change in deflection of the galvanometer to the change in current in the coil.
𝑆 = 𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝐼
The sensitivity of a galvanometer is higher if the instrument shows larger deflection for a small value
of current. Sensitivity is of two types, namely current sensitivity and voltage sensitivity.
 Current Sensitivity
The deflection θ per unit current I is known as current sensitivity θ/I
𝜃/𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝐵/𝑘
 Voltage Sensitivity
The deflection θ per unit voltage is known as Voltage sensitivity θ/V. Dividing both sides by V in the
equation 𝜃 = (𝑛𝐴𝐵 / 𝑘)𝐼;
𝜃/𝑉 = (𝑛𝐴𝐵 /𝑉 𝑘)𝐼 = (𝑛𝐴𝐵 / 𝑘)(𝐼/𝑉) = (𝑛𝐴𝐵 /𝑘)(1/𝑅)
R stands for the effective resistance in the circuit.
It is worth noting that voltage sensitivity = Current sensitivity/ Resistance of the coil. Therefore,
under the condition that R remains constant; voltage sensitivity ∝ Current sensitivity.

Figure of Merit of a Galvanometer

It is the ratio of the full-scale deflection current and the number of graduations on the scale of the
instrument. It also the reciprocal of the current sensitivity of a galvanometer.
Factors Affecting Sensitivity of a Galvanometer
a) Number of turns in the coil
b) Area of the coil
c) Magnetic field strength B
d) The magnitude of couple per unit twist k/nAB
Applications of Galvanometer
The moving coil galvanometer is a highly sensitive instrument due to which it can be used to detect
the presence of current in any given circuit. If a galvanometer is a connected in a Wheatstone’s bridge
circuit, the pointer in the galvanometer shows null deflection, i.e no current flows through the device.
The pointer deflects to the left or right depending on the direction of the current.
The galvanometer can be used to measure:
a) the value of current in the circuit by connecting it in parallel to low resistance.
b) the voltage by connecting it in series with high resistance.

Conversion Of Galvanometer To Ammeter

A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting it in parallel with a low resistance called
shunt resistance. Suitable shunt resistance is chosen depending on the range of the ammeter.

In the given circuit

RG – Resistance of the galvanometer
G- Galvanometer coil
I – Total current passing through the circuit
IG – Total current passing through the galvanometer which corresponds to full-scale reading
Rs – Value of shunt resistance
When current IG passes through the galvanometer, the current through the shunt resistance is given
by 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼 – 𝐼𝐺 . The voltages across the galvanometer and shunt resistance are equal due to the
parallel nature of their connection.
Therefore
RG .IG= (I- IG).Rs
The value of S can be obtained using the above equation.

Conversion Of Galvanometer To Voltmeter

A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting it in series with high resistance. A
suitable high resistance is chosen depending on the range of the voltmeter.
In the given circuit
RG = Resistance of the galvanometer
R = Value of high resistance
G = Galvanometer coil
I = Total current passing through the circuit
IG = Total current passing through the galvanometer which corresponds to a full-scale deflection.
V = Voltage drop across the series connection of galvanometer and high resistance.
When current IG passes through the series combination of the galvanometer and the high resistance R;
the voltage drop across the branch ab is given by
V= RG.IG + R.IG
The value of R can be obtained using the above equation.