Chapter 2. Resistive Networks and Analysis Techniques-Rev

Chapter 2: Resistive Networks and
Analysis Techniques
Van Su Luong
Contents
• Resistors and Resistor Color Coding

• Ohm’s Law
• Kirchoff’s Laws
• Series and Parallel Circuits
• Resistive network analysis
• Node-voltage and Mesh-current methods
• Superposition Theorem
• Thevenin’s and Norton’s Circuits
http://phenikaa-uni.edu.vn
Types of Resistors
Resistor Color Coding
• Four-Band Color Code
• Examples:
• Five-Band Color Code
➢ Precision resistors often use a five-band code
to obtain more accurate R values.
➢ The first three stripes indicate the first 3 digits
in the R value.
➢ The fourth stripe is the multiplier.
➢ The tolerance is given by the fifth stripe.
✓ Brown = 1%
✓ Red = 2%
✓ Green = 0.5%
✓ Blue = 0.25%
✓ Violet = 0.1%.
• Surface-mount resistors (Chip resistors)
Rheostats and Potentiometers
• Variable resistors:
Ohm’s Law
• There are three forms of Ohm’s Law:
➢ I = V/R
➢ V = IR
➢ R = V/I
where:
➢ I = Current
➢ V = Voltage
➢ R = Resistance
Ohm’s Law
• Examples:
?
20 V
20 V 4W I = =5A
4W
1A
? 12 W V = 1A × 12 W = 12 V
3A
6V
6V ? R = =2W
3A
Ohm’s Law
• The Linear Proportion between V and I
➢ I decreases as R increases.
➢ I increases as R decreases.
Ohm’s Law
• Linear Resistance:
1W 2W
➢ A linear resistance has
a constant value of ohms. 4
Its R does not change with
the applied voltage, so V 3
and I are directly
Amperes
4W
proportional. 2
➢ Carbon-film and metal-

film resistors are examples 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
of linear resistors.
Volts
Ohm’s Law
• Non-Linear Resistance:
➢ In a nonlinear resistance, increasing the applied V
produces more current, but I does not increase in the same
proportion as the increase in V.
Amperes
Volts
Electric Power
• There are three basic power formulas:
V2
P = VI P = I 2R P=
R
P P
I= R= 2 V2
V R=
I P
P P
V= I= V = PR
I R
Where:
P = Power V = Voltage I = Current R=Resistance
Electric Power
• Applying Power Formulas:
5A P = VI = 20 × 5 = 100 W
20 V 4W
P = I2R = 25 × 4 = 100 W
V2 400
P= = = 100 W
R 4
Electric Power
• Choosing a Resistor for a Circuit:

➢ Determine the required resistance value as R = V / I.
➢ Calculate the power dissipated by the resistor using any of the power
formulas.
➢ Select a wattage rating for the resistor that will provide an adequate
cushion between the actual power dissipation and the resistor’s power
rating.
➢ A resistor’s maximum working voltage rating is the maximum voltage a
resistor can withstand without internal arcing.
➢ The higher the wattage rating of the resistor, the higher the maximum
working voltage rating.
Series Circuits
• Formulas:
i = i1 = i2 = ... = in v
i=
v = v1 + v2 + ... + vn Req
Series Circuits
• Characteristics of a Series Circuit:

• The current is the same everywhere in a series circuit.
• The total resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistance values.
• The total voltage is equal to the sum of the IR voltage drops across the
individual resistances.
• The total power is equal to the sum of the power dissipated by each
resistance.
• Current is the movement of electric charge between two points, produced
by the applied voltage.
• The free electrons moving away from one point are continuously replaced
by free electrons flowing from an adjacent point in the series circuit.
• All electrons have the same speed as those leaving the voltage source.
• Therefore, I is the same in all parts of a series circuit.
Series Circuits
• Determining the Total Resistance:
R1 = 10 W R2 = 15 W
R3 = 20 W
R5 = 25 W R4 = 30 W
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
RT = 10 W + 15 W + 20 W + 30 W + 25 W = 100 W
Series Circuits
• Opens and Shorts in Series Circuits:
Parallel Circuits
• Formulas:
i = i1 + i2 + ... + in
v = i  Req
v = v1 = v2 = ... = vn
Parallel Circuits
• Characteristics of a Parallel Circuit:

➢ Voltage is the same across each branch in a parallel circuit.
➢ The total current is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents.
➢ The equivalent resistance (REQ) is less than the smallest branch resistance.
The term equivalent resistance refers to a single resistance that would draw
the same amount of current as all of the parallel connected branches.
➢ Total power is equal to the sum of the power dissipated by each branch
resistance.
➢ A parallel circuit is formed when two or more components are connected
across the same two points.
➢ A common application of parallel circuits is the typical house wiring of many
receptacles to the 120-V 60 Hz ac power line.
Parallel Circuits
• Determining the Equivalent Resistance:
Parallel Circuits
• Conductance:
➢Conductance (G) is equal to 1 / R.
➢Each value of G is the reciprocal of R. Each branch
current is directly proportional to its conductance.
➢Note that the unit for G is the Siemens (S).
➢Total (equivalent) conductance of a parallel circuit is given
by:
Parallel Circuits
• Conductance:
Parallel Circuits
• Opens and Shorts in Series Circuits:
Series-Parallel Circuits
• Examples:
• Examples:
• Examples:
• Examples:
Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers
• Voltage Dividers:
• Series Voltage Dividers:
• Current Divider:
Node, Branch, Loop, Mesh
• Examples:
Node, Branch, Loop, Mesh
• Example:
➢ A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor. In
other words, a branch represents any two-terminal element.
➢ A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
➢ A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
Kirchhoff’s Laws (KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law
(KCL):
➢ The sum of currents entering
any point in a circuit is equal to
the sum of currents leaving that
point.
➢ Otherwise, charge would
accumulate at the point,
reducing or obstructing the
conducting path.
➢ Kirchhoff’s Current Law may
also be stated as IIN = IOUT
Kirchhoff’s Laws (KVL)
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL):
➢ A loop is a closed path.
➢ This approach uses the
algebraic equations for the
voltage around the loops of a
circuit to determine the branch
currents.
➢ Use the IR drops and KVL to
write the loop equations.
➢ A loop equation specifies the
voltages around the loop.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
The 6-A IT into point C divides into the 2-A I3 and 4-A I4-5
I4-5 is the current through R4 and R5

IT − I3 − I4-5 = 0
6A − 2A − 4A = 0
At either point C or point D, the sum of the 2-A and the 4-

A branch currents must equal the 6A line current.
Therefore, Iin = Iout
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• Loop Equations
• A loop is a closed path.
• This approach uses the algebraic equations for the
voltage around the loops of a circuit to determine
the branch currents.
• Use the IR drops and KVL to write the loop equations.
• A loop equation specifies the voltages around the loop.
• Loop Equations
• ΣV = VT means the sum of the IR voltage drops must
equal the applied voltage. This is another way of stating
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.
In previous Figure, for the inside loop with the source VT, going
counterclockwise from point B,
90V + 120V + 30V = 240V
If 240V were on the left side of the equation, this term would
have a negative sign.
The loop equations show that KVL is a practical statement that

the sum of the voltage drops must equal the applied voltage.
• The algebraic sum of the

voltage rises and IR voltage
drops in any closed path
must total zero.
For the loop CEFDC without

source the equation is
−V4 − V5 + V3 = 0
−40V − 80V + 120V = 0
0=0
Method of Branch Currents
Figure: Application of
Kirchhoff’s laws to a
circuit with two
sources in different
branches.
VR1 = I1R1 VR2 = I2R2 VR3 = I3R3 VR3 = (I1+I2)R3
Loop equations:
V1 – I1R1 – (I1+I2) R3 = 0 V2 – I2R2 – (I1+I2) R3 = 0
Loop 1:
84 − VR1 − VR3 = 0
Loop 2:
2I − VR2 − VR3 = 0
Using the known values of R1, R2 and R3 to specify the IR voltage drops,
VR1 = I1R1 = I1  12 = 12 I1
VR2 = I2R2 = I2  3 = 3 I2
VR3 = (I1 + I2) R3 = 6(I1 + I2)
Substituting these values in the voltage equation for loop 1
84 − 12I1 − 6(I1 + I2) = 0
Also, in loop 2,
2I − 3I2 − 6 (I1 + I2) = 0
Multiplying (I1 + I2) by 6 and combining
terms and transposing, the two equations
are
18I1 − 6I2 = −84

−6I1 − 9I2 = −21
Divide the top equation by −6 and the

bottom by −3 which results in simplest and
positive terms
3I1 + I2 = 14
2I1 + 3I2 = 7
Solving for currents
Using the method of elimination, multiply the top
equation by 3 to make the I2 terms the same in both
equations
9I1 + 3I2 = 42
1I1 + 3I2 = 7
Subtracting
7I1 = 35
I1 = 5A
To determine I2, substitute 5 for I1
2(5) + 3I2 = 7
3I2 = 7 − 10
3I2 = −3
I2 = −1A
This solution of −1A for I2 shows that the current through R2
produced by V1 is more than the current produced by V2.
The net result is 1A through R2 from C to E
Calculating the Voltages
VR1 = I1R1 = 5 x 12 = 60V
VR2 = I2R2 = 1 x 3 = 3V
VR3 = I3R3 = 4 x 6 = 24V
Note: VR3 and VR2 have opposing polarities in loop 2.
This results in the −21V of V2
Checking the Solution
At point C: 5A = 4A + 1A
At point D: 4A + 1A = 5A
Around the loop with V1

clockwise from B,
84V − 60V − 24V = 0
Around the loop with V2

counterclockwise from F,
21V + 3V − 24V = 0
Node-Voltage Analysis
• A principal node is a point where three or more

currents divide or combine, other than ground.
• The method of node voltage analysis uses
algebraic equations for the node currents to
determine each node voltage.
• Use KCL to determine node currents
• Use Ohm’s Law to calculate the voltages.
• The number of current equations required to solve a
circuit is one less than the number of principal nodes.
• One node must be the reference point for specifying

the voltage at any other node.
• Finding the voltage at a node presents an

advantage: A node voltage must be common to two
loops, so that voltage can be used for calculating all
voltages in the loops.
Node Voltage Method
R1 R2
N
I1 I2
V1 I3 R3 V2
At node N: I1 + I2 = I3
or
VR VR VN
1 2 =
+
R1 R2 R3
VR1/R1 + VR2 = VN/R3
VR1/12 + VR2/3 = VN/6
VR1+ VN = 84 or VR1 = 84 − VN
For the loop with V2 of 21V,
VR2 + VN = 21 or VR2 = 21 − VN
Substituting values
I1 + I2 =I3
Using the value of each V in terms of VN
84 − VN/12 + 21 − VN/3 = VN/6
This equation has only one unknown, VN. Clearing fractions by multiplying
each term by 12, the equation is
(84 − VN) + 4(21 − VN) = 2VN
84- VN + 84 − 4VN = 2VN
− 7VN = −168
VN = 24V
Calculating All Voltages and Currents
Node Equations Loop Equations

• Applies KCL to currents • Applies KVL to the
in and out of a node voltages in a closed path.
point.
• Currents are specified • Voltages are specified as
as V/R so the equation IR so the equation of
of currents can be voltages can be solved to
solved to find a node find a loop current.
voltage.
Superposition Theorem
• The superposition theorem extends the use of Ohm’s

Law to circuits with multiple sources.
• In order to apply the superposition theorem to a network,

certain conditions must be met:
1. All the components must be linear, meaning that the current is

proportional to the applied voltage.
2. All the components must be bilateral, meaning that the current

is the same amount for opposite polarities of the source voltage.
3. Passive components may be used. These are components

such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors, that do not amplify
or rectify.
4. Active components may not be used. Active components

include transistors, semiconductor diodes, and electron tubes.
Such components are never bilateral and seldom linear.
• In a linear, bilateral network that has more than one

source, the current or voltage in any part of the network
can be found by adding algebraically the effect of each
source separately.
• This analysis is done by:

• shorting each voltage source in turn.
• opening each current source in turn.
Figure: Superposition theorem applied to a voltage divider with two sources V1 and V2. (a) Actual
circuit with +13 V from point P to chassis ground. (b) V1 alone producing +16 V at P. (c) V2 alone
producing −3 V at P.
R1 R2
15 V 100 W 20 W 13 V
V1 10 W R3 V2
R1 R2
15 V 100 W 20 W
V2 shorted
V1 10 W R3
REQ = 106.7 W, IT = 0.141 A and IR3 = 0.094 A
Superposition Theorem (Applied)
R1 R2
15 V 100 W 20 W 13 V
V1 10 W R3 V2
R1 R2
100 W 20 W 13 V
V1 shorted
10 W R3 V2
REQ = 29.09 W, IT = 0.447 A and IR3 = 0.406 A
Superposition Theorem (Applied)
R1 R2
15 V 100 W 20 W 13 V
V1 V2
0.094 A 0.406 A
With V2 shorted
REQ = 106.7 W, IT = 0.141 A and IR3 = 0.094 A
With V1 shorted
REQ = 29.09 W, IT = 0.447 A and IR3 = 0.406 A
Adding the currents gives IR3 = 0.5 A
Superposition Theorem (Check)
R1 R2
15 V 100 W 20 W 13 V
V1 10 W R3 V2
0.5 A
With 0.5 A flowing in R3, the voltage across R3 must

be 5 V (Ohm’s Law). The voltage across R1 must
therefore be 10 volts (KVL) and the voltage across R2
must be 8 volts (KVL). Solving for the currents in R1
and R2 will verify that the solution agrees with KCL.
IR1 = 0.1 A and IR2 = 0.4 A
IR3 = 0.1 A + 0.4 A = 0.5 A
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem simplifies the process of solving for

the unknown values of voltage and current in a network
by reducing the network to an equivalent series circuit
connected to any pair of network terminals.
• Any network with two open terminals can be replaced by

a single voltage source (VTH) and a series resistance
(RTH) connected to the open terminals. A component can
be removed to produce the open terminals.
Figure: Application of Thevenin’s theorem. (a) Actual circuit with terminals A and B across RL.
(b) Disconnect RL to find that VAB is 24V. (c) Short-circuit V to find that RAB is 2Ω.
Figure (d) Thevenin equivalent circuit. (e) Reconnect RL at terminals A and B to find that VL is
12V.
• Determining Thevenin Resistance and Voltage

• RTH is determined by shorting the voltage source and
calculating the circuit’s total resistance as seen from open
terminals A and B.
• VTH is determined by calculating the voltage between
open terminals A and B.
Note that R3 does not change the value of VAB

produced by the source V, but R3 does increase
the value of RTH.
Figure: Thevenizing the circuit of Fig. 10-3 but with a 4-Ω R3 in series with the A terminal. (a) VAB
is still 24V. (b) Now the RAB is 2 + 4 = 6 Ω. (c) Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Thevenizing a Circuit with Two Voltage
Sources
• The circuit in Figure 10-5 can be solved by

Kirchhoff’s laws, but Thevenin’s theorem can be
used to find the current I3 through the middle
resistance R3.
• Mark the terminals A and B across R3.
• Disconnect R3.
• To calculate VTH, find VAB across the open terminals
Thevenizing a Circuit with Two Voltage
Sources
Figure: Thevenizing a circuit with two voltage sources V1 and V2. (a) Original circuit with
terminals A and B across the middle resistor R3. (b) Disconnect R3 to find that VAB is −33.6V. (c)
Short-circuit V1 and V2 to find that RAB is 2.4 Ω. (d) Thevenin equivalent with RL reconnected to
terminals A and B.
Thevenizing a Bridge Circuit
• A Wheatstone Bridge Can
Be Thevenized.
• Problem: Find the
voltage drop across RL.
• The bridge is
unbalanced and
Thevenin’s theorem is a
good choice.
• RL will be removed in
this procedure making A
and B the Thevenin
terminals.
Fig: Thevenizing a bridge circuit. (a) Original circuit with terminals A and B across middle resistor
RL.
RAB = RTA + RTB = 2 + 2.4 = 4.4 Ω

VAB = −20 −(−12) = −8V
Fig(b) Disconnect RL to find VAB of −8 V. (c) With source V short-circuited, RAB is 2 + 2.4 = 4.4 Ω.
Fig(d) Thevenin equivalent with RL reconnected to terminals A and B.
Norton’s Theorem
• Norton’s theorem is used to simplify a network in terms of

currents instead of voltages.
• It reduces a network to a simple parallel circuit with a
current source (comparable to a voltage source).
• Norton’s theorem states that any network with two
terminals can be replaced by a single current source and
parallel resistance connected across the terminals.
• The two terminals are usually labeled something such as A and
B.
• The Norton current is usually labeled IN.
• The Norton resistance is usually labeled RN.
Norton’s Theorem
• Example of a Current Source

• The symbol for a current source is a circle enclosing an
arrow that indicates the direction of current flow. The
direction must be the same as the current produced by
the polarity of the corresponding voltage source (which
produces electron flow from the negative terminal).
Norton’s Theorem
Fig.: General forms for a voltage source or current source connected to a load RL across
terminals A and B. (a) Voltage source V with series R. (b) Current source I with parallel R. (c)
Current source I with parallel conductance G.
Norton’s Theorem
• Example of a Current Source

• In this example, the current I is provided constant with its
rating regardless of what may be connected across
output terminals A and B. As resistances are added, the
current divides according to the rules for parallel
branches (inversely to branch resistances but directly with
conductances).
• Note that unlike voltage sources, current sources are
killed by making them open.
Norton’s Theorem
• Determining Norton Current and Voltage

• IN is determined by calculating the current through a short
placed across terminals A and B.
• RN is determined by shorting the voltage source and

calculating the circuit’s total resistance as seen from open
terminals A and B (same procedure as for RTH).
Norton’s Theorem
• A Wheatstone Bridge Can Be Nortonized.
Fig.: Same circuit as in Fig. 10-3, but solved by Norton’s theorem. (a) Original circuit. (b)
Short circuit across terminals A and B.
Norton’s Theorem
• The Norton Equivalent Circuit

• Replace R2 with a short and determine IN.
• Apply the current divider.
• Apply KCL.
• RN = RTH.
• The current source provides 12 A total flow, regardless of
what is connected across it. With no load, all of the
current will flow in RN. When shorted, all of the current will
flow in the short.
• Connect R2.
• Apply the current divider.
• Use Ohm’s Law.
Norton’s Theorem
Fig. 10-9(c) The short-circuit current IN is 36/3 = 12 A. (d) Open terminals A and B but short-
circuit V to find RAB is 2 Ω, the same as RTH.
Norton’s Theorem
IL = IN x RN/RN + RL = 12 x 2/4 = 6 A
Fig.(e) Norton equivalent circuit. (f) RL reconnected to terminals A and B to find that IL is 6A.
Thevenin-Norton Conversions
• Thevenin’s theorem says that any network can be

represented by a voltage source and series
resistance.
• Norton’s theorem says that the same network can
be represented by a current source and shunt
resistance.
• Therefore, it is possible to convert directly from a
Thevenin form to a Norton form and vice versa.
• Thevenin-Norton conversions are often useful.
Thevenin Norton
Fig.: Thevenin equivalent circuit in (a) corresponds to the Norton equivalent in (b).
Fig.: Example of Thevenin-Norton conversions. (a) Original circuit, the same as in Figs. 10-3a
and 10-9a. (b) Thevenin equivalent. (c) Norton equivalent.
Chapter 2. Questions and Exercises
• BTVN:
Problems in Chapter 9:
Mitchel E. Schultz, Grob’s Basic Electronics 12th Ed., Mc
Graw-Hill Education (2015).
Problems in Chapter 2-3:

Agarwal, A. and Lang, J.H. Foundations of Analog and
Digital Electronic Circuits, Elsevier (2005).

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Chapter 2: Resistive Networks and

• Resistors and Resistor Color Coding

• The Linear Proportion between V and I

➢ Carbon-film and metal-

• Applying Power Formulas:

• Choosing a Resistor for a Circuit:

• Characteristics of a Series Circuit:

• Characteristics of a Parallel Circuit:

• Determining the Equivalent Resistance:

I4-5 is the current through R4 and R5

At either point C or point D, the sum of the 2-A and the 4-

Therefore, Iin = Iout

90V + 120V + 30V = 240V

The loop equations show that KVL is a practical statement that

• The algebraic sum of the

For the loop CEFDC without

VR1 = I1R1 VR2 = I2R2 VR3 = I3R3 VR3 = (I1+I2)R3

V1 – I1R1 – (I1+I2) R3 = 0 V2 – I2R2 – (I1+I2) R3 = 0

18I1 − 6I2 = −84

Divide the top equation by −6 and the

Around the loop with V1

Around the loop with V2

• A principal node is a point where three or more

• One node must be the reference point for specifying

• Finding the voltage at a node presents an

VR1/R1 + VR2 = VN/R3

VR1/12 + VR2/3 = VN/6

Calculating All Voltages and Currents

Node Equations Loop Equations

• The superposition theorem extends the use of Ohm’s

• In order to apply the superposition theorem to a network,

1. All the components must be linear, meaning that the current is

2. All the components must be bilateral, meaning that the current

3. Passive components may be used. These are components

4. Active components may not be used. Active components

• In a linear, bilateral network that has more than one

• This analysis is done by:

REQ = 106.7 W, IT = 0.141 A and IR3 = 0.094 A

REQ = 29.09 W, IT = 0.447 A and IR3 = 0.406 A

Adding the currents gives IR3 = 0.5 A

With 0.5 A flowing in R3, the voltage across R3 must

IR1 = 0.1 A and IR2 = 0.4 A

IR3 = 0.1 A + 0.4 A = 0.5 A

• Thevenin’s theorem simplifies the process of solving for

• Any network with two open terminals can be replaced by

• Determining Thevenin Resistance and Voltage

Note that R3 does not change the value of VAB

• The circuit in Figure 10-5 can be solved by

RAB = RTA + RTB = 2 + 2.4 = 4.4 Ω

Fig(d) Thevenin equivalent with RL reconnected to terminals A and B.

• Norton’s theorem is used to simplify a network in terms of

• Example of a Current Source

• Example of a Current Source

• Determining Norton Current and Voltage

• RN is determined by shorting the voltage source and

• A Wheatstone Bridge Can Be Nortonized.

• The Norton Equivalent Circuit

• Thevenin’s theorem says that any network can be

Problems in Chapter 2-3: