INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

What is a computer?
A computer is an information-processing machine. It may also be defined as a device that works
under the control of stored programs automatically accepting, storing and processing data to
produce information that is the result of that processing.
The forms of information processed include:
 Data – e.g. invoices, sales ledger and purchase ledger, payroll, stock controls etc.
 Text – widely available in many offices with microcomputers
 Graphics – e.g. business graphs, symbols
 Images – e.g. pictures
 Voice – e.g. telephone
Processing includes creating, manipulating, storing, accessing and transmitting.
Factors considered when buying a computer
 The speed of the computer
 The memory
 Flexibility i.e. its ability to operate and interact with other components
 Function i.e. how easily can one be able to handle the machine and its programs
2. Why use computers?
Use of computers has become a necessity in many fields. Computers have revolutionized the
way businesses are conducted. This is due to the advantages that computer systems offer over
manual systems. The advantages include:

 Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of processing,
measured as number of instructions executed per second.
 Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they
will always give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the
inaccuracies, which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected
and their consequences avoided in a way, which is completely transparent to the user.
 Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce
exactly the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
 Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that
failure of one of the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.
 Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of
data.
 Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute millions of instructions per
second.
Computer application areas
Some of the areas that computers are used include:

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 Communication – digital communication using computers is popular and is being

adopted worldwide as opposed to analogue communication using the telephony system.
Computers have also enhanced communication through email communication, electronic
data interchange, electronic funds transfer, Internet etc. More specific examples include:
 Banking – the banking sector has incorporated computer systems in such areas as credit
analysis, fund transfers, customer relations, automated teller machines, home banking,
and online banking.
 Organizational management – the proliferation of management information systems
have aided greatly the processes of managerial planning, controlling, directing as well as
decision-making. Computers are used in organization for transaction processing,
managerial control as well as decision-support. Other specific areas where computer
systems have been incorporated include sales and marketing, accounting, customer
service etc.
 Science, research and engineering – computers used
o as research tools, complex computations
o for simulation e.g. outer-space simulations, flight simulations
o as diagnostic and monitoring tools,
o computerized maps using global positioning satellite (GPS) technology
o for modern mass production methods in the auto industry using computer driven
technology
 Education– computers incorporate databases of information that are useful in
organizing and disseminating educational resources. Such E-learning and virtual or
distributed classrooms have enabled the teaching industry to have a global reach to the
students. Computers are also used for test scoring uniform tests done in schools, school
administration and computer aided instructions.
 Management of information materials- The Internet has massive reference material on
virtually every learning area. Computer systems have enabled the efficient running of
libraries for information storage and retrieval.
 Manufacturing and production – computer aided design (CAD), computer integrated
manufacturing (CIM), and process control systems among other technologies are
computer systems that have revolutionized the production industry.
 Entertainment – use of computers in the entertainment industry has increased
tremendously over the years. Computers enable high-quality storage of motion pictures
and music files using high-speed and efficient digital storage devices such as CDs,
VCDs and DVDs. The Internet is also a great source of entertainment resources.
Computer games have also become a major source of entertainment.
 Retailing – computers are used in point of sale systems and credit card payment systems
as well as stock inventories.
 Home appliances – computers (especially embedded computers or microprocessors) are
included in household items for reasons of economy and efficiency of such items. Major
appliances such as microwave ovens, clothes washers, refrigerators and sewing
machines are making regular use of microprocessors.
 Reservation systems – guest booking, accommodation and bills accounting using
computers in hotels have made the process to be more efficient and faster. Airline

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computer reservation systems have also enhanced and streamlined air travel across major
airlines. Major players in the industry have also adopted online reservation systems.
 Health care and medicine – computers have played an important role in the growth and
improvement of health care that the use of computers in medicine has become a medical
specialty in itself. Computers are used in such areas as maintenance of patient records,
medical insurance systems, medical diagnosis, and patient monitoring.
History of Computers
The first electronic computers were produced in the 1940s. Since then, a series of breakthroughs
in electronics have occurred leading to great improvements in the capacity, processing speed
and quality of computer resources. The evolution of computerization in business may be
summarized as:

 1870s: Development of the typewriter allows speedier communication and less copying.
 1920s: Invention of the telephone enables both Wide Area Networks (WAN) and Local
Area Networks (LAN) communication in real time. This marks the beginning of
telecommunication.
 1930s: Use of scientific management is made available to analyse and rationalize.
 1940s: Mathematical techniques developed in World War II (operations research) are
applied to the decision making process.
 1950s: Introduction of copying facilitates cheap and faster document production, and the
(limited) introduction of Electronic Data Processing (EDP) speeds up large scale transaction
processing.
 1960s: Emergence of Management Information Systems (MIS) provides background within
which office automation can develop.
 1970s: Setting up of telecommunication networks to allow for distant communication
between computer systems. There is widespread use of word processors in text editing and
formatting, advancement in personal computing- emergence of PCs. Use of spreadsheets.
 1980s: Development of office automation technologies that combine data, text, graphics and
voice. Development of DSS, EIS and widespread use of personal productivity software.
 1990s: Advanced groupware; integrated packages, combining most of the office work-
clerical, operational as well as management.
 2000s: Wide spread use of Internet and related technology in many spheres of organizations
including electronic commerce (e-commerce), e-learning, e-health
5. Computer Generations
The view of computers into generations is based on the fundamental technology employed.
Each new generation is characterized by greater speed, larger memory capacity and smaller
overall size than the previous one.
i. First Generation Computers (1946 – 1957)

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level

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programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only
solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was
displayed on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation
computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business
client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Features

1. Use of vacuum tubes

2. Big and clumsy

3. High electricity consumption

4. Programming in Mechanical Language

5. Larger AC were needed

6. Lot of electricity failure occurred

Limitations

1. They used vacuum tubes as their main electronic component

2. They were large in size, slow in processing and had less storage capacity

3. They consumed lots of electricity and produced lots of heat

4. Their computing capabilities were limited

5. They were not so accurate and reliable

6. They used Machine level for programming

7. They were very expensive.

ii. Second Generation Computers (1958 - 1964)

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the
late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that
subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output.

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Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,

or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy
industry

Features

1. Transistors were used

2. Core memory was developed

3. Faster than first generation computers

4. First Operating System was introduced

5. Programming was in Machine and Assembly language

6. Magnetic tapes and disks were used

7. Computer became smaller in size than the first generation computers

8. Computers consumed less heat and consumed less electricity

iii. Third Generation Computers (1965 - 1971)

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed
the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that
monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass
audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Features

1. Integrated circuits developed

2. Power consumption was low

3. SSI and MSI technology was used

4. High level languages were used

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iv. Fourth Generation Computers (1972 - Present)

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled
an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in
1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and
memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use
microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Features

1. LSI & VLSI technology used

2. Development of portable computers

3. RAID technology of storage data

4. Used in virtual reality, multimedia, simulation

5. Computers started in use for Data Communication

6. Different types of memories with very high accessing speed and storage capacity

v. Fifth Generation Computers

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are
being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology
will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-
generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and
are capable of learning and self-organization.
Features
1. Used in parallel processing
2. Used superconductors
3. Used in speech recognition
4. Used in intelligent robots

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5. Used in artificial intelligence

6. Classification of computers

Computers

Analo Digital Hybrid

g

Super computer Mainframe Mini Micro

computers computers computers

Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:

Classification by processing
This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.
a) Digital computers are computers which process data that is represented in the form of
discrete values by operating on it in steps. Digital computers process data represented in
the form of discrete values like 0, 1, 2. They are used for both business data processing
and scientific purposes since digital computation results in greater accuracy.
b) Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled purposes.
Outputs are represented in the form of graphs. Analogue computers process data
represented by physical variables and output physical magnitudes in the form of smooth
graphs.
c) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of digital and analog
computers. They offer an efficient and economical method of working out special
problems in science and various areas of engineering.
Classification by purpose
This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.
a) Special purpose computers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in medicine,
engineering, manufacturing.
b) General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks e.g. accounting, word
processing
Classification by generation

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This is a time-based classification coinciding with technological advances.

The computers are categorized as First generation through to Fifth generation.
a) First generation. Computers of the early 1940s. Used a circuitry of wires and vacuum
tubes. Produced a lot of heat, took a lot of space, were very slow and expensive.
Examples are LEO 1 and UNIVAC 1.
b) Second generation. Computers of the early 1950s. Made use of transistors and thus were
smaller and faster. (200 KHz). Examples include the IBM system 1000.
c) Third generation. Computers of the 1960s. Made use of Integrated Circuits. Speeds of up
to 1MHz. Examples include the IBM system 360.
d) Fourth generation. Computers of the 1970s and 1980s. Used Large Scale Integration
(LSI) technology. Speeds of up to 10MHz. Examples include the IBM 4000 series.
e) Fifth generation. Computers of the 1990s. Use Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
technology and have speeds up to 400MHz and above.
Classification by power and size/ configuration
a) Supercomputers: They are the best in terms of processing capacity and also the most
expensive ones. These computers can process billions of instructions per second. Used to
process large amounts of data very quickly. The largest and most powerful. Normally,
they will be used for applications which require intensive numerical computations such as
stock analysis, weather forecasting etc. Other uses of supercomputers are scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research,
electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).
Perhaps the best known super computer manufacturer is Cray Research. Some of the
"traditional" companies which produce super computers are Cray, IBM and Hewlett-
Packard. Large computers in terms of price, power and size. Require a carefully
controlled environment and specialist staff to operate them used for centralized
processing for large commercial organizations. Manufacturers include International
Business Machine (IBM).
b) Mainframe computers: Mainframe computers can also process data at very high speeds
i.e. hundreds of million instructions per second and they are also quite expensive.
Normally, they are used in banking, airlines and railways etc for their applications.
c) Minicomputers: Mini computers are lower to mainframe computers in terms of speed
and storage capacity. They are also less expensive than mainframe computers. Some of
the features of mainframes will not be available in mini computers. Hence, their
performance also will be less than that of mainframes. Used as departmental computers in
large organizations or as the main computer in medium-sized organizations.
Manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM and International Computer Limited (ICL).
d) Microcomputers: These are the personal computers commonly used for office and
leisure activities. Examples include Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell. They
include desktops, laptops and palmtops. The invention of microprocessor (single chip
CPU) gave birth to the much cheaper micro computers. They are further classified into
i. Desktop computers: Desktop computers are the most popular computer systems.
These desktop computers are also known as personal computers or simply PCs. They

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are usually easier to use and more affordable. They are normally intended for
individual users for their word processing and other small application requirements.
ii. Laptop computers: Laptop computers are portable computers. They are lightweight
computers with a thin screen. They are also called as notebook computers because of
their small size. They can operate on batteries and hence are very popular with
travelers. The screen folds down onto the keyboard when not in use.
iii. Handheld computers (PDAs): Handheld computers or Personal Digital Assistants
(PDAs) are pen-based and also battery-powered. They are small and can be carried
anywhere. They use a pen like stylus and accept handwritten input directly on the
screen. They are not as powerful as desktops or laptops but they are used for
scheduling appointments, storing addresses and playing games. They have touch
screens which we use with a finger or a stylus.
Personal computers come in two main styles: PC and Mac. Both styles are fully functional but
they do have different look and feel, many prefer one or the other.
 PC: This type of computer began with the original IBM PC that was introduced in 1981.
Other companies began to create similar computers, which were called IBM PC
Compatible (often shortened to PC). Today, this is the most common type of personal
computer, and it typically includes the Microsoft Windows operating system.
 MAC: The Macintosh computer was introduced in 1984, and it was the first widely sold
personal computer with a Graphical User Interface, or GUI. All Macs are made by one
company, Apple Inc., and they almost always use the Mac OS X operating system.

8. Functional/Logical parts of a digital computer

The system unit houses the processing components of the computer system. All other computer
system devices are called peripherals, and are connected directly or indirectly into the system
unit.

 Input devices – Enters program and data into computer system.

 Central Processing Unit (CPU) – This is the part of the computer that processes data.
Consists of main memory, the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit.
 Main Memory – Temporary storage to hold programs and data during execution/
processing.
 Control Unit – Controls execution of programs.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs actual processing of data using program
instructions.
 Output devices – Displays information processed by the computer system.
 Storage devices
Computer – Permanent storage of data and programs before and after it is processed
system
by the computer system.
 Communication devices – Enable communication with other computers.
CPU

Communication Devices

System Unit

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Control Unit Arithmetic &

Logic Unit

Registers (storage area)

Main Memory
Input Output
(Primary storage)
Devices Devices

Secondary Storage Devices

COMPUTER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Hardware
Refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide support for
major functions such as input, processing (internal storage, computation and control), output,
secondary storage (for data and programs), and communication.
Hardware categories
A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and
information. Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device.
There are five main hardware components in a computer system: the central processing unit
(CPU); primary storage (main memory); secondary storage; and input and output devices.
Von neuman architecture
• The model of the typical digital computer is often called the Von Neumann computer.
Programs and data are stored in the same memry. The computer can perform one
instruction at a time. All computers more or less based on the same basic design, the
“Von Neumann” Architecture! Model for designing and building computers, based on
the following three characteristics:
– The computer’s four main sub-systems:
• Memory
• ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit)
• Control Unit
• Input/output System (I/O)
– Program is stored in memory during execution.
– Program instructions are executed sequentially.

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Sources of data for the computer

 Two types of data stored within a computer:
 Original data or information: Data being introduced to a computing system for
the first time.
 Computers can deal directly with printed text, pictures, sound, and other
common types of information.
 Previously stored data or information: Data that has already been processed by
a computer and is being stored for later use.
 These are forms of binary data useful only to the computer.
 Examples: Floppy disks, DVD disks, and music CDs.

The five
Basic elements/components of hardware
Input devices
Two categories of input hardware:
o Those that deal with original data.
o Those that handle previously stored data.
Input hardware: Those that deal with original data.
o Keyboard
o Mouse
o Voice recognition hardware
o Scanner
o Digital camera
o Digitizing: The process of taking a visual image, or audio recording and
converting it to a binary form for the computer.
o Used as data for programs to display, play or manipulate the digitized data.
Most computers cannot accept data in forms customary to human communication such as speech
or hand-written documents. It is necessary, therefore, to present data to the computer in a way
that provides easy conversion into its own electronic pulse-based forms. This is commonly
achieved by typing data using the keyboard or using an electronic mouse or any other input
device.

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 Keyboard can be connected to a computer system through a terminal. A terminal is a

form of input and output device. A terminal can be connected to a mainframe or other
types of computers called a host computer or server. There are four types of terminals
namely dumb, intelligent, network and Internet. Possesses the standard typewriter layout
of letters/digits and punctuation. In addition it has function keys which are used by
particular software for pre-arranged purposes. e.g. F1 is often used for HELP features. A
separate numeric keypad is useful for pure numeric entry such as in retail data entry.
Additional keys are available for Internet access. Candidates should NOT quote
particular function keys in describing use of software because these keys may only apply
to that particular package.
 Uses – Text data entry where there is little structure such as names and addresses.
 Corrections to data.
 Entries to general purpose software programs such as word processing.
Advantages – Ideal where data is unpredictable or of a variable shape.
Limitations – Limited to the speed and accuracy of the keyboard operator.
Expensive because it is user intensive.
There are four types of terminals namely dumb, intelligent, network and Internet.
 Dumb Terminal
- Used to input and receive data only.
- It cannot process data independently.
- A terminal used by an airline reservation clerk to access a mainframe
computer for flight information is an example of a dumb terminal
 Intelligent Terminal
- Includes a processing unit, memory, and secondary storage.
- It uses communications software and a telephone hookup or other
communications link.
- A microcomputer connected to a larger computer by a modem or network
link is an example of an intelligent terminal.
 Network Terminal
- Also known as a thin client or network computer.
- It is a low cost alternative to an intelligent terminal.
- Most network terminals do not have a hard drive.
- This type of terminal relies on a host computer or server for application or
system software.
 Internet Terminal
- Is also known as a web terminal.
- It provides access to the Internet and displays web pages on a standard
television set.
- It is used almost exclusively in the home.
 Direct data entry devices – Direct entry creates machine-readable data that can go
directly to the CPU. It reduces human error that may occur during keyboard entry. Direct
entry devices include pointing, scanning and voice-input devices.

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Pen input devices e.g. Lighten

Pen input devices are used to select or input items by touching the screen with the pen. Light
pens accomplish this by using a white cell at the tip of the pen. When the light pen is placed
against the monitor, it closes a photoelectric circuit. The photoelectric circuit identifies the spot
for entering or modifying data. Engineers who design microprocessor chips or airplane parts use
light pens.

Touch sensitive screen inputs

Touch sensitive screens, or touch screens, allow the user to execute programs or select menu
items by touching a portion of a special screen. Behind the plastic layer of the touch screen are
crisscrossed invisible beams of infrared light. Touching the screen with a finger can activate
actions or commands. Touch screens are often used in ATMs, information centres, restaurants,
and or stores. They are popularly used at gas stations for customers to select the grade of gas or
request a receipt at the pump (in developed countries), as well as in fast-food restaurants to allow
clerks to easily enter orders.
Uses – Tourist areas to pinpoint the locations of particular places of interest that could be
buildings or items within a building.
Restaurants to select from a limited menu to transmit the order directly to the kitchen and to
generate customer billing.
Choices for a bank customer at an ATM.
Advantages – provides information with little user action (or skill).
Cuts out the need for human information providers.
Limitations – Only suitable where the data is a small FIXED range of items. The width of a
human finger limits the number of items that can appear on the screen. If sub menus are used,
this further limits the number of options on the main screen.
ii. Scanning Devices Scanning devices, or scanners, can be used to input images and
character data directly into a computer. The scanner digitizes the data into machine-
readable form.
iii. The scanning devices used in direct-entry include the following:
 Image Scanner – converts images on a page to electronic signals.
 Fax Machine – converts light and dark areas of an image into format that can be
sent over telephone lines.
 Bar-Code Readers – photoelectric scanner that reads vertical striped marks
printed on items.
 Character and Mark Recognition Devices – scanning devices used to read
marks on documents.
Character and Mark Recognition Device Features
 Can be used by mainframe computers or powerful microcomputers.
 There are three kinds of character and mark recognition devices:
- Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR)
Magnetic ink character recognition, or MICR, readers are used to read the numbers
printed at the bottom of checks in special magnetic ink. These numbers are an
example of data that is both machine readable and human readable. The use of
MICR readers increases the speed and accuracy of processing checks.

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Uses – Cheque reading ONLY.

Advantages – Fast
Cheques can still be read even if they have minor damage
Only human action is in feeding the reader.
Limitations – Reads only one line of data and a small character set.
Requires line-up characters for the hardware to location the position of data. Line of data
is always in the same position on ALL cheques. Stylized characters only can be read.
Requires additional software to convert the input signals to meaningful information.
- Optical-character recognition (OCR)
Standard shaped characters (typically output by printers) are read by optical scanning and
interpreting the returned signals from patterns held on file. More sophisticated hardware
will now read hand-written data provided it is well formed or in strict positions.
Uses – Utility bills (electricity, gas, water) sent to customers can be re-input to signal that
the bill has been paid in full because it holds the customer number and amount due
Advantages – Eliminates the need for human keying of data
Limitations – only suitable for small quantities of data.
Requires line-up characters for the hardware to location the position of data.
Keyboard entry is still needed, in the case of utility bill, if the payment is for an amount
other than that stated on the form or if the paper is folded and the data cannot be read.
Requires optical character recognition software to convert the input signals to meaningful
information.
This is prone to errors if the input is hand-written.

- Optical-mark recognition (OMR)

Reads marks on tests – also called mark sensing. Optical mark recognition readers
are often used for test scoring since they can read the location of marks on what is
sometimes called a mark sense document. This is how, for instance, standardized
tests, such as the KCPE, SAT or GMAT is scored.
Uses – Multiple-choice examination input. The candidate places a mark to indicate
his/her chosen answer.
Lottery tickets. The purchaser marks the chosen numbers.
Stock auditing. A warehouse clerk marks the number of items actually on the shelves.
Meter reading in private houses/businesses. The current value on each meter is
recorded.
Street surveys. To record the views of people outside of buildings.
Advantages – The data is recorded in computer readable format at the place where the
data
occurs.
Limitations – Small Numeric data only.
Requires line-up characters (side of page) for the hardware to location the position of
data.
Difficult to correct errors at the point of capture resulting in the need for keyboard
correction/entry on faulty documents.

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- Bar code reader

Bar codes are read by optical scanning and the returned signals are converted into
binary. They are used purely for identification.
Uses – Supermarket checkouts to identify the product bought.
Libraries (2 uses) – to read the book identifiers and also the borrower’s ticket
code.
Hotel – to identify guest and enable internal charging to an account for all services
used.
Ticket entry to events with pre-purchased tickets.
- Scanner
Paper documents are optically scanned and converted to electrical and then bit-map
binary signals. Some scanners give higher resolution than others (dpi).
Uses – Archiving of documents – legal requirements.
Advantages – Documents can be entered into computer readable form without the
need for any user input. These can then be edited.
Limitations –Resolution can be variable.
The documents take up a large storage capacity.
iv. Voice–input devices
Voice-Input Devices can also be used for direct input into a computer. Speech recognition
can be used for data input when it is necessary to keep your hands free. For example, a
doctor may use voice recognition software to dictate medical notes while examining a
patient. Voice recognition can also be used for security purposes to allow only authorized
people into certain areas or to use certain devices.

 Voice-input devices convert speech into a digital code.

 The most widely used voice-input device is the microphone.
 A microphone, sound card, and software form a voice recognition system.
Human voice signals are converted to waveforms and binary signals are then compared
with standard patterns held on file.
Uses – Control of machinery remotely or in “dirty”/busy situations such as a machine
room/warehouse.
Direct input to a text editor.
For handicapped people unable to use other means of input of data.
Advantages – Hands free.
Limitations – Needs complex software to enable accurate identification of words.
Small vocabulary and limited by regional accents.
Needs to be calibrated for particular users.
Subject to errors when voice changes (colds).
Note:
Point-of-sale (POS) terminals (electronic cash registers) use both keyboard and direct entry.
 Keyboard Entry can be used to type in information.
 Direct Entry can be used to read special characters on price tags.

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Point-of-sale terminals can use wand readers or platform scanners as direct entry devices.
 Wand readers or scanners reflect light on the characters.
 Reflection is changed by photoelectric cells to machine-readable code.
 Encoded information on the product’s barcode e.g. price appear on terminal’s digital
display.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT CAPTURE METHOD
Points needed to be considered when choosing a method of data capture for a given
application are:
· Human involvement in the input process – normally required to be minimum for cost
purposes.
· Cost of data capture.
· Accuracy of the received data.
· A means of correction or alternative means of input when the chosen method fails.
· Can the data be captured at source – in the class room, on the street etc?
· Volume of the data. Large data entry may need a different method from small data
entry.
· Comparison of alternative methods of data capture.
DATA CHECKING
Validation – the process of checking data AS IT IS INPUT without reference to a file, to
establish whether it is reasonable. Validation does not guarantee that the data entered is correct.
Verification – the process of double entry of data where the two versions are compared. This is
now rarely used although still common when entering a new password to ensure the user has not
made a typing error. In both cases, if an error is detected, it is reported and the data rejected. If
the data is entered online, the user is requested to re-input.
VALIDATION
Examination questions about validation rarely earn many marks because answers given are
usually too general and do not relate to the specific data quoted in the question. Where data is
given, the answer MUST indicate how the data can be validated – “range” is not enough. Means
of validation (with examples) :
Range – In a date, the day of the month must relate to the month in question so must be in the
range 1 to 30 for June. Month must be in the range 1 to 12 if numeric.
Format – A code may consist of 2 letters followed by 4 digits. The answer must mention this.
Data Type – Quantity of goods purchased must be numeric. In some cases, it must be an integer.
Length – An identification code may have to be exactly 7 characters.
Presence – While some fields in data entry may be optional, some must be present. e.g. product
code when purchasing and item.
Connected fields – The value of one field may determine the range of values in another. Clearly
the order of two related fields is important.
Check digits – used only for REFERENCE numbers. e.g. customer code, product code, student
identifier etc. It could not be used for other numeric data (e.g. number of items purchased)
because who or how would the check digit be derived?
CHECK DIGITS

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A reference number is extended by one digit (normally at the right hand end) to include a check
digit.
A check digit system guarantees detection of:
1. Transposed digits - e.g. 12345 input as 12435
2. The wrong repeated digit - e.g. 12234 input as 12334
3. Any single digit error - e.g. 12345 input as 12845
There are two aspects of check-digit systems. Candidates OFTEN explain the first aspect when
the question is asking about the second.
1. Determining the check digit to be added to the end of a reference number to make it computer
checkable. E.g. a 5 digit customer number is converted to a 6 digit number with its check digit.
Each of the digits has a different WEIGHT. This normally runs from 1 upwards with the most
significant digit using the highest weight and the check digit using 1. e.g. Convert 13478 to
13478c where c is the check digit to be calculated.
Method: Multiply each digit by its weight and total the result.
13478c
Weight 6 5 4 3 2 1
Products 6 + 15 + 16 + 21 + 16 + c = 74 + c = CHECK SUM
Make the check sum up to a multiple of 11 (the MODULO). So 74 + 3 = 77. Hence c = 3
The full reference number is 134783 The modulo is often chosen as 11 because it is a prime
number and in the multiplication process, it will not be possible for one (and usually 2) errors to
cancel each other.
2. checking a reference number entered during validation to determine its validity.
Repeat the above process except now the check digit is known. Suppose above 135783 is entered
by mistake.
135783
Weight 6 5 4 3 2 1
Products 6 + 15 + 20 + 21 + 16 + 3 = 81 = CHECK SUM
The check MUST be a multiple of 11 to be valid. 81 is not a multiple of 11 so this number is
INVALID.
There is one problem with stage 1. Suppose the check sum is 78 + c. This would require the
check digit to be 10 to make it up to 88. There are two possible courses of action:
1. Do not use this number and reallocate a new reference number for this
customer/product/student.
2. Use X to represent TEN as the check digit. This method is adopted for 10-digit ISBN
(International Standard Book Numbers) which gives each published book throughout the world,
a unique number. The advantage of this is that no new number had to be allocated.
However, it does mean the ISBN cannot be classified as numeric.
SPECIFYING VALIDATION FOR A PARTICULAR SITUATION
This will be required in the examination. An example is given below.
“An employee can select his /her holiday dates by filling in a holiday notification form (up to 1
year in advance) and giving the start and end dates of the holiday. No employee may take more
than 2 weeks holiday in succession. The dates are recorded as day, month (1-12) and year (4
digits).”
Candidates often describe validation on OTHER possible fields that might be used in the
application even though they are not mentioned in the question. These points earn NO marks.

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Possible validation of these dates:

1. All six data items must be numeric (integer).
2. End date must NOT be before start date. Can be the same if 1 day is requested.
3. The difference between the dates cannot exceed 14 days.(*)
4. Day (start and end) must be consistent with the month. e.g. not more than 30 for June
(month 6).
5. Months must each be in the range 1 to 12.(*)
6. Dates must be in the immediate future.
7. Dates must not be later than 1 year from today’s date.(*)
The three items marked (*) are specific to this particular question. Candidates should note this.
Connecting Hardware to the computer:
 Hardware needs access through some general input/output connection.
 Port: The pathway for data to go into and out of the computer from
external devices such as keyboards.
 There are many standard ports as well as custom electronic ports
designed for special purposes.
 Ports follow standards that define their use.
- SCSI, USB: Multiple peripheral devices (chain).
- RS-232, IDE: Individual peripheral devices.
 Peripheral device: A piece of hardware like a printer or disk drive that is
outside the main computer.
 Hardware needs software on the computer that can service the device.
 Communicate with a particular device.
 Processing devices
Common Basic Technologies for Storing Binary Information:
 Electronic
 Magnetic
 Optical
 Electronic Circuits
 Most expensive of the three forms for storing binary information.
 A flip-flop circuit has either one electronic status or the other. It is said to flip-
flop from one to the other.
 Electronic circuits come in two forms:
 Permanent
 Non-permanent
 Magnetic Technology
 Two parts to most of the magnetic forms of information storage:
 The medium that stores the magnetic information.
 Example: Floppy disk. Tiny spots on the disk are magnetized to
represent 0s and 1s.
 The device that can “read” that information from the medium.
 The drive spins the disk.
 It has a magnetic sensing arm that moves over the disk.
 Performs nondestructive reading.
 Optical

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 Uses lasers to “read” the binary information from the medium, usually a disc.
 Millions of tiny holes are “burned” into the surface of the disc.
 The holes are interpreted as 1s. The absences of holes are interpreted as
0s
Secondary Memory Input Devices
 These input devices are used by a computer to store information and then to
retrieve that information as needed.
 External to the computer.
 Commonly consists of floppy disks, hard disk drives, or CD-ROMs.
 Secondary memory uses binary.
 The usual measurement is the byte.
 A byte consists of 8 binary digits (bits). The byte is a standard
unit.
The four most important characteristics of storage devices:
 Speed and access time
 Cost / Removable versus non-removable
 Capacity
 Type of access
Speed (Access time) - How fast information can be taken from or stored onto the computer
memory device’s medium.
 Electronic circuits: Fastest to access.
 40 billionths of a second.
 Floppy disks: Very slow in comparison.
 Takes up to 1/2 second to reach full speed before access is even possible.
Cost
 Megabyte: A Million bytes.
 Gigabyte: A billion bytes.
 Two parts to a removable secondary storage device:
 The cost of the medium. (Cheaper if bought in quantity)
 The cost of the drive.
Examples: Cost for drive Cost for medium
Floppy drive (1.4MB) 59.00 .50
Zip 100 (100 MB) 99.00 10.00
CD-WR (650 MB) 360.00 and up 1.00
Capacity - The amount of information that can be stored on the medium.

Type of Access
 Sequential - Obtained by proceeding through the storage medium from the
beginning until the designated area is reached (as in magnetic tape).

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 Random Access - Direct access (as in floppy and hard disks).

Processing devices
(i) The CPU (Central Processing Unit)
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) controls the processing of instructions. The CPU produces
electronic pulses at a predetermined and constant rate. This is called the clock speed. Clock
speed is generally measured in megahertz, that is, millions of cycles per second. It consists of:
o Control Unit (CU) – The electronic circuitry of the control unit accesses program
instructions decodes them and coordinates instruction execution in the CPU.
o Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs mathematical calculations and
logical comparisons.
o Registers – These are high-speed storage circuitry that holds the instruction and
the data while the processor is executing the instruction.
o Bus – This is a highway connecting internal components to each other.

THE PROCESSOR
This is the “engine room” which provides the computer’s power. Its speed of operation is
dependent upon the clock speed. All operations are synchronized with the system clock which
acts rather like the beating of a drum with actions taking place on the beat. The control unit,
synchronized with the clock, ensures that data and instructions move between the correct parts of
the computer. It sends signals to component parts of the computer to activate them after
deciphering program instructions brought in from memory. e.g. peripheral devices to receive or
send data or ALU to perform an arithmetic operation.
BUSES
Address Bus carries a memory address to and from memory.
Data Bus carries data to and from memory or an instruction from memory to the control unit.
Both these buses are PARALLEL devices so that many bits can be transferred at the same time.
Serial transmission would be too slow.
REGISTERS
Key single storage locations are used for particular purpose during the processing of instructions.
Their precise uses are described in Fetch-Execute cycle section.
Accumulator – the temporary working area for calculations and logic operations
Program counter (PC) – this holds the address in memory of the next instruction. Normally this
register is incremented (1 added) during the processing of an instruction to show that the next
instruction will be found in the next physical location in memory. However, after a decision (see
ALU above), the next logical instruction may be in a different part of memory and the program
counter will adjusted to the appropriate address.
Current Instruction Register (CIR) – This holds the latest instruction brought from memory
on the data bus which the control unit will decipher and then signal other parts of the computer to
take action.

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Memory Address Register (MAR) – This holds the address in memory for the next item to be
fetched. It could refer to an instruction (from the PC) or a data location value (from or to
memory).
Memory Buffer Register (MBR) – An instruction collected from memory is stored in this
register before being moved to the CIR. Similarly, if an instruction requests access to a data
value or it is to be returned to memory, the data is placed here. Some books refer to the MBR as
the Memory Data Register.
FETCH-EXECUTE CYCLE
The execution of a single instruction in a program normally passes through 3 phases:
1. Fetch phase when the instruction is obtained from memory.
a. PC holds the address of the instruction
b. Address in PC is passed to MAR
c. Control places this value on address bus
d. Instruction at the memory address given in the address bus is placed in MBR
e. This instruction is transferred back to the processor along the data bus.
f. The contents of the data bus is placed in the CIR
2. Decode phase when the binary instruction is broken down ready for execution.
a. The control unit breaks up the instruction in the CIR into operation code and address parts (in
the simplest instruction formats)
b. Control decodes the operation code. It could be arithmetic, decision or instructions to send or
receive data from peripherals/storage.
3. Execution phase when the instruction is obeyed.
a. Appropriate signals are sent to other parts of the system. E.g. ADD and decision would require
a signal to the ALU indicating the type of action to take
A read/write instruction would mean a signal to the peripheral or storage device.
b. Arithmetic instructions will require a memory read. E.g. ADD P. The address P is placed in
the MAR and sent down the address bus. The contents of P are placed on the data bus and
returned to the ALU where the value will be added to the accumulator.
c. A store instruction (Store contents of accumulator to memory) will require the storage address
to be placed in the MAR and then transmitted along the address bus. The value of the
accumulator will be placed in the MBR and transferred down the data bus where it will then be
placed in memory.
d. A decision instruction will require the appropriate flag to be checked. If it is found to be 1, the
address in the CIR will then be transferred to the PC.
FLAG REGISTER (or STATUS REGISTER)
Single bits are set to 1 if a particular event has occurred.
Sign flag – set to 1 if a test for negative has occurred, 0 if positive
Zero flag – set to 1 if the last arithmetic operation produced a zero
Carry flag – set to 1 if the last arithmetic operation resulted in a carry
Overflow flag – set to 1 if the last arithmetic operation overflowed the available memory
Other bits are used to show different types of interrupts, some would have priority over others.
(ii) Main Memory
Primary storage, also called main memory, although not a part of the CPU, is closely related to
the CPU. Main memory holds program instructions and data before and after execution by the
CPU. All instructions and data pass through main memory locations. Memory is located

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physically close to the CPU to decrease access time, that is, the time it takes the CPU to retrieve
data from memory. Although the overall trend has been increased memory access time, memory
has not advanced as quickly as processors. Memory access time is often measured in
milliseconds, or one thousandths of a second.
Primary storage or memory: Is where the data and program that are currently in operation or
being accessed are stored during use. Consists of electronic circuits: Extremely fast and
expensive.
Two types:
a) RAM (non-permanent)
o Programs and data can be stored here for the computer’s use.
o Volatile: All information will be lost once the computer shuts down.
b) ROM (permanent)
o Contents do not change.
Computer Memory
Memory capability is one of the features that distinguish a computer from other electronic
devices. Like the CPU, memory is made of silicon chips containing circuits holding data
represented by on or off electrical states, or bits. Eight bits together form a byte. Memory is
usually measured in megabytes or gigabytes.
A kilobyte is roughly 1,000 bytes. Specialized memories, such as cache memories, are typically
measured in kilobytes. Often both primary memory and secondary storage capacities today
contain megabytes, or millions of bytes, of space.
Types of Memory Memory types
Volatile Non Volatile

RAM ROM

DRAM SDRAM EDO PROM EPROM

1. RAM (Random Access Memory) /RWM (Read Write Memory) – Also referred to as
main memory, primary storage or internal memory. Its content can be read and can be
changed and is the working area for the user. It is used to hold programs and data during
processing. RAM chips are volatile, that is, they loose their contents if power is
disrupted.
Typical sizes of RAM include 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB and 512MB.
a. EDO – Extended Data Out
b. DRAM – Dynamic RAM

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c. SDRAM – Synchronous
2. ROM (Read Only Memory) – Its contents can only be read and cannot be changed.
ROM chips is non-volatile, so the contents aren’t lost if the power is disrupted. ROM
provides permanent storage for unchanging data & instructions, such as data from the
computer maker. It is used to hold instructions for starting the computer called the
bootstrap program.

ROM: chips, the contents, or combination of electrical circuit states, are set by the
manufacturer and cannot be changed. States are permanently manufactured into the chip.

PROM: the settings must be programmed into the chip. After they are programmed,
PROM behaves like ROM – the circuit states can’t be changed. PROM is used when
instructions will be permanent, but they aren’t produced in large enough quantities to
make custom chip production (as in ROM) cost effective. PROM chips are, for
example, used to store video game instructions.
Instructions are also programmed into erasable programmable read-only memory.
However, the contents of the chip can be erased and the chip can be reprogrammed.
EPROM chips are used where data and instructions don’t change often, but non-
volatility and quickness are needed. The controller for a robot arm on an assembly line
is an example of EPROM use.
a. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) – It is written onto only once using
special devices. Used mostly in electronic devices such as alarm systems.
b. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) –Can be written onto
more than once.
3. Cache Memory - Cache memory is high-speed memory that a processor can access more
quickly than RAM. Frequently used instructions are stored in cache since they can be
retrieved more quickly, improving the overall performance of the computer. Level 1
(L1) cache is located on the processor; Level 2 (L2) cache is located between the
processor and RAM.

Differences between RAM and ROM

ROM RAM

Non volatile-data is never lost Volatile-data is lost if computer fails

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Data is permanent-it can never be changed Data is temporary-it is only there as long as the
computer is n and it can be changed

Data can only be read Data can be written to or read from

Output devices
Results are taken from main storage and fed to an output device. This may be a printer, in which
case the information is automatically converted to a printed form called hard copy or to a
monitor screen for a soft copy of data or information.
Output is human-readable information. Input (data) is processed inside the computer’s CPU into
meaningful output (information). Output devices translate the machine-readable information into
human-readable information.
 A punched card, punch card, IBM card, or Hollerith card is a piece of stiff paper that
contains digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined
positions. Now an obsolete recording medium, punched cards were widely used throughout
the 19th century for controlling textile looms and in the late 19th and early 20th century for
operating fairground organs and related instruments. They were used through the 20th
century in unit record machines for input, processing, and data storage. Early digital
computers used punched cards, often prepared using keypunch machines, as the primary
medium for input of both computer programs and data. Some voting machines use punched
cards.
 Punched tape or perforated paper tape is a form of data storage, consisting of a long strip
of paper in which holes are punched to store data. Now effectively obsolete, it was widely
used during much of the twentieth century for teleprinter communication, for input to
computers of the 1950s and 1960s, and later as a storage medium for minicomputers and
CNC machine tools  
 Plotters
Plotters are typically used for design output. They are special-purpose output devices used
to produce charts, maps, architectural drawings and three-dimensional representations.
They can produce high-quality multi-colour documents or larger size documents. Plotters
produce documents such as blue-prints or schematics.
Most powerful capability is to assist the physically challenged.
Types of plotters
 Drum Plotter
A drum plotter is pen plotter that wraps the paper around a drum with a pin feed
attachment. The drum then rotates the paper as pens move across it and draw the image.
It was the first output device used to print graphics and large engineering drawings. There
are two types of drum plotters, external and internal. With an external drum plotter, the

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paper is wrapped around its external surface, while the internal drum plotter uses a sheet
of paper wrapped around its internal surface.
 Flat-Bed Plotter
A flat-bed plotter is a mechanical drafting device used with many CAD programs for
designers. The paper remains stationary on a flat surface while a pen moves across it
horizontally and vertically. This plotter may use several different colors of pens to create
the graphics. The size of the graphic is limited to the size of the flat-bed plotter's surface.
 Inkjet Plotter
The inkjet plotter creates an image by spraying small droplets of ink onto a piece of
paper. A popular choice for advertising agencies and graphic designers, inkjet plotters are
used generally for large outputs, such as banners and billboards and large signs often seen
on roadsides. They are available in thermal or piezoelectric models. Thermal inkjet
plotters use heat to apply droplets of ink, while piezoelectric plotters use charged crystals
to apply the ink. Inkjet plotters tend to produce better quality graphics than other types of
plotters.
 Monitors
Output device for soft-copy output (temporal screen display of output which lasts as long
as the monitor’s power is on). They are the most frequently used output devices. Some
are used on the desktop; others are portable. Two important characteristics of the
monitor are size and clarity. Display monitors: Hi-resolution monitors come in two
types:
 Cathode ray tube (CRT) - Streams of electrons make phosphors glow on a
large vacuum tube.
 Liquid crystal display (LCD) - A flat panel display that uses crystals to let
varying amounts of different colored light to pass through it.
 Developed primarily for portable computers

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Voice-output devices
 Voice-output devices make sounds that resemble human speech.
 Voice-output devices use prerecorded vocalized sounds to produce output.
 The computer “speaks” synthesized words.
 Voice output is not as difficult to create as voice input.
 Most widely used voice-output devices are stereo speakers and headphones.
 Devices are connected to a sound card in the system unit.
 Sound card is used to capture sound as well as play it back.
Examples of voice output uses:
 Soft-drink machines, the telephone, and in cars.
 Voice output can be used as a tool for learning.
 Can help students study a foreign language.
 Used in supermarkets at the checkout counter to confirm purchases.

Output devices
Output is human-readable information. Input (data) is processed inside the computer’s CPU into
meaningful output (information). Output devices translate the machine-readable information
into human-readable information.

 Punched cards: characters are coded onto an 80-column card in columns by combining
punches in different locations; a special card reader reads the cards and translates them
into transactions for the computer. These are now used only for older applications.
 Paper tape punch
Printers
– Outputs printout on paper often referred to as hard-copy output.
 Two kinds of printers
 Impact printers – strikes an inked ribbon against the paper (dot matrix
printer)
 Nonimpact printers – form characters by means other than striking a
ribbon against paper (ink-jet printers or laser printers)
 advantage – print higher-quality text and graphics, better job
printing different fonts, quieter, can print in color
Advantages of Non-impact printers
• Much quieter

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• Much faster printing speeds

Line printers print one line at a time. There are two groups: drum and chain.
Character printer prints a character at a time. There are two groups: Dot-matrix and Daisy-
wheel.
Categorized according to:

(i) Printing capacity

o Character printers – Print one character at a time.

o Line printers – Print one line at a time.
o Page printers – Print a whole page at a time.

(ii) Mode of printing

o Dot matrix printers: Forms images via pins striking a ribbon against a paper. The
print head typically have 9 or 24 pins. The images are relatively of poor quality
since dots are visible upon close inspection. Though inexpensive compared to other
types, they are noisy and low-end models are slow (speed varies with price).
o Ink jet printers: Forms images by “shooting” tiny droplets of ink on paper. They
offer relatively good image quality with so many small dots that they are not
noticeable, even upon close inspection. They are relatively quiet compared to dot
matrix and most can print color images.

o Laser jet printers: Forms images using copier technology – a laser/LED (Light
Emitting Diode) lights up dots to be blackened and toner sticks to these dot
positions on the paper. They have excellent image quality – so many small dots
that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection. They are quieter than ink
jet printers.
o Thermal Printers: Forms images using heat elements and heat – sensitive paper.
It is very quiet and not widely used by home PC users. Some very expensive color
models are available. “Ink” in these computers is wax crayons.
o Factors to consider when selecting a printer
o Speed-characters per second or lines or page
o Column width e.g. 80-136 characters
o Color printing depending on type of operations
o Graphic capabilities
o Bi-directional printing
o Price

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o Cost of maintenance
o Compatibility with other computers or main communication devices
Auxiliary/Secondary Storage devices
Secondary storage devices store a larger amount of data or instructions than does main memory,
on a more permanent basis. On a per megabyte basis, secondary storage is also cheaper than
primary storage. Secondary storage is also infinitely extendable, unlike main memory, which is
finite. Secondary storage is not volatile. Secondary storage is also more portable than primary
storage – that is, it is possible to remove it from a computer and use the device and its contents
in another.
Types of secondary storage devices
 Magnetic disks – Stores bits as magnetic spots. Magnetic disks are similar to magnetic
tapes in that areas are magnetized to represent bits. However the disks’ read/write head
can go directly to the desired record, allowing fast data retrieval. Magnetic disks can
range from small and portable, such as diskettes with 1.44MB of storage capacity, to
large capacity fixed hard disks, which are more expensive and less portable.
o Floppy disks (diskettes)

 5 ¼ floppy disks
 3 ½ floppy disks – The most common size with a capacity of 1.44
MB. They are not very fast and durable.

o Hard disks/Fixed disks – Also called hard drives. Their capacity range from
20 to 120 GB. They are fast and durable though not foolproof. Most are
internal, but disks that use removable cartridge are available. Disk
compression can be used to increase capacity but slows performance.

 Optical Disks – Store bits as “pits” and “lands” on surface of disk that can be detected
(read) by a laser beam.

o CD-ROM (Compact-Disk Read Only Memory) – Only read and cannot

be erased for rewriting. Has a capacity of 650 MB
o CD-R (Compact-Disk Recordable) / WORM (Write Once, Read Many) –
Usually blank at first and can be written only once. Has a capacity of 650
MB
o CD-RW (Compact Disk ReWritable) – Can written and read more than
once. Has a capacity of 650 MB.
o DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disks) – They are similar to CDs except that
it has high quality sound and high-resolution video. Has a normal
capacity of 4.7 GB and up to 17 GB if double-sided with double layering.

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Uses laser technology. They are a relatively new technology usually used
in the entertainment industry.
 DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)
o Allows up to 17 gigabytes of storage (from 4.7 GB to 17 GB).

o Compatible with older CD-ROM technology.

o The four versions of the DVD:

 Miniature Storage Media – rewritable media in the form of a flash memory card
 solid-state device that consists entirely of electronics and contain no moving parts
 used with PDAs, digital cameras, music players, and smart phones
 used to store digital images, music, and documents
 Storage Requirements: How much storage capacity is needed for…
o One keystroke on a keyboard. 1 byte (8 bits)
One page single-spaced document. 4.0 K
Nineteen pages formatted text. 75 K
One second of high-fidelity sound. 95-110 K
Complete word processing program. 8.4 MG
 Storage Capacity: How much data can be stored on…
One inch of 1/2 in. wide magnetic tape. 4K
One 3 1/2” floppy disk, high density. 1.4 MG
One Compact Disk. 650 MG
One DVD. up to 17 GB
Moving information within a computer
 How do binary numerals move into, out of, and within the computer?
 Information is moved about in bytes, or multiple bytes called words.
 Words are the fundamental units of information.
 The number of bits per word may vary per computer.
 A word length for most large IBM computers is 32 bits:

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 Bits that compose a word are passed in parallel from place to place.
 Ribbon cables:
 Consist of several wires, molded together.
 One wire for each bit of the word or byte.
 Additional wires coordinate the activity of moving information.
 Each wire sends information in the form of a voltage pulse.
 Example of sending the word WOW over the ribbon cable
 Voltage pulses corresponding to the ASCII codes would pass through the cable.

 Magnetic Tapes – Magnetic tape is similar in composition to the kind of tape found in
videotapes and audiotapes. A plastic film is coated with iron oxide, which is magnetized to
represent bits.
o Tape cartridges – Used in personal computers. Has up to 20 GB per tape
(probably even more).
o Tape reels – Used in minicomputers and mainframes.

 Other Backup Options

o Zip drive/disk – Uses special diskettes that hold 100 MB, 250 MB or 750 MB

o SyQuest drive – Uses special cartridges that hold 200 MB

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 RAID - RAID stands for redundant arrays of independent or inexpensive disks. RAID
technology is fault tolerant; that is, it allows data to be stored so that no data or transactions
are lost in the event of disk failure. RAID involves using multiple hard disks in a special
controller unit and storing data across all the disks in conjunction with extra reconstruction
information that allows data to be recovered if a hard disk fails.

 Storage Area Network (SAN) – A storage area network connects servers and storage
devices in a network to store large volumes of data. Data stored in a storage area network
can be quickly retrieved and backed up. The use of storage area networks is likely to
increase in the near future.

 Computer Output Microfilm (COM) -Companies that must store significant numbers of
paper documents often use computer output microfilm. These devices transfer data directly
from the computer onto the microfilm, thus eliminating the intermediate step of printing the
document on paper. Newspapers and journals typically archive old issues in this manner,
although some are now using optical storage devices.

Communication devices
 Modem - Modems allow computers (digital devices) to communicate via the phone
system (based on analog technology). It turns the computers digital data into analog,
sends it over the phone line, and then another modem at the other end of the line turns
the analog signal back into digital data.
 Fax/modem - basic digital/analog modem enhanced with fax transmission hardware that
enables faxing of information from computer to another fax/modem or a fax machine
(NOTE: a separate scanner must be connected to the computer in order to use the
fax/modem to transfer external documents)

Software
Software is detailed step-by-step sequence of instructions known as program which guide
computer hardware. A computer program is a sequence of instructions that tell the computer
hardware what to do. Programs are written in programming languages, which consists of a set
of symbols combined according to a given syntax.
A program must be in main memory (RAM) to be executed. These invisible, intangible
components of a computer that direct and control the operations of the hardware when
processing data are referred to as software.
Software is classified into two major types: system and application software.
System software
Systems software consists of programs that coordinate the activities of hardware and other
programs. System software is designed for a specific CPU and hardware class. The combination

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of a particular hardware configuration and operating system is called a computer platform.

These programs manage the "behind the scenes" operation of the computer.
Examples
 Operating systems- Controls the application software and manages how the hardware
devices work together.
 Utility Programs - Utility programs often come installed on computer systems or
packaged with operating systems. Utilities can also be purchased individually. Utility
programs perform useful tasks, such as virus detection, tracking computer jobs, and
compressing data.
 Language translators– Compilers and interpreters
Operating systems functions
An operating system executes many functions to operate computer system efficiently. Among
them, four essential functions are the followings.
 Resource Management: An operating system manages a collection of computer hardware
resources by using a variety of programs. It manages computer system resources,
including its CPU, primary memory, virtual memory, secondary storage devices,
input/output peripherals, and other devices.
 Task Management: The function of the operating system that controls the running of
many tasks. It manages one program or many programs within a computer system
simultaneously. That is, this function of operating system manages the completion of
users' tasks. A task management program in an operating system provides each task and
interrupts the CPU operations to manage tasks efficiently. Task management may involve
a multitasking capability.
 File management: This is a function that manages data files. An operating system
contains file management programs that provide the ability to create, delete, enter, change,
ask, and access of files of data. They also produce reports on a file.
 User Interface: It is a function of an operating system that allows users to interact with a
computer. A user interface program may include a combination of menus, screen design,
keyboard commands. A well-designed user interface is essential for an operating system to
be popular. Because of the function, users can load programs, access files, and accomplish
other tasks.
 Examples of operating systems include:
 DOS – Disk operating system
 Windows 3.1, 95, 98, NT, 2000, ME, XP
 Linux, Unix, MAC OS, System/7

Booting

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Warm booting

Cold booting

The boot process

Before any computer can perform useful work, it must first initialize itself using a process
known as bootstrapping, or simply the boot process. When power is first applied to a computer,
it is in a random state: all of the volatile storage devices are filled with meaningless noise. To
move from this chaotic state to an ordered state involves a bit of effort (entropy must be
reversed). Most PCs follow a similar set of steps to bootstrap themselves, as outlined in the
following points. Compare this to your own experience of first waking in a hotel room while on
vacation: you need to do some work to: remember where you are and why, get up, get dressed,
shower, and so forth. You can't really perform useful work until all of that has been done.
A special chip in the computer holds what is called the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System),
essentially just the instructions needed by the PC to get things started. The first thing the BIOS
does is execute the POST (Power On Self Test) which checks the video card (so that any errors
can be displayed to the user--if the video card doesn't work, then the BIOS beeps a few times to
indicate the problem.
The BIOS then checks that the other major devices are connected and functional: keyboard,
mouse, internal busses (circuit board "wires" connecting critical components). The next step is
to verify that the RAM (volatile storage) in the computer works. The BIOS writes to each
location in memory and then reads the same data back to make sure that the memory chips are
functioning properly. This step can take a few seconds, depending upon how much memory is
installed
The BIOS also checks the main storage devices connected to the system, including floppy
drive(s), CD-ROM drive(s), and hard drive(s). The BIOS then starts looking for an operating
system to load. It usually checks the floppy first, then the CD-ROM, and finally the hard drives.
As soon as it finds something promising, it loads the first "chunk" of data from the storage
device into memory and tells the processor to execute the instructions found in that chunk. The
BIOS's work is now done.
The first chunk begins to execute. It should contain just enough instructions to load the next
chunk stored on the disk into memory and execute those instructions. There may be many such
steps, but the end result is to load the operating system into memory and start it running. The
operating system (OS) first initializes itself, and then loads any special device drivers (little
programs that allow the OS to communicate with specific types of hardware). On Windows,
little dots or a progress bar are displayed while this is going on. Once the drivers are loaded, the
OS runs any programs that are supposed to run every time the computer is booted up (e.g. virus

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scans). The operating system then runs a program that allows a user to log on to the system with
a username and password. Some operating systems skip this step entirely if they're not meant to
be used by more than one person.
The operating system then runs a program called a "shell" and loads any of your user
preferences (colors and so forth). This is the program that displays the graphical desktop in
Windows or Macintosh (and others), or a text-based prompt in other operating systems. This
shell program runs the entire time you use the computer and allows you to interact with other
programs (e.g. word processors, web browsers, calculators).
Utility software categories
 Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
 Backup utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and restore either
the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of
accidental deletion).
 Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with
a stream or file.
 Disk checkers can scan operating hard drive.
 Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when
their hard disk is full.
 Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a
disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.
 Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
 Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its
own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an
individual drive.
 Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for
each folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of
the used space.
 Disk storage utilities
 Archive utilities output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set
of files. Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or
encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive
utility for the reverse operation.

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 File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management

tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving, copying, merging,
generating and modifying data sets.
 Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
 Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an
actual program.
 Memory testers check for memory failures.
 Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network
settings, check data transfer or log events.
 Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old registry
keys that are no longer in use.
 Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer
monitors by blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the
computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment
or security.
 System monitors for monitoring resources and performance in a computer system.
 System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware
attached to the computer.
Classifications of Operating Systems
 Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some
Operating Systems permit hundreds or thousands of concurrent users.
 Multiprocessing: Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
 Multitasking: Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
 Multithreading: Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
Application
 Real time: Responds to input Software General-purpose
instantly. OS such as DOS and UNIX are
not real time.
Application Software
Proprietary
Applications software Off-the-shelf
includes programs designed to help end users solve particular problems
using the computer or to perform specific tasks.
Sources of software

In - house Contract Customized Standard

developed package Package

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customized customization
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Advantages of proprietary software

 You can get exactly what you need in terms of reports, features etc.
 Being involved in development offers a further level in control over results.
 There is more flexibility in making modifications that may be required to counteract a
new initiative by a competitor or to meet new supplier or customer requirements. A
merger with another firm or an acquisition will also necessitate software changes to meet
new business needs.
Disadvantages of proprietary software
 It can take a long time and significant resources to develop required features.
 In house system development staff may become hard pressed to provide the required
level of ongoing support and maintenance because of pressure to get on to other new
projects.
 There is more risk concerning the features and performance of the software that has yet
to be developed.
Advantages of off-the-shelf software
 The initial cost is lower since the software firm is able to spread the development costs
over a large number of customers.
 There is lower risk that the software will fail to meet the basic business needs
– you can analyze existing features and performance of the package
 Package is likely to be of high quality since many customer firms have tested the
software and helped identify many of its bugs.
Disadvantages of off-the-shelf software
 An organization may have to pay for features that are not required and never used.

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 The software may lack important features, thus requiring future modifications or
customization. This can be very expensive because users must adopt future releases of
the software.
 Software may not match current work processes and data standards.
Application software is further classified into general-purpose software and applications.
General-purpose software
Examples include
 Word processing – Create, edit and print text documents. E.g. MS Word, Word Perfect.
 Spreadsheets – Provide a wide range of built-in functions for statistical, logical,
financial, database, graphics, data and time calculations. E.g. Lotus 1-2-3, Excel, Quattro
Pro.
 Database management systems (DBMS) – Store, manipulate and retrieve data. E.g.
Access, FoxPro, dBase.
 Online Information Services – Obtain a broad range of information from commercial
services. E.g. America Online, CompuServe
 Communications- Ms Outlook for email
 Browsers e.g Internet Explorer, Eudora
 Graphics – Develop graphs, illustrations and drawings. E.g. PaintShop, FreeHand, Corel
 Project Management – Plan, schedule, allocate and control people and resources needed
to complete a project according to schedule. E.g. Project for Windows, Time Line.
 Financial Management – Provide income and expense tracking and reporting to monitor
and plan budgets. E.g. Quicken
 Desktop publishing -used to create high-quality printed output including text and
graphics; various styles of pages can be laid out; art and text from other programs can
also be integrated into published pages. E.g. PageMaker, Publisher.
 Presentation packages like MS PowerPoint
Note: A software suite, such as Microsoft Office, offers a collection of powerful programs
including word processing, spreadsheet, database, graphics and other programs. The
programs in a software suite are designed to be used together. In addition, the commands,
the icons and procedures are the same for all programs in the suite.
Software trends and issues
Open source software coming to the scene. This is software that is freely available to anyone
and can be easily modified. The use of open source software has increased dramatically due to
the World Wide Web. Users can download the source code from web sites. Open source
software is often more reliable than commercial software because there are many users
collaborating to fix problems. The biggest problem with open source software is the lack of
formal technical support. However, some companies that package open source software with
various add-ons and sell it with support are addressing this. An example of this is Red Hat
Linux operating system.
Programming languages

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Programming languages are collections of commands, statements and words that are combined
using a particular syntax, or rules, to write both systems and application software. This results
in meaningful instructions to the CPU
Generations of programming languages
 Machine Language (1st Generation Languages)
A machine language consists of binary digit, that is, zeroes and ones. Instructions and addresses
are written in binary (0,1) code. Binary is the only “language” a CPU can understand. The CPU
directly interprets and executes this language, therefore making it fast in execution of its
instructions. Machine language programs directly instructed the computer hardware, so they
were not portable. That is, a program written for computer model A could not be run on
computer model B without being rewritten. All software in other languages must ultimately be
translated down to machine language form. The translation process makes the other languages
slower.
Advantage
 The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast because no
translation program is required for the CPU.
Disadvantages
 It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know details
of hardware to write program.
 The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program, which results in
program errors.
 It is difficult to debug the program.
 Assembly Language (2nd Generation languages)
Uses symbols and codes instead of binary digits to represent program instructions. It is a
symbolic language meaning that instructions and addresses are written using alphanumeric
labels, meaningful to the programmer.  The resulting programs still directly instructed the
computer hardware. For example, an assembly language instruction might move a piece of data
stored at a particular location in RAM into a particular location on the CPU. Therefore, like
their first generation counterparts, second generation programs were not easily portable.  
Assembly languages were designed to run in a small amount of RAM. Furthermore, they are
low-level languages; that is the instructions directly manipulate the hardware. Therefore,
programs written in assembly language execute efficiently and quickly. As a result, more
systems software is still written using assembly languages.  The language has a one to one
mapping with machine instructions but has macros added to it. A macro is a group of multiple
machine instructions, which are considered as one instruction in assembly language. A macro
performs a specific task, for example adding, subtracting etc. A one to one mapping means that
for every assembly instruction there is a corresponding single or multiple instructions in

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machine language.  An assembler is used to translate the assembly language statements into
machine language.
 Advantages:
 The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and saves a lot
of time and effort of the programmer.
 It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
 Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level language.
Because this is one-to-one translator between assembly language program and its
corresponding machine language program. 
Disadvantages:
 One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine dependent. A
program written for one computer might not run in other computers with different hardware
configuration.
 High-level languages (3rd generation languages)
Third generation languages are easier to learn and use than were earlier generations. Thus
programmers are more productive when using third generation languages. For most
applications, this increased productivity compensates for the decrease in speed and efficiency of
the resulting programs. Furthermore, programs written in third generation languages are
portable; that is, a program written to run on a particular type of computer can be run with little
or no modification on another type of computer. Portability is possible because third generation
languages are “high-level languages”; that is instructions do not directly manipulate the
computer hardware.
Third generation languages are sometimes referred to as “procedural” languages since program
instructions, must still the computer detailed instructions of how to reach the desired result.
High-level languages incorporated greater use of symbolic code. Its statements are more English
–like, for example print, get, while. They are easier to learn but the resulting program is slower
in execution. Examples include Basic, Cobol, C and Fortran. They have first to be compiled
(translated into corresponding machine language statements) through the use of compilers.

Advantages of High Level Languages

 Higher-level languages have a major advantage over machine and assembly languages that
higher-level languages are easy to learn and use.
 Are portable
 Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)

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Fourth generation languages are even easier to use, and more English-like, than are third
generation languages. Fourth generation languages are sometimes referred to as “non-
procedural”, since programs tell the computer what it needs to accomplish, but do not provide
detailed instructions as to how it should accomplish it. Since fourth generation languages
concentrate on the output, not procedural details, they are more easily used by people who are
not computer specialists, that is, by end users.
Many of the first fourth generation languages were connected with particular database
management systems. These languages were called query languages since they allow people to
retrieve information from databases. Structured query language, SQL, is a current fourth
generation language used to access many databases. There are also some statistical fourth
generation languages, such as SAS or SPSS.
Some fourth generation languages, such as Visual C++, Visual Basic, or PowerBuilder are
targeted to more knowledgeable users, since they are more complex to use. Visual programming
languages, such as visual basic, use windows, icons, and pull down menus to make
programming easier and more intuitive.
Object Oriented Programming
 First, second, third and fourth generation programming languages were used to construct
programs that contained procedures to perform operations, such as draw or display, on data
elements defined in a file.
 Object oriented programs consist of objects, such as a time card, that include descriptions of
the data relevant to the object, as well as the operations that can be done on that data. For
example, included in the time card object, would be descriptions of such data such as
employee name, hourly rate, start time, end time, and so on. The time card object would
also contain descriptions of such operations as calculate total hours worked or calculate total
pay.
Language translators
Although machine language is the only language the CPU understands, it is rarely used anymore
since it is so difficult to use. Every program that is not written in machine language must be
translated into machine language before it can be executed. This is done by a category of
system software called language translation software. These are programs that convert the code
originally written by the programmer, called source code, into its equivalent machine language
program, called object code. There are two main types of language translators: interpreters and
compilers.
  Interpreters
While a program is running, interpreters read, translate, and execute one statement of the
program at a time. The interpreter displays any errors immediately on the monitor. Interpreters
are very useful for people learning how to program or debugging a program. However, the line-
by-line translation adds significant overhead to the program execution time leading to slow
execution.

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Compilers
A compiler uses a language translation program that converts the entire source program into
object code, known as an object module, at one time. The object module is stored and it is the
object module that executes when the program runs. The program does not have to be compiled
again until changes are made in the source code.
Packaging the Computer
 The many physical forms of the general purpose computer:
 All follow general organization:
 Primary memory
 Input units
 Output units
 Central Processing Unit
 Grouped according to speed, cost, size, and complexity.

Revision question
1. With an aid of a diagram, describe fully how a computer system works. You should discuss
the various devices used and their specific roles and the various stages and subsequent
transformation.
2. The central processing unit is commonly referred to as “Brain” and “memory” of the
computer. Discuss.
3. ICT is a major backbone of the current and future life. Explain
4. Why do you think the computer industry has been unable to agree on a common operating
system? Or single source language?
5. What is a computer?
6. Give four factors that you would consider when buying computers

7. Outline five advantages of using computers in the workplace

8. Discuss five areas that we apply use of computers

9. Computers can be classified in different ways. Discuss four main ways we can classify them.

10. Differentiate between a bit and a byte

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11. Convert the following numbers to binary

a. 1010108
b. 11111116
c. 45010
12. Convert the following numbers to hexadecimal
a. 10010112
b. 3510
c. 10111018
13. Convert the following numbers to octal
a. AA16
b. 17010
c. 101112
14. Describe five kinds of data represented by Bit patterns
15. There are five main components in a computer. Discuss them.

16. Discuss the von Neumann computer

17. What are the two types of data stored within a computer?

18. Discuss three ways we can connect hardware devices to the computer

19. Describe five factors you would consider when purchasing a printer
20. What is System software?
21. Describe four essential functions of an Operating System

22. Discuss three differences between RAM and ROM

23. Discuss four characteristics of storage devises

24. List and describe five types of optical media

25. Outline five input and five output devices

26. Describe how the CPU processes information and the components involved

27. Describe four categories of computer generations

28. Define the following terms

a. Data
b. Information
c. Utility program
d. Hardware
e. Software
29. Differentiate between the following terms:

a. CD-R and CD-RW

b. Operating Software and Application Software

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c. Multiprocessing and multiprogramming

d. Primary and secondary storage
30. What are communicational devices? Explain the purpose of any two communicational
devices.

Types of Data Processing

Following are the commonly used methods:

1. Batch processing
2. Online processing
3. Real time processing
4. Multiprogramming
5. Multiprocessing
6. Time sharing

1. Batch Processing:

Batch Processing is also known as sequential, serial, offline or stacked/queued processing. In this
processing method, different jobs of different users are stacked or queued in their receiving order
(that is, in the sequence they are received one after another). Then finally, when a stack/ batch of
jobs is completed, they are given for processing and the jobs will be processed in the same order.
Processing a large volume of data in batches over a period of time, results in lower processing
costs per transaction or record than processing the transactions as they occur and hence it is an
economical and convenient mode of processing data.

The transactions or data can be collected and stored offline, (on a tape or disk connected to a data
entry device but not connected directly to the computer)or online (on secondary storage device
connected directly to the computer) prior to the processing by the computer. In both offline and
online processing there could be a delay of several minutes, hours or even days between the
occurrence and processing of a transaction. Therefore batch processing is used by those
applications where such a delay of time will not affect the usefulness of the results. In some
cases, the data entry stations are located in remote areas and are connected through some
communication media to the computer. This is known as remote batch processing.

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 Real Time Processing:

A real time processing is one in which the data is processed without any significant delay. The
computer waits for the input and as soon as the data is received it is processed and the result can
be produced quickly.

 Online Processing:

Online processing is used when the devices are directly under the control of CPU. In online
processing one uses the devices directly connected to the CPU for either data entry or for inquiry
purposes. This method has been developed to address the deficiencies of batch processing.

4. Multi Programming:

In multi programming several programs are executed on a single computer under the controlof an
overall system program. The purpose of the multi programming is to make good use of the
processor, storage devices and peripherals (scanner, plotter, printer etc.).

5. Multi-Processing:

In multi-processing the CPU’s of the computer are linked together or the CPU of a single
computer is provided with more than one arithmetic unit. These CPU’s or arithmetic units
operate in parallel allowing simultaneously execution of several programs.

6. Time Sharing:

Time sharing is a way of organizing a computer for multi-processing. Time sharing is the system
where the computer allows each terminal in turn a small amount of processing time before it
goes to the other computer or assigning and relinquishing CPU from different jobs on the basis
of time (i.e time slice) is called time sharing.

DATA PROCESSING – THE CYCLE, SYSTEMS AND TYPES OF PROCESSING

Definitions of data processing

         manipulation of data into a more useful form
         Includes; numerical calculation, operations (e.g. classification of data), transmission of data
from one place to another

Organizations undertake data processing activities to obtain information with which to control
and support the following;
         Production/operations e.g. manufacturing resource planning, manufacturing execution
systems, process control

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         Marketing activities e.g. customer relationship management, interactive marketing, sales

force automation etc.
         Human Resource Management e.g. compensation analysis, employee skills inventory,
personnel requirements forecasting
         Financial activities e.g. cash management, credit management, investment management,
capital budgeting
         Accounting activities: order processing, inventory control, accounts receivable, accounts
payable, payroll, general ledger

The processing cycle

         Two types of processing cycles
-          Basic Data Processing cycle and
-          The Expanded Data Processing cycle

Basic Data Processing cycle - Consists three basic steps, input, processing and output
Input: Initial data or input data are prepared in some convenient form for processing. E.g.
computers input data is recorded into input medium such as internal memory, cards, disks, flash
etc.
Processing: Input data are changed, usually combined with other information to produce data in
a more useful form. E.g. pay checks may be calculated from the time cards or a summary of sales
for the month may be calculated from the sales orders.
Output: Results of the preceding processing step are collected. The output data/result form
depends on the use of the data. E.g. pay checks for employee, printed summary of monthly sales
for management, or data to be stored for further processing.

Expanded Data Processing Cycle - More steps; Origination, Distribution, and Storage.
Origination: refers to the processes of collecting the original data into source documents. E.g.
graded test papers
Distribution: refers to distribution of the output. Recordings of the output data are often called
report documents. E.g. class grade sheets
Storage: crucial step in many data processing procedures. The processed results are stored for
use as input data in the future. A unified set of data storage is called a file which consists of
records. A collection of files forms a database

Data processing operations

Recording: is the transferring of data onto some form or document. The operation occurs during
origination, and distribution steps, and throughout the processing cycle.
Duplicating: refers to reproducing the data onto many forms or documents
Verifying: since recording is usually done manually, it is important that the recorded data be
carefully checked for errors. E.g. typed reports are reread for correctness
Classifying: refers to separating of data into categories

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Sorting: is arranging data in a specific order

Merging: this operation takes two or more sets of data, all sets having been sorted by same key,
and puts them together to form a single sorted set of data
Calculating: refers to performing numerical calculations on the (numerical) data
Summarising and report writing

Types of Data Processing (DP) systems - Devices so far have evolved into three types
1.       Manual mechanical devices; for calculation & processing data, dark ages (5000 B.C – 1890
A.D). Simple, motorized by human hand e.g. Abacus (5000 B.C.), Oughtred’s Slide
Rule (1632), Pascal’s Calculator (1642) etc.
2.       Electromechanical devices: powered by electric motor, switches and relays for control of
processes e.g. desk calculators and punched card processing devices. The electromechanical
devices; middle ages (1890 – 1944)
3.       Electronic devices: modern age begun in 1944 - date. It includes the modern computer which
have evolved into five generations with advancement of processing hardware; the vacuum tubes,
transistors, integrated circuits and microprocessors.

Advantages of electronic data processing

-          Speed and Accuracy
-          Automatic operations
 Most important advantage of modern Electronic computer
 Cary out a sequence of many different data processing operations without human
intervention
 Automation is possible through stored program
-          Decision making capability
         Computer can perform certain decision instructions automatically
         Determining whether a statement is true or false
         Based on that results, choosing one or the other course of action out of alternatives

Types of Electronic Data Processing (EDP) systems

 Classification of EDP systems according to the way data is processed
-          Response time, time elapse between data input/inquiry-result (online, offline & online real-
time systems)
-          Number of users & Programs e.g. time sharing programs
-          Degree of Integration of subsystem e.g. DSS
 Offline Data Processing System:
-          input data or transactions grouped into batches, and then
-          sorted sequentially before being subjected to computer processing 

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 Online Data Processing System:

-          Characterised by:
-          remote Central processing unit (CPU)
-          two way communication between the CPU and the input or terminal devices
-          fast data processing responses
-          data is input as soon as it is available with files being update most of the time
-          usually expensive to operate, the processing speed faster than offline

         Online Real – Time Data Processing System;

-          Insignificant time delay between creation of data and the actual processing.
-          The time delay is insignificant when the processed data/information is generated at the
appropriate time for managers to make timely decisions.
-          Components; computer, software, terminals, communication network and database.
 Time – Sharing Data Processing System:
-          Three basic characteristics; multiprogramming, online interaction & real-time response
 Decision-Support System (DDS):
-          Provides interactive information support to managers and professionals during the decision-
making process
 Distributed Data Processing (DPP) System
-          characterized by mini- or microcomputers (the satellites) for small scale localised based
solution
-          Remote CPU or larger computer for organisational processing or any larger applications for
satellite computers. Examples include the hospital Distributed Data Processing

TYPES OF PROCESSING
 Batch processing
-          Refers to processing of data or information by grouping it into groups or batches.
-          The batches handled in sequence of separate stages of processing e.g. validation, sorting,
computing etc., at pre-defined frequencies. E.g. a weekly factory payroll is naturally processed
weekly.
 Online processing
-          consist of terminals connected to a computer and
-          communication by lines that connect different department of the business/system to a
computer
 Interactive processing
-          Online order processing
-          Online building society transactions
-          Online payroll processing
-          Online point of sale (supermarket) check out systems
 Real-time processing
-          Airline seat reservation system
-          Online warehouse stock control
-          Online hotel accommodation system
-          Online banking
 Random processing

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-          Online credit enquiries

-          Online product availability enquiries
-          Online account enquiries
-          Online package holiday availability enquiries

/Data hierarchy refers to the systematic organization of data, often in a hierarchical form. Data
organization involves fields, records, files and so on.[1]
A data field holds a single fact or attribute of an entity. Consider a date field, e.g. "September 19,
2004". This can be treated as a single date field (e.g. birthdate), or 3 fields, namely, month, day
of month and year.
A record is a collection of related fields. An Employee record may contain a name field(s),
address fields, birthdate field and so on.
A file is a collection of related records. If there are 100 employees, then each employee would
have a record (e.g. called Employee Personal Details record) and the collection of 100 such
records would constitute a file (in this case, called Employee Personal Details file).
Files are integrated into a database.[2] This is done using a Database Management System.[3] If
there are other facets of employee data that we wish to capture, then other files such as Employee
Training History file and Employee Work History file could be created as well.
An illustration of the above description is shown in this diagram below.

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FILE
A file is a named collection of related information that is recorded on secondary storage such as
magnetic disks, magnetic tapes and optical disks. In general, a file is a sequence of bits, bytes,
lines or records whose meaning is defined by the files creator and user.

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File Structure
A File Structure should be according to a required format that the operating system can
understand.

 A file has a certain defined structure according to its type.

 A text file is a sequence of characters organized into lines.

 A source file is a sequence of procedures and functions.

 An object file is a sequence of bytes organized into blocks that are understandable by the
machine.

 When operating system defines different file structures, it also contains the code to
support these file structure. Unix, MS-DOS support minimum number of file structure.

File Type
File type refers to the ability of the operating system to distinguish different types of file such as
text files source files and binary files etc. Many operating systems support many types of files.
Operating system like MS-DOS and UNIX have the following types of files −

Ordinary files

 These are the files that contain user information.

 These may have text, databases or executable program.

 The user can apply various operations on such files like add, modify, delete or even
remove the entire file.

Directory files

 These files contain list of file names and other information related to these files.

Special files

 These files are also known as device files.

 These files represent physical device like disks, terminals, printers, networks, tape drive
etc.

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These files are of two types −

 Character special files − data is handled character by character as in case of terminals

or printers.

 Block special files − data is handled in blocks as in the case of disks and tapes.

File Access Mechanisms

File access mechanism refers to the manner in which the records of a file may be accessed.
There are several ways to access files −

 Sequential access
 Direct/Random access

 Indexed sequential access

Sequential access
A sequential access is that in which the records are accessed in some sequence, i.e., the
information in the file is processed in order, one record after the other. This access method is
the most primitive one. Example: Compilers usually access files in this fashion.

Direct/Random access
 Random access file organization provides, accessing the records directly.

 Each record has its own address on the file with by the help of which it can be directly
accessed for reading or writing.

 The records need not be in any sequence within the file and they need not be in adjacent
locations on the storage medium.

Indexed sequential access

 This mechanism is built up on base of sequential access.

 An index is created for each file which contains pointers to various blocks.

 Index is searched sequentially and its pointer is used to access the file directly.

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Space Allocation
Files are allocated disk spaces by operating system. Operating systems deploy following three
main ways to allocate disk space to files.

 Contiguous Allocation
 Linked Allocation

 Indexed Allocation

Contiguous Allocation

 Each file occupies a contiguous address space on disk.

 Assigned disk address is in linear order.

 Easy to implement.

 External fragmentation is a major issue with this type of allocation technique.

Linked Allocation

 Each file carries a list of links to disk blocks.

 Directory contains link / pointer to first block of a file.

 No external fragmentation

 Effectively used in sequential access file.

 Inefficient in case of direct access file.

Indexed Allocation

 Provides solutions to problems of contiguous and linked allocation.

 A index block is created having all pointers to files.

 Each file has its own index block which stores the addresses of disk space occupied by
the file.

 Directory contains the addresses of index blocks of files.

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Internet
Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over the web.
However, It can be defined in many ways as follows:

 Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer networks.

 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).

 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.

 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a

computer location.

 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address
so that user can locate a computer by a name.

 For example, a DNS server will resolve a name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a

particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.

 Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

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Evolution
The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several technological &
Infrastructural changes as discussed below:

 The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research Project Agency
Network (ARPANET).

 ARPANET was developed by United States Department of Defense.

 Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the various bodies of
government.

 Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.

 In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at different

countries and thus became known as Internet.

 By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols, DNS, WWW,
browsers, scripting languages etc.,Internet provided a medium to publish and access
information over the web.

Advantages
Internet covers almost every aspect of life, one can think of. Here, we will discuss some of the
advantages of Internet:

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 Internet allows us to communicate with the people sitting at remote locations. There are
various apps available on the wed that uses Internet as a medium for communication.
One can find various social networking sites such as:

o Facebook
o Twitter
o Yahoo
o Google+
o Flickr
o Orkut
 One can surf for any kind of information over the internet. Information regarding various
topics such as Technology, Health & Science, Social Studies, Geographical Information,
Information Technology, Products etc can be surfed with help of a search engine.

 Apart from communication and source of information, internet also serves a medium for
entertainment. Following are the various modes for entertainment over internet.

o Online Television
o Online Games
o Songs

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o Videos
o Social Networking Apps
 Internet allows us to use many services like:

o Internet Banking
o Matrimonial Services
o Online Shopping
o Online Ticket Booking
o Online Bill Payment
o Data Sharing
o E-mail
 Internet provides concept of electronic commerce, that allows the business deals to be
conducted on electronic systems

Disadvantages
However, Internet has proved to be a powerful source of information in almost every field, yet
there exists many disadvantages discussed below:

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 There are always chances to lose personal information such as name, address, credit card
number. Therefore, one should be very careful while sharing such information. One
should use credit cards only through authenticated sites.

 Another disadvantage is the Spamming. Spamming corresponds to the unwanted e-mails

in bulk. These e-mails serve no purpose and lead to obstruction of entire system.

 Virus can easily be spread to the computers connected to internet. Such virus attacks
may cause your system to crash or your important data may get deleted.

 Also a biggest threat on internet is pornography. There are many pornographic sites that
can be found, letting your children to use internet which indirectly affects the children
healthy mental life.

 There are various websites that do not provide the authenticated information. This leads
to misconception among many people.

Backup refers to the copying of physical or virtual files or databases to a secondary site for

preservation in case of equipment failure or other catastrophe. The process of backing up data is
pivotal to a successful disaster recovery (DR) plan

Importance of data backup

Higher Reliability – Perhaps the biggest benefit of regular remote data backup is its great
reliability. Remote backup can be automated and updated on a daily basis, or you can even back
up your data at a set time. Plus, since this is done via the Internet, you will always be able to
recover any files you need quickly.
Easy Set-Up – Backing up your data may sound like a daunting task, but when you do it
remotely, it’s as easy as a few clicks! Just have an IT professional set up the system and the
schedule or automation, and you can rest easily knowing that your data is protected, backed up,
and up-to-date.
Reduced Workload – Manual backing up files can be very time-consuming and always requires
at least one person to do the job. Since remote data backup involves automation, you won’t need
to worry about taking the time to back it up with a CD or a USB drive, and you’ll always know
where the backups are. This will help you save quite a bit of time and frustration.
Greater Security – When you employ remote data backup, you store your data in a secure
location, making it physically safe. This is typically done via advanced encryption tools that are
used at both the hardware and software level. You will never have to worry about others locating
and compromising your data with remote data backup.

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Saves Money – Think about all of the equipment you need when you manually back up your
data. You’ll need a lot of physical storage solutions for your computers, and if you have many
computers with large amounts of data, that can be a costly and burdensome solution. If your
company operates in an industry in which backups are mandatory, remote backup will be a cost-
effective solution for your business.
Techniques and technologies to complement data backup

Continuous data protection (CDP) refers to layers of associated technologies designed to

enhance data protection. A CDP-based storage system backs up all enterprise data whenever a
change is made. CDP tools enable multiple copies of data to be created. Many CDP systems
contain a built-in engine that replicates data from a primary to a secondary backup server and/or
tape-based storage. Disk-to-disk-to-tape backup is a popular architecture for CDP systems.

Near-continuous CDP takes backup snapshots at set intervals, which are different from array-
based vendor snapshots that are taken each time new data is written to storage.

Data reduction lessens your storage footprint. There are two primary methods: data

compression and data deduplication. These methods can be used singly, but vendors often
combine the approaches. Reducing the size of data has implications on backup windows and
restoration times.

Disk cloning involves copying the contents of a computer's hard drive, saving it as an image file
and transferring it to storage media. Disk cloning can be used for provisioning, system
provisioning, system recovery, and rebooting or returning a system to its original configuration.

Erasure coding, also known as forward error correction, evolved as a scalable alternative to
traditional RAID systems. Erasure coding most often is associated with object storage.
RAID stripes data writes across multiple drives, using a parity drive to ensure redundancy and
resilience. The technology breaks data into fragments and encodes it with other bits of redundant
data. These encoded fragments are stored across different storage media, nodes or geographic
locations. The associated fragments are used to reconstruct corrupted data, using a technique
known as oversampling.

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Flat backup is a data protection scheme in which a direct copy of a snapshot is moved to low-
cost storage without the use of traditional backup software. The original snapshot retains its
native format and location; the flat backup replica gets mounted, should the original become
unavailable or unusable.

Mirroring places data files on more than one computer server to ensure it remains accessible to
users. In synchronous mirroring, data is written to local and remote disk simultaneously. Writes
from local storage are not acknowledged until a confirmation is sent from remote storage, thus
ensuring the two sites have an identical data copy. Conversely, asynchronous local writes are
considered to be complete before confirmation is sent from the remote server.

Replication enables users to select the required number of replicas, or copies, of data needed to
sustain or resume business operations. Data replication copies data from one location to another,
providing an up-to-date copy to hasten disaster recovery.

Recovery in-place, or instant recovery, allows users to temporarily run a production application
directly from a backup VM instance, thus maintaining data availability while the primary VM is
being restored. Mounting a physical or VM instance directly on a backup or media server can
hasten system-level recovery to within minutes. Recovery from a mounted image does result in
degraded performance, since backup servers are not sized for production workloads.

Storage snapshots capture a set of reference markers on disk for a given database, file or storage
volume. Users refer to the markers, or pointers, to restore data from a selected point in time.
Because it derives from an underlying source volume, an individual storage snapshot is an
instance, not a full backup. As such, snapshots do not protect data against hardware failure.

Snapshots are generally grouped in three categories: changed block, clones and CDP. Snapshots
first appeared as a management tool within a storage array. The advent of virtualization added
hypervisor-based snapshots. Snapshots may also be implemented by backup software or even via
a VM.

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Why computer ergonomics? Many people spend hours a day in front of a computer without
thinking about the impact on their bodies. They physically stress their bodies daily without
realizing it by extending their wrists, slouching, sitting without foot support and straining to look
at poorly placed monitors.
These practices can lead to cumulative trauma disorders or repetitive stress injuries, which create
a life-long impact on health. Symptoms may include pain, muscle fatigue, loss of sensation,
tingling and reduced performance.
Ergonomics is a field of study that attempts to reduce strain, fatigue, and injuries by improving
product design and workspace arrangement. The goal is a comfortable, relaxed posture.

Arrange Your Workstation:  Every time you work, take time to adjust workstations that aren't
quite right in order to minimize awkward and frequently performed movements.

Adapt Laptops:  Laptop computers are not ergonomically designed for prolonged use. The
monitor and keyboard are so close together that they cannot both be in good positions at the
same time. For prolonged use, it's best to add a separate monitor and keyboard. The laptop can be
planced on books so the top of the screen is at eye level, then use an external keyboard so that
your elbows can rest at 90° by your side. 

Modify Your Body Mechanics

Do you wear eyeglasses? Make sure they fit properly to avoid tilting your head.
Type with light strokes, and try to keep your muscles relaxed.
Sit "tall," aligning your ears, shoulders and hips. When you sit, think about making yourself an
inch taller.
Switch hands when using a mouse, if you are able.
Completely rest your wrists during breaks, including taking your hands off the mouse.

Adjust Your Work Patterns: Reduce prolonged computer time whenever possible.

Break work into smaller segments and switch between tasks that use different motions. For
example, alternate use of mouse with reading and searching the web.

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Move!  Movement has many benefits: it relaxes tissues, lubricates joints and prevents stiffness,
improves circulation, reduces fatigue, and builds stamina. One study showed that heavy
computer users who successfully avoided computer-related pain moved every 7 minutes.
At least every 10 minutes, take a short (10-20 second) break. Take your hands off the keyboard
and move!
Every 30-60 minutes, take a brief (2-5 minute) break to stretch and/or walk around.

Exercise at Your Computer

Neck/Shoulders
Neck Rotation: Slowly rotate your head as far as comfortable to the right, then left.
Shoulder Rotation: Circle your shoulders, then reverse directions.
Head Side to Side: Bend your neck so left ear approaches left shoulder, then repeat for right. Add
a little resistance by pressing your hand against the side of your head.
Chin Tuck: Slide your chin inward, without bending your neck up or down. This is easiest to
practice initially against a wall. Tuck chin in, attempting to touch back of neck to the wall while
also maintaining head contact. Don't jam your chin down to your chest.
Shoulder Blade Retraction: Pull your shoulders down and back.
Shrug: Slowly raise your shoulders toward ears and hold for a few seconds. Gradually bring
shoulders down and relax.
Back
Shoulder Squeeze: Raise your arms in front of body, with elbows bent and thumbs up. Pull
elbows back, squeezing shoulder blades together. Hold for a few seconds then release.
Stretch Up: Sit up straight and imagine a cable attached to the top of your head. Gradually stretch
to be as tall as possible, hold for a few seconds, then relax.
Arms
Arm Relaxation: Drop your arms and hands to your sides. Gently shake them for a few seconds.
Arm Rotation: Raise your arms in front of your body. Rotate arms so palms face up, then rotate
so backs of hands face each other.
Hands/Wrists
Wrist Flex: With your elbows on desk, gently use left hand to bend right hand back toward
forearm. Hold for a few seconds, then relax. Repeat on other side.
Finger Fan: Spread your fingers as far apart as possible, hold, then clench fists, then release.
Feet

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Toe Curl: Flex toes up, then curl toes under. Release.
Foot Rotation: Circle foot slowly from the ankle, then reverse.
Eyes
Eye Rolls: Roll your eyes clockwise then counterclockwise briefly.
Palm Eyes: Without touching your eyes, cup hands lightly over eyes for 30 seconds to rest them
from light.
Look Away: Exercise your eyes by periodically looking away from your computer to focus on
distant objects.

Keep fit:  Physical fitness can help you avoid and treat problems related to computer use. Build
your stamina with exercises for strength, flexibility, and cardiovascular health.

When to seek medical care: See a clinician if you experience:

 Constant pain
 Numbness
 Weakness
 Other problems that interfere with daily tasks

LAN: Local Area Network

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building,
school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a
few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby
buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single
IP subnet.

In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and
managed by a single person or organization.

They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring.

WAN: Wide Area Network

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN,
spanning the Earth.

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A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called

a router connects LANs to a WAN.

In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.

A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not
owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and
management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity
over the longer distances.

LAN, WAN and Home Networking

Residences typically employ one LAN and connect to the Internet WAN via an Internet Service
Provider (ISP) using a broadband modem. The ISP provides a WAN IP address to the modem,
and all of the computers on the home network use LAN (so-called private) IP addresses. All
computers on the home LAN can communicate directly with each other but must go through a
central network gateway, typically a broadband router, to reach the ISP.

Other Types of Area Networks

While LAN and WAN are by far the most popular network types mentioned, you may also
commonly see references to these others:

 Wireless Local Area Network - A LAN based on Wi-Fi wireless network technology

 Metropolitan Area Network - A network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN
but smaller than a WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a
single entity such as a government body or large corporation.

 Campus Area Network - A network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN,
such as on a university or local business campus.
 Storage Area Network - Connects servers to data storage devices through a technology
like Fibre Channel.
 System Area Network (also known as Cluster Area Network) - Links high-performance
computers with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration.

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