Specific

Speed:

1
 Specific speed is
defined as "the
speed of an ideal
pump geometrically
similar to the actual
pump, which when
running at this
speed will raise a
unit of volume, in a
unit of time through
a unit of head".

The efficiency is based on a chart (see the Pump Handbook published by

McGraw Hill) that provides efficiency values for typical centrifugal
pumps over a wide range of flow capacities. It is based on tests made
with real pumps and represents the best average of the industry.
2
http://www.pumpfundamentals.com/help5.html
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 9
External Incompressible Viscous
Flow

3
 Main Topics
• The Boundary-Layer Concept
• Boundary-Layer Thicknesses
• Laminar Flat-Plate Boundary Layer: Exact Solution
• Momentum Integral Equation
• Use of the Momentum Equation for Flow with Zero
Pressure Gradient
• Pressure Gradients in Boundary-Layer Flow
• Drag
• Lift

4
Ch 2, p 40-1

5
Shear
force

McCa
be
McCa
be 1. Separation of fluid at ‘s’
2. Back flow of fluid in separated
region
McCa
be

Fo
x
Drag or fluid resistance

Shape and Form Skin

flow Drag friction

0% 100%

~10% ~90%

~90% ~10%

100% 0%
 Fo
x

McCa
be
 The Boundary-Layer Concept

For calculation purposes, under typical flow conditions, transition

usually is considered to occur at a length Reynolds number of 500,000.
For air at standard conditions, with free stream velocity U= 30 m/s, this
corresponds to x ~ 0.24 m. 11
 y Boundary Layer Thicknesses
x

✔Disturbance Thickness, δ: Distance from the surface

at which the velocity is within 1% of the free stream velocity;
u ~ 0.99U
✔ Displacement Thickness, δ*: the distance the
plate would move so that the loss of mass flux due to
reduction in uniform flow area will be same as the loss
the boundary layer would cause
12
 Boundary Layer Thicknesses

✔ Momentum Thickness, θ: the distance the plate

would move so that the loss of momentum flux due to
reduction in uniform flow area will be same as the loss the
boundary layer would cause

θ is essentially zero for y ≥ δ

13
Simplifying assumptions usually made for engineering analyses of
boundary layer development are:

Boundary layer is very thin compared with its development length along
the surface

14
15
16
17
18
9.3 Laminar Flat - Plate Boundary Layer: Blasius Exact
Solution
For two-dimensional,
steady, incompressible flow
with zero pressure gradient
from Navier Stokes
equations.

with boundary conditions

Blasius suggested that

19
 Laminar Flat-Plate
Boundary Layer: Exact Solution
• Results of Numerical Analysis

wall shear stress coefficient

20
Momentum Integral Equation

incompressible,
steady,
two-dimensional flow
over a solid surface

21
a. Continuity Equation

22
23
24
25
26
27
 Momentum Integral Equation
• Provides Approximate Alternative to Exact
(Blasius) Solution

This equation is valid for a general case—that is, for laminar and
turbulent boundary layers, for which the freestream velocity U(x) and
pressure p(x) are known functions of position along the surface x
28
Momentum Integral Equation general case

• Equation is used to estimate the

boundary-layer thickness as a function
of x:
1. Obtain a first approximation to the
freestream velocity distribution, U(x).
The pressure in the boundary layer is
related to the freestream velocity, U(x),
using the Bernoulli equation
2. Assume a reasonable velocity-profile
shape inside the boundary layer
3. Derive an expression for τw using the
results obtained from item 2
29
 Use of the Momentum Equation for Flow with
Zero Pressure Gradient general case
• Simplify Momentum Integral Equation (Item 1)
Obtain a first approximation to the freestream
velocity distribution, U(x).

✔ The Momentum Integral Equation becomes

30
general case

31
 general case

You may not use this form always

Obtain an expression for τw in terms of δ. This will then permit us to

solve for δ(x), as illustrated next

32
 Use of the Momentum Equation for Flow with Zero
Pressure Gradient; estimate the boundary-layer thickness
as a function of x
• Laminar Flow
– Example: Assume a Polynomial Velocity Profile (Item 2)
Evaluating constants a, b, and c gives

33
If we assume that δ = 0 at x=0, then c =0, and thus

34
 Use of the Momentum Equation for Flow with
Zero Pressure Gradient
• Laminar Flow Results (Polynomial Velocity Profile)
The wall shear stress, or “skin friction,” coefficient

Compare to Exact (Blasius) results! 35

36
37
38
 Use of the Momentum Equation for Flow with Zero
Pressure Gradient
• Turbulent Flow
– Example: 1/7-Power Law Profile (Item 2)

Can not be used-why?

39
S1 S2
40
Given: Data on boundary layer in a cylindrical duct
Find: Velocity U2 in the inviscid core at location 2; Pressure drop

Solution:
The solution involves using mass conservation in the inviscid core,
allowing for the fact that as the boundary layer grows it
reduces the size of the core. One approach would be to integrate the 1/7
law velocity profile to compute the mass flow in the
boundary layer; an easier approach is to simply use the displacement
thickness!

S1 S2
41
Governing equations:
Mass

Bernoulli

42
The displacement thicknesses can be computed from boundary layer
thicknesses using Eq. 9.1

Hence at locations 1 and 2, δdisp1= δ1/8= 0.656mm

δdisp2 =δ2/8 = 3 mm
Applying mass conservation at locations 1 and 2

The two areas are given by the duct cross section area minus the
displacement boundary layer
For the pressure drop we can apply Bernoulli to locations 1 and 2 to find

44
MORE REALISTIC APPROACH
For turbulent flow in smooth pipes, the Blasius correlation, valid
for Re ≤l05

definition of friction factor

wall shear stress

Turbulent boundary-layer flow over

expression for head loss a flat plate (Chapter 9)
45
For a 1/7-power profile in a pipe, Eq. 8.24 gives

δ = 0 at x = 0

46
 5 7
5 x 10 < Re < 5 x10

47
48
49
Group Problem 14 & 15 (17/11/2015): Marks 2 +2. Each group 2

Water at 10°C flows over a flat plate at a speed of 0.8 m/s. The plate is
0.35 m long and 1 m wide. The boundary layer on each surface of the
plate is laminar. Assume that the velocity profile may be approximated as
linear.

Determine the drag force on the plate.

50
From 1 & 2

If we assume that δ = 0 at
x=0, then c =0, and thus
51
U = 0.8 m/s
L= 0.35 m Calculate FD
W = 1 m wide.

52
 Shear
McCa force
be
McCa
be 1. Separation of fluid at ‘s’
2. Back flow of fluid in separated
region
McCa
be

Fo
x
 Fo
x

McCa
be
Pressure Gradients in Boundary-Layer Flow

57
Fig. 9.7: Non-dimensional profile for flat plate boundary layer flow

58
59
 Drag

• Drag Coefficient

with

or

60
 Drag
• Pure Friction Drag: Flat Plate Parallel to
the Flow
• Pure Pressure Drag: Flat Plate
Perpendicular to the Flow
• Friction and Pressure Drag: Flow over a
Sphere and Cylinder
• Streamlining

61
 Drag
• Flow over a Flat Plate Parallel to the Flow: Friction
Drag

Boundary Layer can be 100% laminar,

partly laminar and partly turbulent, or
essentially 100% turbulent; hence
several different drag coefficients are
available
62
 Drag
• Flow over a Flat Plate Parallel to the Flow: Friction
Drag (Continued)

Laminar BL:

Turbulent BL:

… plus others for transitional flow

63
64
Given: Turbulent boundary layer flow of water, 1/7-power profile
The given or available data (Table A.9) is

65
66
67
68
69
 Streamlining
Flow over a Sphere and Cylinder: Friction and Pressure Drag
• Used to Reduce Wake and hence Pressure Drag

70
 Drag

Drag coefficients are usually obtained empirically 71

72
 Drag
• Flow over a Flat Plate Perpendicular to the
Flow: Pressure Drag

73
74
 Drag
• Flow over a Sphere and Cylinder: Friction and
Pressure Drag

75
Δp is the local pressure
minus the freestream
pressure, and ρ and V
are properties of the
freestream flow.

76
 Drag
• Flow over a Sphere and Cylinder: Friction and
Pressure Drag (Continued)

77
78
Given: Sphere dragged through river
Find: Relative velocity of sphere
Solution:
Basic equations:

79
The Reynolds number is

Therefore we estimate the drag coefficient: CD = 0.15 (Fig 9.11)

But we have
Therefore

Solving for θ:

81