Yllana Bay View College, Inc.

“The Builder of Future Leaders”

Senior High School Department
Enerio Street, Balangasan District, Pagadian City
Contact Number: (062) 2154176 / Email Address: [email protected]

EARTH
SCIENCE

0930437449
Kenneth Amarilla
[email protected]
 DISCLAIMER ! ! !

THIS MATERIAL IS A COMPILATION FROM

DIFFERENT SOURCES. THE COMPILER
CLAIMS NO OWNERSHIP ON IT. SOURCES
ARE PROPERLY SPECIFIED AFTER THE
LESSON PROPER. SOME PHOTOS ARE
DOWNLOADED FROM THE WEB AND ARE
CREDITED TO THE OWNER. YBVC SHALL
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 THE MODULE
1. About This module
This module was created to meet the demand in this time of Pandemic. It has topics that can be searched
also in the internet. The instructor made sure that the lessons are easy to understand by every students regardless
of their status in life.
2. How to study the Module?
The module was created/compiled with love by the instructor. He made sure that all the lessons are
within the scoop of the curriculum guide provided by the Department of Education.
Scientifically speaking, it only takes 30mins for an individual to understand a certain lesson. For this,
the instructor wants you to at least give 30 minutes of your time every week to answer the lesson.
3. How to answer the Module?
The Instructor wants you to answer the attached SELF LEARNING ASSESSMENT (SLA) and to be
returned at the date the determined.

4. Difficulty in understanding the module

Your instructor knows that there are times when the lesson gets difficult and you will have a hard time
in comprehending it, in cases this will arise, you can reach your instructor using the contact details provided at
your convenience.
GOD BLESS YOU!

THE INSTRUCTOR
 LESSON 1: Structure, Composition
and Age of the Universe
Learning Competences:
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 Describe the structure and composition of the Universe.
 know the significant events in the formation of the Universe

Time Frame: 1 Week

LESSON PROPER

Universe composes primarily of 4.6% “Baryonic matter – an ordinary matter consisting of

Proton, electron and neutrons that comprises atoms, planets, etc.”. This means that universe in the
“TOTALITY OF MATTER, SPACE AND TIME”.

Q1: What is Matter?

“It is anything that occupies space and has mass” e.g. Everything you see, touch, smell, etc. is matter.

Q2: What is Space?

“It is the dimension, where matter exist” e. g. Figures like table, chairs, cabinets has 3-Dimensional
spaces, the X-Y-Z planes (topics during your linear and quadratic equation graphing)

Q3: What is time?

“It is a period of one occurrence to the other” e.g. seconds, minutes, months, etc.

The Universe also is theoretically composed of 24% Dark matter and 71.4% Dark energy.
Dark matter – A matter that has gravity but it doesn’t emit light. a
Dark Energy – A force that counteracts gravity that causes the universe to expand.
Note: Dark matter and Dark energy theory is still on the stage of validation due to insufficient of
evidence.
The universe is composed of stars and other heavenly bodies. There are two types of stars, the
main sequences stars and the red giants.
The main Sequence stars – are stars that is small and lesser that 8 solar masses. It formed from Proton –
proton reaction that being transform to helium atom, the main energy source of the stars like our sun.
This type of star burned slower than of the red giants and when its energy depletes, its leaves a small
remnant called a white dwarf star.
The red giants – are larger than the main sequence star. It burned faster and undergone a Triple alpha
process (the creation of the carbon atom) and alpha ladder (The creation of the elements from
Carbon to Iron). When these stars die, it erupts and became a super nova phenomenon leaving its core
turn into a very dense object called “Black hole”. During Super nova, the elements after Iron will
formed. After super nova, protostars – newly birth stars will form.

Q4: Is the Black hole has a hole at the center?

“Black hole doesn’t have a hole inside; it is a very dense matter that can be found at the center of
every galaxy. Its gravity won’t permit the light to travel thus its appear in the telescope as black.”
Fig 1. Theorized picture of a black hole
source: https://chandra.harvard.edu/blackhole/images/anatomy.png
Our universe is theoretically at least 13.8 billion years old and our own solar system is about 4.5 -
4.6 billion years’ old

Figure 2. Compared sizes of stars

source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/573083121317349178/
Reference:
Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education, pp.
11-16
 ACTIVITY #1
Activity title: Structure, Composition and Age of the Universe
Name: ____________________________________ Strand:____________________
Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________

Test I. Identification
Identify the following statements.
1. When the main sequence Stars runs off its energy, it turns into?__________
2. It is matter that has gravity but it doesn’t emit light.____________
3. It is the Dimension where matter can be found.______________
4. How much in percentage, the Dark Energy Composed in the universe?______________
5. When the Red Giant Stars runs off its energy, it turns into?____________
6. This stars are larger than the main sequence star._____________
7. It is a force that counteracts gravity that causes the universe to expand._______________
8. It is an ordinary matter consisting of Proton, electron and neutrons that comprises atoms, planets,
etc.__________
9. This are stars that is small and lesser that 8 solar masses.___________
10. It is anything that occupies space and has mass.____________

Test 2: Fill in the diagram below.

Fill in the life cycle of the stars.

Test 2: ESSAY (answer this at the back of this paper)

1. How can we travel across our Universe? Is there’s a way? explain your answer.
2. Is there a center in our Universe? Explain your answer.
 Lesson 2: Solar System
Learning Competences:
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• Identify the large scale and small scale properties of the solar system; and
• Discuss the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system

Time Frame: 1 week

LESSON PROPER
Overview
 The solar system is located in the milky way galaxy – a huge disc and spiral-shaped aggregation
of about at least 100 billion stars and other bodies
 Its spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or bulge of many, many stars, at the center of
which lies a supermassive black hole.
 this galaxy is about 100 million light years across.
(light year is the unit used to determine the distance of stars. consider this: “the closest star to our
solar system is alpha centaury which is for 4.5 light year away. That is the light we have seen
today from that star leave that star 4.5 years ago and travel at the speed of 300 million meters in
every second.)
 The solar system revolves around the galactic center once in 240 million years (one complete
revolution).
 The milky way is part of the so-called Local group of galaxy, which in part of the Virgo
supercluster of galaxies.
 Based on the assumption that they are remnants of the materials from which they were formed,
radioactive dating of meteorites, suggest that the earth and the solar system are 4.6 billion years
old.
Large Scale Features of the Solar System
 Much of the mass of the solar system is concentrated at the center (sun) while its angular
momentum in held by the outer planets.
 Orbits of the planets is elliptical and are on the same plane.
 All planets revolve around the sun
 The periods of revolution of the planets increase with increasing distance from the Sun; the
innermost planet (Mercury) moves fastest, the outermost (Neptune) the slowest.
 All planets are located at regular intervals from the sun.
Small scale feature of the Solar System
 Most planets rotate prograde
 Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with high melting points (takes time to melt like
Iron) such as silicates (e.g. Beach sand) and nickel. they rotate slower, have thin or no
atmosphere, higher densities and lower contents of volatiles (impurities) – Hydrogen, Helium, and
noble gas (refer to group 8A in the periodic table. List: Mercury, Venus, Earth & Mars
 The Outer four planets are called Jovian “Gaseous Planets” or “Gas giants” because of the
dominance of gases and their larger size. They rotate faster, have thick atmosphere, lower
densities, and fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium and ice. List: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune
Figure 1: The Solar system
source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Planets2013.svg

Table 1. Planetary Fact Sheet - Ratio to Earth Values

   MERCUR  VENUS   EARTH   MOON   MARS   JUPITER   SATURN   URANUS   NEPTUN  PLUTO 
Y  E 
Mass 0.0553 0.815 1 0.0123 0.107 317.8 95.2 14.5 17.1 0.0025
Diameter 0.383 0.949 1 0.2724 0.532 11.21 9.45 4.01 3.88 0.186
Density 0.984 0.951 1 0.605 0.713 0.240 0.125 0.230 0.297 0.380
Gravity 0.378 0.907 1 0.166 0.377 2.36 0.916 0.889 1.12 0.071
Escape 0.384 0.926 1 0.213 0.450 5.32 3.17 1.90 2.10 0.116
Velocity
Rotation 58.8 -244 1 27.4 1.03 0.415 0.445 -0.720 0.673 6.41
Period
Length of 175.9 116.8 1 29.5 1.03 0.414 0.444 0.718 0.671 6.39
Day
Distance 0.387 0.723 1 0.00257 1.52 5.20 9.58 19.20 30.05 39.48
from Sun *
Perihelion 0.313 0.731 1 0.00247 1.41 5.03 9.20 18.64 30.22 30.16
*
Aphelion 0.459 0.716 1 0.00267 1.64 5.37 9.96 19.75 29.89 48.49
*
Orbital 0.241 0.615 1 0.0748* 1.88 11.9 29.4 83.7 163.7 247.9
Period
Orbital 1.59 1.18 1 0.0343* 0.808 0.439 0.325 0.228 0.182 0.157
Velocity
Orbital 12.3 0.401 1 3.29 5.60 2.93 3.38 2.74 0.677 14.6
Eccentricit
y
Obliquity 0.001 0.113* 1 0.285 1.07 0.134 1.14 4.17* 1.21 2.45*
to Orbit
Surface 0 92 1 0 0.01 Unknown* Unknown Unknown Unknown* 0.00001
Pressure * *
Number of 0 0 1 0 2 79 82 27 14 5
Moons
Ring No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No
System?
Global Yes No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Unknow
Magnetic n
Field?
   MERCUR  VENUS   EARTH   MOON   MARS   JUPITER   SATURN   URANUS   NEPTUN  PLUTO 
Y  E 
https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/planet_table_ratio.html
CHARACTERISTICS OF EVERY PLANETS

1. MERCURY
IMAGE SOURCE: https://bit.ly/3yTJaIz

--In Roman mythology Mercury is the god of commerce, travel

and thievery, the Roman counterpart of the Greek god Hermes,
the messenger of the Gods. The planet received this name because
it moves so quickly across the sky.

• Mercury is a small planet which orbits closer to the sun than any other planet in our solar system. •
Mercury has no moons.
 • Mercury’s surface is very hot, it features a barren, crater covered surface which looks similar to Earth’s
moon.
• Mercury is so close to the Sun; the daytime temperature is scorching reaching over 400 degrees
Celsius.
• At night however, without an atmosphere to hold heat in, the temperatures plummet, dropping to -180
degrees Celsius.
• Mercury has a very low surface gravity.
• Mercury has no atmosphere which means there is no wind or weather to speak of.
• Mercury has no water or air on the surface.

2. VENUS
IMAGE SOURCE: https://bit.ly/3jXCTFn

• Venus is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty.

• Venus is the second planet from the sun.
• Is the brightest object in the sky besides our Sun and the Moon.
Has no moons.
• It is also known as the morning star because at sunrise it appears in the east. It is
also known as evening star as it appears at sunset when it is in the west. It cannot
be seen in the
middle of the night.
• Venus and Earth are close together in space and similar in size, which is the reason Venus is called
Earth's sister planet.
• Venus has more volcanoes than any other planet.
• It is the hottest planet in the solar system, even hotter than Mercury, which is closer to the Sun.
• The temperature on the surface of Venus is about 460° Celsius.
• The atmosphere on Venus is composed of carbon dioxide. The surface is heated by radiation from the
sun, but the heat cannot escape through the clouds and layer of carbon dioxide. (This is a “greenhouse
effect”).

3. EARTH
IMAGE SOURCE: https://bit.ly/3so2fjk

• All of the planets, except for Earth, were named after Greek and Roman gods
and goddesses. The name Earth is an Old English and German name which
simply means soil.
•Earth is the third planet from the sun. Has one moon.
• It is the only planet that has liquid water on its surface.
• It is the only planet in the solar system that has life.
• The Earth is fragile. Its surface is split into plates (tectonic plates) which
float on a rocky mantle – the layer between the surface of the earth, its crust,
and its hot liquid core. The inside of the Earth is active and earthquakes,
volcanoes and mountain building takes place along the boundaries of the tectonic plates.
• The Earth is larger than Mercury, Venus and Mars, the planets closest to it.
• The Earth differs from all the other planets because it has such a wide diversity of life and intelligent
beings. This has only been possible because of the Earth’s atmosphere which has protected the Earth and
allowed life to flourish.

4. MARS
IMAGE SOURCE: https://bit.ly/3CQPWRz

• Mars was named after the Roman god of war; it is also

described as the “Red Planet” because it is covered with rust-like
dust.
•Mars is the fourth planet from the sun.
•It is the second smallest planet in the Solar System.
• Has two moons.
• Mars looks a lot like our home, though instead of blue oceans and green land, Mars is home to an ever
present red tint. This is due to a mineral called iron oxide that is very common on the planet’s surface.
 • Mars has many massive volcanoes and is home to Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in our solar
system, it stands 21km high and is 600km across the base.
• Mars has seasons like Earth too. These seasons are much longer than Earth seasons because Mars is so
much farther from the sun.
• Mars experiences violent dust storms which continually change its surface.
• Mars has a very thin atmosphere made mostly of carbon dioxide. It is not thick enough to trap the sun's
heat like Venus, so the planet is very cold. Temperatures range from -120 Degrees Celsius on winter
nights to 25 Degrees Celsius in the summer

5. JUPITER
IMAGE SOURCE: https://bit.ly/3CRv2Sh

•It is called after the ancient Roman sky-god, Jupiter, known to the
Greeks as Zeus.
•Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun.
•Jupiter is the largest planet in our Solar system. It is so big that more
than 1300 Earths could fit inside it.
• Has 63 moons! The first 4 largest moons of Jupiter are called Galilean
moons but 46 of them are much smaller ranging.
• Jupiter is the stormiest planet in the Solar System. There is a
permanent, but ever-changing whirlpool of storms, known as Jupiter’s
Great Red Spot which can be seen using a telescope.
• The Red Spot was first seen by Robert Hooke in 1664.
• Jupiter is the first of the “gas giants”, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
• Jupiter is made of hydrogen, helium, methane and ammonia. The cloudy sphere has bright belts on it
which change their shape.
• If you were to descend into Jupiter, the thin, cold atmosphere becomes thicker and hotter, gradually
turning into a thick, dark fog. In the blackness about 1000km down the pressure squeezes the atmosphere
so hard that it becomes like liquid.

6. SATURN
IMAGE SOURCE: https://bit.ly/2UnvMx8

• Saturn was named after the ancient Roman god of agriculture.

• Is the sixth planet from the sun.
• Saturn is the second largest planet in our Solar System, after the giant
Jupiter.
•Has 62 moons!
• Saturn is the last planet that can be seen without using a telescope or
binoculars and the planet was known in the ancient world before
telescopes were invented. The rings, however, can only be seen using a
telescope.
• The rings were first seen by Galileo in 1610 through a telescope.
• The rings are made up of millions of ice crystals, some as big as houses
and others as small as specks of dust.
• The four largest outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, are known as the “gas giants” since
it is thought they are entirely made up of dense layers of gas. Saturn is a great ball of hydrogen and
helium.
• Saturn is very light as it is made up of more hydrogen that helium so it is less dense.
• Saturn is not a peaceful planet. Storm winds race around the atmosphere at 800kmp/h.

7. URANUS
IMAGE SOURCE: https://bit.ly/3jZk4Bx

•Uranus was named after the Greek god of the sky.

•Is the seventh planet from the sun.
•Uranus was the first planet discovered by telescope.
•Has 27 moons
• Uranus was first seen by William Herschel in 1781 during a
survey of the sky using a telescope.
• Rolls like a barrel rather than spinning like Earth and the other planets in our Solar System.
• Uranus is the coldest planet in our Solar System.
• Uranus is one of the “gas giants”, the four outer planets which are entirely composed of gas, Jupiter,
Saturn and Neptune.
• Uranus is the smallest of the four “giants”, but is still several times larger than the Earth.
• Uranus’s atmosphere is mostly hydrogen but it also contains large amounts of a gas called methane.
Methane absorbs red light and scatters blue light so a blue-green methane haze hides the interior of the
planet from view.

8. NEPTUNE
IMAGE SOURCE: https://bit.ly/3k0Gvq3

•Has 13 moons.
• Neptune is one of the four “gas giants”. Like Jupiter,
Saturn and Uranus, it is composed only of gas. Neptune is
a great ball of hydrogen and helium.
• In the same year that Neptune was first seen, 1846, its
first moon was also spotted and named Triton. Triton is a
most unusual moon since it orbits Neptune in the opposite
direction of Neptune’s own rotation on its axis. All the
other major satellites (moons) in the Solar System follow
their planets round as they turn.
• Neptune is a large, water planet with a blue hydrogen-
methane atmosphere and faint rings.
• Neptune suffers the most violent weather in our Solar System.
• Storms have been spotted swirling around its surface and freezing winds that blow about ten times
faster than hurricanes on Earth making it the windiest planet in the Solar System.

References:
Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education, pp.
25-30
https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/planet_table_ratio.html
https://www.acpsd.net/cms/lib011/SC02209457/Centricity/Domain/3613/PlanetsWorksheets.pdf
 ACTIVITY #2
Activity title: Solar System
Name: ____________________________________ Strand:____________________
Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________

Test I. Identify the following statements.

1. What is the name of our Own Galaxy?
2. What is the diameter of our galaxy?
3. The Four Outer Planets are?
4. How many stars in our Solar System?
5. The shape of orbit of planets around the sun is?
6. The Biggest Planet in our Solar system is?
7. How Many years our Solar System revolve around its galactic center?
8. It is a super dense object, that can be found at the center of every galaxy.
9. The Angular momentum is at?
10. The Four Inner Planets are?

Test II. List Down Some the Large and Small Features of our Solar System.

Make a Sketch of our Solar System in an Illustration Board 1/8 in size. Put a Table below for their
distance to the Sun, Its composition and its Diameter.

Rubrics:
Creativity – 30%
Content and Labeling – 40%
Neatness – 30%
 ACTIVITY #3
Activity title: CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANETS

Name: ____________________________________ Strand: ___________________

Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________
A. Read each question. Then, write your answer
1. How many moons does Mercury have? ___________________
2. Why was the planet Mercury named after the Roman god? ______________________
3. Mercury’s surface looks similar to what moon? ___________________
4. What is Mercury’s temperature at night? _____________________
5. Why is there no weather or wind in Mercury? ___________________
6. What is Mercury’s temperature during daytime? __________________
7. How many moons does Venus have?
8. Venus was named after the Roman goddess of ____? _________________
9. Venus is the _____________________ planet from the sun. ____________________
10. What is the temperature of Venus surface? __________________________
11. What does the name Earth mean? _______________________
12. Earth is the _____________ planet from the sun. ___________________
13. Earth’s surface is split into plates. What are these plates called? ____________________________
14. How many moons does Earth have? ______________________________
15. Because Mars has rust- like dust it is also known as? __________________
16. What is Mars atmosphere mostly made up of? __________________________
17. Name the mineral that causes Mars to have an ever present red tint. _________________
18. What is the name of the Solar System largest volcano? __________________________

B. TRUE OR FALSE
19. Jupiter was named after the ancient roman sky-god. ___________________
20. Jupiter is the smallest planet in our Solar System. ________________
21. Jupiter Red Spot can be seen without a telescope. __________________
22. The Red Spot was first seen by Robert Hooke’s. __________________
23. Jupiter is the stormiest planet in the Solar System. ______________
24. The four largest moons of Jupiter are called Galilean moons. ______________
25. Jupiter is the sixth planet from the sun. _______________
26. Saturn is called after the ancient Roman god of agriculture. ___________
27. Saturn rings are made up of millions of water drops. _______________
28. Saturn was known before telescopes were invented. _______________
29. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are known as the “gas giants”. _______________
30. Saturn is the second smallest planet in the Solar System. _________________
31.. Saturn has 62 moons. __________________
32. Saturn’s rings can only be seen with a telescope. _________________
33. Neptune is the windiest planet in our Solar System. ___________
34.. Neptune was named after the Roman god of the sea. ______________
35. Triton is the most unusual moon. 36. Neptune is known as one of the “great giants”. ____________
37. Neptune ‘s atmosphere is made up of hydrogen-methane. ___________
38. Neptune is the ninth planet in the Solar System. ______________
39. Neptune suffers the least violent weather in the Solar System. ______________
40. Pluto is a planet. ____________
 LESSON 3: HYPOTHESES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF OUR SOLAR
SYSTEM and UNIVERSE
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to;
• State the different hypothesis that preceded the Big Bang Theory of the Origin of the Universe.
• Explain the red-shift and how it used as proof of an expanding universe.
• Explain the Big Bang Theory and evidences supporting the theory.

Time Frame: 1 week

LESSON PROPER
Origin of the Universe
Non – Scientific thoughts
 Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which narrate that the world arose from an
infinite sea at the first rising of the sun.
 The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a creator god (Mbombo or Bumba) who alone
in the dark and water-covered earth, felt an intense stomach pain and vomit the stars, sun and
moon.
 In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet, eyes,
and mind became the Sky, Earth, Sun and Moon respectively.
 The Monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam claim that a supreme being (GOD)
created the universe, including man and other living organism. It is called Divine Creation
Theory.
Scientific thought
1. Steady State Model
• The now discredited steady state model of the universe was proposed in 1948 by Bondi
and Gould and by Hoyle. It maintains that new matter is created as the universe expands
thereby maintaining its density.
• Its predictions led to tests and its eventual rejection with the discovery of the cosmic
microwave background.

2. Big Bang Theory

• As the currently accepted theory of the origin and evolution of the universe, the Big Bang
Theory postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from a tiny, dense and
hot mass to its present size and much cooler state.
• The theory rests on two ideas: General Relativity and the Cosmological Principle. In
Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, gravity is thought of as a distortion of space-time
and no longer described by a gravitational field in contrast to the Law of Gravity of Isaac
Newton. General Relativity explains the peculiarities of the orbit of Mercury and the
bending of light by the Sun and has passed rigorous tests. The Cosmological Principle
assumes that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic when averaged over large scales.
This is consistent with our current large-scale image of the universe. But keep in mind that
it is clumpy at smaller scales.
• The Big Bang Theory has withstood the tests for expansion:

1. The redshift
- In the seven visible Spectrum, Red light has the longest wavelength and travels a
great distance but the weakest in intensity of Energy. Violet light on the other hand is the
shortest wavelength thus travels a shorter distance only but its Energy is the most intense.
 Thus, when seeing an object moving away to the observer, its colors appears to be shifted
from blue to red or white to red
2. Abundance of hydrogen, helium, and lithium, and
3. The uniformly pervasive cosmic microwave background radiation-the remnant heat
from the bang.

Origin of Solar System

Nebular Theory
 In the 1700s Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant and Pierre – Simon Laplace independently
thought of a rotating cloud that cools and contracts in the middle to form the sun and the rest
into a disc that become the planet.
 This nebular theory failed to account for the distribution of angular momentum in the solar
system.
Encounter Hypothesis
 Buffon’s (1749) Sun – Comet encounter that sent matter to form planet;
 James Jean’s (1917) Sun – Star encounter that would have drawn from the sun, those matter
condense to planets
 T.C. Chamberlain and F.R. Moulton’s (1904) Planetisimal hypothesis – It is involving a star
much bigger than the Sun passing by our Sun. It draws gaseous filaments from both out which
planetisimal were formed.
 Otto Schmidt’s accretion theory proposed that the Sun through a Dense Interstellar cloud and
emerge with a dusty, gaseous envelope that became the planets. However, it cannot explain how
the planets and satellites were formed.
Protoplanetary hypothesis – Current Hypothesis
 About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm of the milky way galaxy, a slowly – rotating gas and
dust cloud dominated by hydrogen and helium starts to contract due to gravity
 As most of the mass move to the center and eventually become a proto-sun, the remaining
materials form a disc that eventually become the planets and the momentum is transferred
outward
 Due to collision, fragments of dust and solid matter begin sticking each other to form larger
bodies. These Proto-planets are accretion of frozen water, ammonia, methane, silicon, aluminum,
iron, and other metals in rock and mineral grains enveloped in hydrogen and helium
 High speed collision with larger objects destroys much of the mantle of Mercury and puts Venus
in retrograde rotation
 Collision of the earth with larger objects produces the moon. This is supported by the composition
of the moon very similar to the earth’s mantle.
 When the proto-Sun is establishing as a star, its solar wind blasts hydrogen, helium and volatiles
from the inner planets to beyond the stars to form the Gas Giants leaving behind a solar system
we know today.

Reference:
Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education, pp.
17-21, 30-34
 ACTIVITY #4
ACTIVITY TITLE: HYPOTHESIS ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM AND
UNIVERSE

Name: ____________________________________ Strand: ____________________

Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________
Test I. Choose your answer in the box.
a. Bumba d. Big Bang g. purusha j. Sun – Moon
encounter
b. Infinite sea e. Monotheism h. Sun – Comet k. Sun – Star
encounter encounter
c. Steady State f. Nebular Theory i. Planetisimal l. Protoplanetary
hypothesis hypothesis

1. This theory of the Origin of Our Solar System was proposed by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel
Kant and Pierre – Simon Laplace.
2. This is the most accepted theory of the Origin of the Universe.
3. Who is the creator God of the Kuba People in Central Africa?
4. In India, they believe gods sacrifice __________whose head, feet, eyes, and mind became the Sky,
Earth, Sun and Moon respectively.
5. Judaism, Christianity and Islam believe is what type of religion?
6. This theory of the Origin of the Universe was proposed by Bondi and Gould.
7. This theory of the Origin of Our Solar System was proposed by James Jean (1917)
8. This theory of the Origin of Our Solar System was proposed by T.C. Chamberlain and F.R.
Moulton’s (1904).
9. This theory of the Origin of Our Solar System was proposed by Buffon (1749).
10. The Egyptian Believes that the world arose from __________ at the first rising of the sun.
Test II. Essay. (Explain)
What makes the:
 Protoplanetary hypothesis acceptable?
 Big Bang Acceptable?
 What is Red Shift?
 LESSON 4: MINERALS
Time Frame: 1 Week
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 Differentiate the difference between minerals and rocks
 Appreciate the different origin of minerals

A. Overview
Minerals are the building blocks of rock, and therefore the geosphere is composed of minerals. Minerals
make up the rock beneath your feet, the soil that supports plants and the rock of Earth’s Mantle.
Most minerals in their settings are harmless to human and other species. In Addition, many resources
that are essential to modern life are produced from rocks and minerals: IRON, ALUMINUM, GOLD, etc.
LESSON PROPER
MINERALS
LESSON: What is minerals?
Minerals is a naturally occurring inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and crystalline
structure.
Note:
 Minerals form by natural process
 Minerals are inorganic; petroleum cannot be an inorganic since it has carbon and hydrogen bonding; oil
cannot be mineral since it is not solid
 minerals are Solid, thus ice is a mineral but neither water nor water vapor is mineral.

Properties of Minerals
1. Luster – It is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibit by the mineral
 metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a polish metal
 Non – Metallic – Vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/ diamond like), resinous, silky, pearly, dull
(Earthy), greasy, etc.

2. Hardness – It is measurement of the resistance of a mineral to Abrasion(deformities).

3. Color and Streak
 Color maybe a unique identifying properties of certain minerals. But, there are also minerals that share
similar or the same color. In addition, some minerals exhibit a range of color (e.g. quartz: pink (rose
quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine), White (Colorless quartz), etc.)
  Streak is the color of a mineral in powdered form. Note that the color of mineral could be different
from the streak. For example: A pyrite exhibit golden color; but black or dark gray streak.

4. Crystal form/Habit – The external shape of a crystal or group of crystals is displayed / observed as these
crystals grow in open space (e.g. Ice, table salt, sugar, sand is in crystal form). A solid that has no crystalline
structure is called Amorphous solid (e.g. Chalk, wood, etc.).
5. Cleavage – It is the property of some mineral to break along parallel repetitive planes of weakness to form
smooth, flat surface. (e.g. try to cut a glass, you notice that the cut gets through without changing its angle)
6. Fracture – Some minerals may not have cleavage but exhibit broken surfaces that are irregular and non-
planar. Try to break a stone specifically quartz, the cut will not be planar or straight.
7. Specific Gravity – It is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water. (e.g. A
bucket of silver would weight 10 times 10 times more than a bucket of water). The specific gravity of a mineral
is numerically equivalent to density.
8. Others – There are certain unique properties of minerals that actually help in their identification (e.g.
Magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.). Magnetite is strongly magnetic (can be found in some
compass), sulfur has a distinctive smell, halite is salty (e.g. table salt), calcite fizzed with acid (e.g. eggshell will
fizz with vinegar).

Mineral Groups
The more stable and less ambiguous basis for classification of minerals is by Chemical Composition. A table below shows
the mineral in their chemical composition.

Element
NATIVE SIO4 O2 SO4 S2 CO3 HALOGENS
( SILICATE) (OXIDE) (SULFATE) (SULFIDE) (CARBONATE)
Gold Quarts Hematite Gypsum Pyrite Calcite Chlorine
Bismuth Olivine Magnetite Barite Galena Dolomite Fluorine
Diamond Talc Chromite Anhydrite Bornite Malachite Halite
Table 1. Samples of minerals based on their chemical composition.
To elaborate more:
1. Silicates – Minerals containing 2 of the most abundant element in Earth crust, namely, Silicon and Oxygen. When
linked together, these two elements form the silicon – oxygen tetrahedron, the fundamental building block of silicate
minerals.
2. Oxide – Minerals containing Oxygen Anion, combined with one or more metal ions.
3. Sulfates – Minerals containing sulfur and oxygen anion combined with other ions. (e.g. Plant Fertilizer)
4. Sulfide – Minerals contains Sulfur anion combined with one or more ions. Sulfides are source of economically
important metals such as copper, lead and zinc.
5. Carbonates – Minerals containing the carbonate anion combined with other elements.
6. Native Elements – Minerals that form as an individual element.

 Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with high Thermal and electrical conductivity, typically with metallic luster,
low hardness (e.g. gold, lead).
 Semi Metals – Minerals that are more fragile than metals and has a lower conductivity (arsenic, bismuth).
 Nonmetals – Nonconductive (e.g. sulfur, diamond)

7. Halides – Minerals containing halogen elements (Group VII A) combined with one or more elements.
References:
Thompson and Turk, Introduction to Earth Science, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd., Philippine Edition

Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education,
 ACTIVITY #5
ACTIVITY TITLE: MINERALS

Name: ____________________________________ Strand:____________________

Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________

Part 1. Complete the table of the common examples of minerals

Compounds Commercially Known Products / USES

Halides Toothpaste, Table salts, Detergents, etc.

Carbonate

Sulfate

Phosphates

Oxides

Part 2. Identification: Identify the following statements below.

1. This mineral group containing Oxygen Anion combined with one or more metal ions.
2. This mineral group containing sulfur and oxygen anion combined with other ions.
3. This mineral group containing sulfur and oxygen anion combined with other ions.
4. This mineral group containing the carbonate anion combined with other elements.
5. These mineral group containing halogen elements (Group VII A) combined with one or more elements.
6. It is naturally occurring inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure.
7. This property of mineral concerns the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibit by the mineral.
8. This property of mineral concerns measurement of the resistance of a mineral to Abrasion.
9. This property of mineral concerns the tendency to break along parallel repetitive planes of weakness to
form smooth, flat surface.
10. These mineral group containing 2 of the most abundant element in Earth crust, namely, Silicon and Oxygen.
11. 1. It is the quality and Intensity of reflected light exhibit by the mineral.
12. 2. It is the Property of mineral to break along repetitive planes of weakness to form smooth and flat surface.
13. 3. This property refers to breaking the surface into irregular and non-planar.
14. 4. Non crystalline form of solid is called?
15. 5. It is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water.
 LESSON 5: ROCKS
Time Frame: 1 week
Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

 Display and explain the three categories of rocks
 Appreciate the different origin of minerals and rocks
 Understand the different geologic processes involve in rock formation

A. OVERVIEW
Earth is a solid rock to a depth of 2900km, where the mantle meets the liquid outer core. Even in casual
observation reveals that rocks are not all alike. The great peak of the Sierra Nevada in California are hard, strong granite.
The red cliff of the Utah desert is soft sandstones. The Top of the Mount Everest is limestone containing clamshells and
the remains of other marine animal.
The marine fossils at the top of Mt. Everest tell us that this limestone formed from sea. What forces lifted the rock
to the highest point of the Himalayas? Where did the vast amount of sand in the Utah sandstone comes from? How did
the granite of Sierra Nevada form?
In this Chapter, we will unlock all the concepts concerning rocks.

LESSON PROPER
ROCKS
A rock is a solid aggregate of one or more minerals. Geologist group rocks into three categories: IGNEOUS,
METAMORPHIC, and SEDIMENTARY.
No rock is permanent over geologic time; instead, all rocks undergo processes that change them from one of the
three rock types to another. This continuous process is called “ROCK CYCLE”.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Magma is the source of igneous rocks. Its temperature varies from about 600 0C to 14000C depending on its
chemical composition. The Magma is less dense compared to the surrounding rocks and therefore, the magma rises and
flow to the surface called Lava (volcanic eruption, or vents, fissures, etc.). It cools down at the surface and form igneous
rocks.

TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Extrusive Igneous rocks – It formed when the magma rises at the surface in form of LAVA and hardens.

Figure 1. Example of a lava that cools down

Source: https://www.freepik.com/free-photo/high-angle-shot-heated-volcano-process-
eruption_8943666.htm#query=lava&position=3

Intrusive Igneous rocks – It formed when the rising magma cools down as it way up but never reaches to the surface. It
is also called the Plutonic rock or Pluton.
COMMON IGNEOUS ROCKS

IGNEOUS CHARACTERISTICS SOURCE

ROCKS
Basalt Basalt is a dark-colored, fine- https://geology.
grained, igneous rock composed com/rocks/basal
mainly t.shtml
of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals.
It most commonly forms as an
extrusive rock, such as a lava flow, but
can also form in small intrusive bodies,
such as an igneous dike or a thin sill. It
 has a composition similar to gabbro.
The difference between basalt and
gabbro is that basalt is a fine-grained
rock while gabbro is a coarse-grained
rock.
Andesite Andesite is the name used for a family https://geology.
of fine-grained, extrusive igneous com/rocks/ande
rocks that are usually light to dark gray site.shtml
in color. They often weather to various
shades of brown, and these specimens
must be broken for proper examination.
Andesite is rich
in plagioclase feldspar minerals and
may contain biotite, pyroxenes,
or amphiboles. Andesite usually does
not contain quartz or olivine.
Dacite Dacite is a fine-grained igneous https://geology.
rock that is normally light in color. It is com/rocks/dacit
often porphyritic. Dacite is found e.shtml
in lava flows, lava domes, dikes, sills,
and pyroclastic debris. It is a rock type
usually found on continental crust
above subduction zones, where a
relatively young oceanic plate has
melted below.
Diorite Diorite is the name used for a group of https://geology.
coarse-grained igneous rocks with a com/rocks/diorit
composition between that e.shtml
of granite and basalt. It usually occurs
as large intrusions, dikes, and sills
within continental crust. These often
form above a convergent plate
boundary where an oceanic plate
subducts beneath a continental plate.
Gabbro Gabbro is a coarse-grained, dark- https://geology.
colored, intrusive igneous rock. It is com/rocks/gabb
usually black or dark green in color and ro.shtml
composed mainly of the minerals
plagioclase and augite. It is the most
abundant rock in the deep oceanic
crust. Gabbro has a variety of uses in
the construction industry. It is used for
everything from crushed stone base
materials at construction sites to
polished stone counter tops and floor
tiles.
Granite Granite is a light-colored igneous https://geology.
rock with grains large enough to be com/rocks/grani
visible with the unaided eye. It forms te.shtml
from the slow crystallization of magma
below Earth's surface. Granite is
composed mainly
of quartz and feldspar with minor
amounts of mica, amphiboles, and
other minerals. This mineral
composition usually gives granite a red,
pink, gray, or white color with dark
mineral grains visible throughout
the rock.
Obsidian Obsidian is an igneous rock that forms https://geology.
when molten rock material cools so com/rocks/obsid
rapidly that atoms are unable to arrange ian.shtml
 themselves into a crystalline structure.
It is an amorphous material known as a
"mineraloid." The result is a volcanic
glass with a smooth uniform texture
that breaks with a conchoidal fracture
(see photo).
Pegmatites Pegmatites are extreme igneous https://geology.
rocks that form during the final stage of com/rocks/pegm
a magma’s crystallization. They are atite.shtml
extreme because they contain
exceptionally large crystals and they
sometimes contain minerals that are
rarely found in other types of rocks.
Peridotite Peridotite is a generic name used for https://geology.
coarse-grained, dark-colored, com/rocks/perid
ultramafic igneous rocks. Peridotites otite.shtml
usually contain olivine as their
primary mineral, frequently with other
mafic minerals such as pyroxenes and
amphiboles. Their silica content is low
compared to other igneous rocks, and
they contain very
little quartz and feldspar.
Pumice Pumice is a light-colored, extremely https://geology.
porous igneous rock that forms com/rocks/pumi
during explosive volcanic eruptions. It ce.shtml
is used as aggregate in lightweight
concrete, as landscaping aggregate, and
as an abrasive in a variety of industrial
and consumer products. Many
specimens have a high enough porosity
that they can float on water until they
slowly become waterlogged.
Rhyolite Rhyolite is an extrusive igneous https://geology.
rock with a very high silica content. It com/rocks/rhyol
is usually pink or gray in color with ite.shtml
grains so small that they are difficult to
observe without a hand lens. Rhyolite
is made up of quartz, plagioclase, and
sanidine, with minor amounts
of hornblende and biotite. Trapped
gases often produce vugs in the rock.
These often contain crystals, opal, or
glassy material.
Fire Opal Many people confuse “fire opal” with https://geology.
“precious opal”. So, here is a quick com/gemstones/
lesson on the three basic types of opal. opal/fire-
opal.shtml
1. Fire Opal is a variety of opal
that has a bright yellow, bright
orange or bright red background
color. They receive their name
from their fiery background
color.
2. Precious Opal is a name given
to any opal that exhibits “play-
of-color”, a flashing display of
spectral colors when the opal is
“played” under a light source.
3. Common Opal is a variety of
opal that does not display “play-
of-color” and does not have a
 background color that would
make it a fire opal.

The name “fire opal” is all about the

bodycolor - fiery yellow, fiery orange
or fiery red. It's not about "flash".
Scoria Scoria is a dark-colored igneous https://geology.
rock with abundant round bubble-like com/rocks/scori
cavities known as vesicles. It ranges in a.shtml
color from black or dark gray to deep
reddish brown. Scoria usually has a
composition similar to basalt, but it can
also have a composition similar
to andesite.
Tuff Tuff is an igneous rock that forms from https://geology.
the products of an explosive volcanic com/rocks/tuff.s
eruption. In these eruptions, the html
volcano blasts rock, ash, magma and
other materials from its vent. This
ejecta travels through the air and falls
back to Earth in the area surrounding
the volcano. If the ejected material is
compacted and cemented into a rock,
that rock will be called "tuff."
Disclaimer: All of the facts stated above is belong to: Hobart M. King, Ph.D., RPG article at GEOLOGY.COM

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of sediments. There are three basic types of
sedimentary rocks:

Clastic sedimentary rocks - is called gravel, sand, silt or clay, in order of decreasing particle size. It includes
the following samples:  breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale are formed from mechanical
weathering debris.
 This rocks undergoes lithification process by which loosed sediment is converted to solid rock
Chemical sedimentary rocks – There are elements that can be found in rocks and undergoes weathering
process (process by which weather is the cause). It include such as rock salt, iron ore, chert, flint,
some dolomites, and some limestones, form when dissolved materials precipitate from solution.

Organic sedimentary rocks - It undergoes process of lithification of remains of plants and animals.
These rocks include, coal, some dolomites, and some limestones, form from the accumulation of plant or
animal debris.

Sedimentary Structures

Nearly all sedimentary rocks contain sedimentary structures – feature that developed during or shortly after
deposition of the sediments.

Bedding – It is the most common sedimentary structure. It is also called the stratification. It forms because
sediments accumulate layer by layer. Nearly all sedimentary beds were originally horizontal because most
sediment accumulates on the nearly level surface.

Cross – Bedding – consists of small beds lying at an angle to the main sedimentary layers. It forms in many environments
where wind or water transport and deposit sediments. It is common is sands deposited by wind, streams, and ocean
currents and by waves on the beaches.

Ripple Marks – are small, nearly parallel ridges and troughs that are also formed in sand and mud by moving water or
wind. You can see them in mud puddles and shallow streams. They are like dunes and sand waves, but in smaller. Ripple
marks are often preserved in sedimentary rocks.

Mud Cracks – are irregular polygonal cracks that form when mud shrinks as it dries. They indicate that the mud
accumulated in shallow water that periodically dried up.
Fossils – are any remains or traces of plant or animal preserved in rocks – any evidence of past life. Fossils include
remains of shells, bones, or teeth; whole body preserved in amber or ice.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphism – from the Greek word for “changing form” is the process by which rising temperature and
pressure, or changing chemical conditions, transform rocks and minerals. Example the pot is form from molding a clay.
Metamorphism can change any type of parent rocks: Igneous rocks, Sedimentary Rocks and Even another metamorphic
rock. Usually Metamorphism occurs because of the presence of HIGH TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE.

Metamorphic Grade - It is the intensity of metamorphism that form the rock. Temperature is the most common factor in
metamorphism. Because temperature increases with the depth in Earth, a general concept of relationship exists between
depth and temperature.
o Low Grade – occurs at shallow depths, less than 10km beneath the surface, where temperature is no higher than
3000C to 4000C.
o High Grade – occurs at the depth of 40 to 55 kilometer below. The temperature here is 600 0C to 8000C, close to
the melting point of rock.
Textual Changes – As a rock undergoes metamorphism, some mineral grain grows larger and other will sink. The shape
of the grains may also change. Example limestone (smaller grain) transform to become marble (large grain).

Mineralogical Changes – Sometimes when a parent rock contains only one mineral, metamorphism transformed rocks
into one composed of the same mineral but with a coarser texture. Example is the metamorphism of quartz sandstone to
quartzite, a rock composed of recrystallized quartz grains.

TYPES OF METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Contact Metamorphism – Highest grade metamorphic rock forms from contact point, closest to the magma. Contact
metamorphism occurs where hot magma intrudes cooler rock of any type.

Burial Metamorphism – result from burial of rocks in a sedimentary basin. Over tens of thousands or millions of years,
the weight of the sediment becomes so great that the entire region sinks. Younger sediment may bury the oldest layers to
the depth of more than 10km in large basin. You can see these rocks in the deltas, such as Amazon delta, Mississippi delta
and even Nile delta.

Regional Dynamo-thermal Metamorphism – Occurs when two crustal movement (movement of tectonic plates), it
creates mountains and deform rocks. The term Dynamo-thermal simply means that rocks are being heated and deformed
at the same time. Example, a typical sequence of changes shale as metamorphic grade increases. SHALE is the most
abundant type of sedimentary rock and consists of clay minerals, quartz and feldspar. The mineral grains are too small to
be seen with the naked eye and barely seen in the microscope. As regional metamorphism begins, clay minerals break
down and mica and chlorite replace them. These new, platy minerals grow perpendicular to the direction of squeezing. As
a result, the rock develops slaty cleavage and is called SLATE.

Hydro-Thermal Metamorphism – Water is chemically active fluid; it attacks and dissolves rocks and minerals. If the
water is hot, it attacks the minerals more rapidly. Hydro-Thermal Metamorphism is also called Hydro-Thermal
alteration or metasomatism occurs when hot water and ions dissolved in hot water react with rocks to change its
chemical composition and minerals.

Most rocks and magma contains a small amount of concentration of metals such as Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead,
and Zinc. Although the metals present is in very low concentration, hydrothermal solution sweep slowly through vast
volumes of the country rocks, dissolving and accumulating the metals as they go. The solutions then deposit the dissolved
metals, where they encounter changes in temperature and pressure or chemical environment. In this way, hydrothermal
solutions scavenge and concentrate metals from average crustal rocks and then deposit them locally to form ore.

SUMMARY OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

Reference:
Thompson and Turk, Introduction to Earth Science, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd., Philippine Edition
Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education,
https://geology.com/rocks/.shtml

ACTIVITY #6
ACTIVITY TITLE: ROCKS

Name: ____________________________________ Strand:____________________

Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________

Part 1: Fill in the Table below

Types of Rocks Examples of Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Sedimentary
Rocks

Metamorphic
Rocks
Part 2: Identification
Identify the following statements below.
1. It is the building block of rocks. _______________
2. This type of rock formed from cooling of magma/lava. ______________
3. What do you call when the magma reaches the surface and flows like a pyroclastic?______________
4. What is the name of intrusive igneous rock form from magma cools before reaching the ground?_______________
5. What type of rock is the granite?_______________
6. This type of rock formed from compaction of sediments._____________
7. This type of rock formed from altering its composition through applied heat and pressure.________________
8. This type of sedimentary rock undergoes lithification of the remains of plants and animals?___________________
9. This type of sedimentary rock forms from the silt or it is the other term form gravel._____________________
10. It is the remains of Plants and animals which lives million years ago.____________________
11. It is the most common sedimentary structure. It is also called the stratification._________________
12. These are irregular polygonal cracks that form when mud shrinks as it dries.________________
13. It is the Greek word for changing forms?_________________
14. This type of metamorphism of rock which happens near the magma chamber._________________
15. This type of metamorphism of rock which happens near the fault line._________________

Lesson 6: Mineral Resources

Time Frame: 1 week

Learning competencies
The learners will be able to
1. Describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and processed for human use (S11ES-Ic-d-8).
2. Cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from the exploitation, extraction, and use of mineral
resources (S11ES-Id-9).

A. Overview
Since human-like creature emerged 5 to 7 million years ago, our use of geologic resources has become
increasingly sophisticated. Early hominids used sticks and rocks as simple weapon and tools.
We use two types of geologic resources: Mineral Resources and Energy Resources. Mineral resources
include useful rocks and minerals.
LESSON PROPER
MINERAL RESOURCES

Mineral resources include both metal ore and non-metallic minerals.

NON-METALLIC MINERALS – refer to the useful rocks or minerals that are not metal such as salt,
building stones, gravel and sand, Sulfur, fluorite, etc. Sand and Gravel which are essential in building
houses, roads, etc are mined from stream and glacial deposit, sand dunes and beaches. In Zamboanga Del Sur,
we mined it from quarries at Labangan river and some area in Bagalupa, Pagadian city.
ORE - is a rock that sufficiently enriched in one or more minerals to be mined profitably. Examples are Gold,
Silver, Copper, Platinum and Iron
ORIGIN OF MINERAL RESOURCES
Magmatic Ore Deposit
 Forms mineral deposit as liquid magma solidifies to form an igneous rock. These processes create metal
ores as well as some gems and non-metallic mineral deposits including sulfur deposit and building stone
such as granite.
 Valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through magmatic processes such as
crystal fractionation, partial melting, and crystal settling.
 Magmatic processes can concentrate the ore minerals that contains valuable substance after
accumulating elements that were once widely dispersed and in low concentration within the magma.

Figure 1. Shows magma in the process of cooling down, and the minerals are slowly settling at the
bottom. Soon the magma will become igneous rock.

Examples:

o Crystal settling: As magma cools down, heavier minerals tend to crystallize early and settle at the
lower portion of the magma chamber (see fig, 1)
o From Basaltic magma, chromite (FeCr2O4), Magnetite (Fe3O4) and Platinum (Pt) can be concentrated
through crystal settling.
o Fractional Crystallization: The residual melt contains high percentage of water and volatile substances
that are favorable for the formation of Pegmatite. Pegmatite are enriched in Lithium (can be found in
some Batteries) Gold, Boron, rare Earth elements and some other heavy metals such as Uranium
(radioactive material used in Nuclear bombs), Cesium, etc.
o From Granitic magma enriched Heavy metals and also pegmatite (large crystal of quartz, feldspar, and
muscovite) which may contain semi-precious gems such as Beryl, Topaz, and Tourmaline.
Hydrothermal Ore Deposit
 Concentration of valuable substance by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluid flowing through fractures and
pores spaces in rocks.
 Hydrothermal Solution – are hot, residual watery derived during the later stages of magma
crystallization and may contain large amount of dissolved metals. These can also originate from the
ground water circulating at the depth that is being heated up by a cooling and solidifying igneous body
or along depths with known geothermal gradient.
Fig 2. Showing the water circulation at the depth along the magma chamber
 Such water can dissolve valuable substances (at low Concentration) from rocks. As the metal enriched
hot water into the cooler areas in the crust, the dissolved substances may start to precipitate.
 There are numerous hydrothermal mineral deposits as compared to the different types of deposits.
Examples:
Vein Type Deposit – A fairly well defined zone of mineralization, usually inclined and discordant and
typically narrow. Most vein deposit occurs in fault or fissure openings or shear zone with the country
rock. Sometimes referred to as (metalliferous) lode deposits, many of the most productive deposits of
Gold, Silver, Lead, and Mercury occur as hydrothermal vein deposits
Disseminated Deposits – Deposits in which the ore mineral are distributed as minute masses (very low
concentration) through large volumes of rocks. This occurrence is common for porphyry copper deposits
Massive Sulfide Deposit – precipitate of metal as sulfide minerals such as sphalerite (ZnS) and
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) occurs when hot fluid that circulated above magma chamber at the oceanic ridge
that may contain sulfur, copper and zinc comes in contact with the cold underground or seawater as it
migrate towards the sea floor.
Strata bound ore deposits – This deposit is formed when the dissolved minerals in a hydrothermal
fluid precipitate in the pore spaces of unconsolidated sediments on the bottom of the lake or ocean. Such
mineral may contain economic concentrations of Lead, Zinc, and Copper, usually in sulfide form like
galena(PbS), Sphalerite (ZnS) and Chalcopyrite(CuFeS2)
Sedimentary Deposit
 Some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or seawater.
Examples:
Evaporate Deposits – This type of deposit typically occurs in a closed marine environment where
evaporation is greater than the water inflow. As most of the water evaporates, the dissolved substances
become more concentrated in the residual water and would eventually precipitate. Halite (NaCl or table
salt), Gypsum (CaSO4*2H2O), Borax (used in soap) and Sylvite (KCl, from which K (Potassium) is
extracted for fertilizer) are examples of mineral deposited through this process.
Iron Formation – These deposits are made up of repetitive thin layers of iron-rich chert and several
iron bearing minerals such as hematite and magnetite. Iron Formations appear to be of evaporite type
deposits and are mostly formed in basins within continental crust during the Proterozoic (2 Billion years
or older).
Placer Ore Deposits
 Deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity separation during
sedimentary processes.
  Usually aided by flowing surface water either in streams or along coastlines.
 Concentration would be according to the specific gravity of substance, wherein the heavy minerals are
mechanically concentrated by water currents and the less-dense particles remain suspended and are
carried further downstream.
 Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to transportation and weathering
 Common deposits are Gold, and other heavy minerals such as Platinum, Diamond and Tin.
 The source rock for a placer deposit may become an important ore body if located.
Residual Ore Deposit
 A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials through chemical weathering
processes.
 During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by leaching.
 Important factors for the formation of residual deposit include parent rock composition, climate (tropical
and sub-tropical: must be favorable for chemical decay) and relief (must not be high to allow
accumulation)
 Common deposits are Bauxites and Nickeliferous laterites.
 Nickeliferous laterites or nickel laterites are residual ore deposits derived from the laterization of olivine
– rich ultramafic rocks such as Dunite and Peridotite. Like in the formation of bauxite, the leaching of
nickel – rich ultramafic rocks dissolves common elements, leaving the insoluble nickel, magnesium and
iron oxide mixed in soil.
 Secondary Enrichment Deposit are derived when a certain mineral deposit becomes enriched due to
weathering.
MINERAL EXPLORATION AND MINING
A. MINERAL EXPLORATION
a. Project Design – This is the initial stage in formulating a project. This involves review of all
available data (Geologic reports, mining history, maps, etc.), government requirements in acquiring
the project, review of social, environmental, political and economic acceptability of the project and
budget and organization.
b. Field Exploration – This stage involves physical activities in the selected project area. This can be
subdivided into three phases:
o Regional Reconnaissance: the main objective is to identify targets or interesting mineralized
zones covering a relatively large area (regional). In general, the activities involve regional
surface investigation and interpretation.
o Detailed Exploration – This involved more detailed surfaces and sub-surface activities with
the objective of finding and delineating targets or mineralized zones.
o Prospect Evaluation – the main objective is to assess market profitability by :
 Extensive resource , Geotechnical and Engineering drilling
 Metallurgical testing
 Environmental and societal cost assessment
c. Pre – Production Feasibility Study - The feasibility study determines and validates the accuracy of
all data and information collected from the difference stages. The purpose is for independent
assessors to satisfy interested investors to raise funds and bring the project into production.
B. MINING
There are two main method of mining: Surface and Underground Mining

Types of mines: (A) Underground, (B) Surface (Open pit), (C) Strip, (D) Placer (being mined by a floating dredge)
(Source: Physical Geology Earth Revealed by Carlson, 2011, p 564)

a. Surface Mining – Utilized to extract ore minerals those are close to Earth surface. It includes Open
pit mining, Quarrying, Placer Mining and Strip mining.
 Fig 1. 600m deep open pit diamond mine
Source: CK12 Earth Science

b. Underground Mining – Utilized to extract ore minerals from the ore body under the surface of the
Earth.

C. THE MILLING PROCESS

o The materials mined or extract are rocks composed of both Ore and waste material. The
extracted rock will undergo processes of mineral separation and recovery
o Recovering the minerals from the Ore and waste materials can involve one or more processes
where the separation is usually done in a mill
o Crushing and screening are the first stages of controlled size reduction followed by grinding
where the rock are pulverized
Milling or Recovery Method / Processes
 Heavy media separation – The crushed rocks are submerged in a liquid where the heavier
/denser minerals sink thus are separated from the lighter minerals. This is commonly used to
separate chalcopyrite from quartz before the refining processes of extracting copper.
 Magnetic Separation – If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated from
the waste materials using a powerful Magnet
 Flotation – The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy slurry where some
minerals and metals based on physical and chemical properties may either sink to the bottom
or may stick to the bubbles and rise to the top thus separating the minerals and metals from
waste.
 Cyanide Heap Leaching – This method used for low – grade gold ore where the crushed
rock is placed on a “Leach Pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed or dipped on the top of
the pile. As, the leach solution percolates down through the rocks, the gold is dissolved into
the solution. The solution is processes further to extract the gold.
D. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
o Environmental impacts of irresponsible mining cause Flooding, Erosion, Water and Air
pollution, Damage to wildlife and habitat
o To prevent the harmful effect of irresponsible mining, the following counter measures should be
done includes top soil replacement, Reintroduction of Flora and Fauna; Neutralizing Acidic
Water; Backfilling and sealing of abandoned underground mines; stabilizing the slope of
impacted area to reduce erosion etc.
o In the Philippines, we have Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB), Environmental Management
Bureau, etc. that regulates Mining in the Philippines.
References:
o Thompson and Turk, Introduction to Earth Science, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd., Philippine Edition
o Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher
Education,

ACTIVITY #7
ACTIVITY TITLE: MINERAL RESOURCES
Name: ____________________________________ Strand:____________________
Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________

Part 1. Identify the following Statements below.

1. This Type of Mining is utilized to extract ore minerals those are close to Earth surface. It includes Open pit
mining, Quarrying, Placer Mining and Strip mining.
2. This Type of Mining is utilized to extract ore minerals from the ore body under the surface of the Earth.
3. This type of millings process is done by setting the crushed rocks to submerged in a liquid where the
heavier /denser minerals sink thus are separated from the lighter minerals.
4. This type of milling process is done by putting the powdered ore is placed into agitated and frothy slurry.
5. This is a Bureau under DENR which manages the requirements for the application of mining application in
the Philippines.
6-8. What are the two types of mineral resources?
9. It refers to a Mineral Resources that are not metal?
10. It refers to a Mineral Resources that are metal?
11. Sulfur is widely used in household and cosmetic products, where does Sulfur come from?
12. It is a hot fluid beneath the surface of the Earth that cools down which is the source of Minerals.
13. This is the initial stage in formulating a Mining project.
14.-15. Field Exploration has three stages, what are this stages?

Part 2. Define the following terms and give some examples.

Types of Deposits Sample

minerals that
can be
extracted
1. Magmatic ore deposit
-

2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposit

-

3. Sedimentary Deposits
-

4. Placer ore deposits

-

5. Residual Ore deposits

-

LESSON 7: ENERGY RESOURCES

Time Frame: 1 week
Learning competencies:
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. Describe how fossil fuels are formed;
2. Explain how heat from inside the earth is tapped as a source of energy (geothermal) for human use;
3. Explain how energy (hydroelectric) is harnessed from flowing water; and
4. Create individual models explaining how fossil fuels are formed, and how geothermal and hydroelectric
energy are harnessed for human use.
B. Overview
In our modern world, we need energy to push through. Energy comes from various sources.
LESSON PROPER
ENERGY RESOURCES
There are two categories of energy sources: Renewable and Non-Renewable Source
1. Renewable Source – It is also called “Clean Energy”, comes from Natural sources and constantly
replenish. You can use it again. It includes the following:
o Solar
o Wind
o Hydroelectric
o Biomass
o Geothermal
2. Non – Renewable – Is a source that eventually runs out. You cannot recycle and reused its residue. It
includes:
o Coal
o Oil
o Natural Gas
o Nuclear

WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF ENERGY?

A. FOSSIL FUELS

Q: What are fossil fuels and what are the different kinds?
- Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms.
The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650
million years. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum and natural gas. Other
more commonly used derivatives of fossil fuels include kerosene and propane.

Q: What is coal and how is it formed?

- Like oil and natural gas, coal is a fossil fuel. It started forming over 350 million years ago, through the
transformation of organic plant matter.

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how-coal-was-formed.jpg)
o Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins
called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock
because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon along
with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.

o Coalification is the formation of coal from plant material by the processes of digenesis and metamorphism.
Also known as bituminization or carbonification. It all starts with a swamp on the edge of a sedimentary basin,
such as a lagoon or a lake. Tectonic activity raises sea levels, covering and killing vegetation. Plant debris
 accumulates and is buried under layers of mud and sand in a process known as sedimentation. This protects the
debris from the air and slows down the decomposition process. The vegetation grows back, until the next
flooding. The sedimentary basin gradually sinks under the weight of the sediments, and the layers of dead plants
are subjected to rising temperatures that gradually “cook” them, leading to their transformation. The different
stages of sedimentation turn cellulose, the main component of wood, from peat to lignite (brown coal), then sub-
bituminous coal, followed by bituminous coal and, finally, anthracite. Anthracite has the highest carbon content.

Answer This: Zamboanga Sibugay is known to be the Coal Capital of the Philippines, Would that means that there are
lot of plants and animals living in that area 65 million years ago or before? Explain your answer.

Geological Time for The Formation of Coal

• The most favorable conditions for the formation of coal occurred 360 million to 290 million years ago, during the
Carboniferous (“coal-bearing”) Period. However, lesser amounts continued to form in some parts of the Earth during
all subsequent periods, in particular the Permian (290 million to 250 million years ago), and throughout the Mesozoic Era
(250 million to 65 million years ago).

• The accumulated plant matter buried during the Tertiary Era — less than 65 million years ago — is generally less
mature. It is often in the form of lignite, which still contains a high content of volatile matter (bitumen and decayed wood)
and has lower carbon content. However, there is also some higher rank coal from the Tertiary Era, coal that matured early,
heated by plate tectonics. Examples of this include Paleocene coal (65 to 55 million years ago), found in Columbia and
Venezuela, and Miocene coal (20 million years ago), and found in Indonesia. In Indonesia, where the geothermal gradient
is very high, anthracite lies close to the surface.

• However, the deposits in the Moscow Basin have never gone beyond the lignite stage as it is too cold. Finally, recent
accumulations (from 10,000 years ago to today) are very rich in fibrous debris known as peat, in which the shapes of
branches and roots can still be discerned. This material was not buried deep enough to contain elemental carbon.

The Different Types of Coal

There are several different types of coal. They are ranked according to their carbon and volatile matter content.
 Anthracite - is 86 to 98% pure carbon and 8 to 3% volatile matters. It is an excellent fuel that is still used to heat
homes.
 Bituminous - coal contains 70 to 86% carbon and 46 to 31% volatile matters. It is used to make coke, used in
metallurgy.
 Sub-bituminous - coal is 70 to 76% carbon and 53 to 42% volatile matters. It is burned in industrial boilers.
 Lignite - is 65 to 70% carbon and 63 to 53% volatile matters. It is a low-grade fuel with a high moisture content
that is used in industrial boilers.
 Peat - consists of partially decomposed vegetation. Technically speaking, it isn’t coal. It has a carbon content of
less than 60% and is composed entirely of volatile matter. A poor fuel that was once used throughout Europe in
the form of dried briquettes for heating; today it is used only in a few regions, such as Ireland.

B. PETROLEUM

What is petroleum (oil and gas) and how is it formed?

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How Oil and Gas Deposits are formed?

 o Deep in the Earth, oil and natural gas are formed from organic matter from dead plants and animals. These
hydrocarbons take millions of years to form under very specific pressure and temperature conditions.

o When a living organism dies, it is generally recycled in one of two ways:

 It is eaten by predators, scavengers or bacteria.
 Through exposure to ambient air or oxygen-rich water, it oxidizes. That means that the hydrogen, carbon,
nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus contained in the matter combine with oxygen atoms present in the air. The
organic matter breaks down into water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrates, sulfates and phosphates that
nourish new plants.

The Slow Formation of Source Rock

• A tiny proportion of organic matter (Dead Plants and Animals) — about 0.1% — escapes from the fate stated above.
Transported by water, it sometimes sinks to the bottom of the sea or large continental lakes. It is partly preserved in these
poorly oxygenated environments, well away from tidal currents. It mixes with inorganic matter, such as clay particles and
very fine sand, and with dead marine plankton (microscopic organisms). This mixture is transformed into dark, foul-
smelling mud by anaerobic bacteria.

• Over time, this mud accumulates and hardens. Mud that contains at least 1 to 2% organic matter may be transformed
into source rock, which eventually produces oil and gas deposits. This percentage may seem low, but that is because
one or more specific requirements are necessary to enable the process to take place:
 A hot climate that is conducive to the growth of large quantities of plankton.
 A location near the mouth of a major river carrying a lot of plant debris.
 No nearby mountains that could limit the volume of inorganic sediment within the rock.

Source Rock Subsidence

• The weight of accumulating sediment very slowly pushes the source rock further under the Earth's crust, by a few meters
to a few hundred meters every million years or so. This gradual sinking is called subsidence and leads to the formation of
sedimentary basins. As it sinks below ground, the source rock is subjected to increasingly high temperatures; the organic
matter that makes up the rock is crushed by the weight of the accumulating sediments, and the pressure increases by 25
bar every 100 meters on average. At one kilometer underground, the temperature is 50°C and pressure is 250 bars.
Under these physical conditions, the nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus atoms are gradually converted into kerogen, an
intermediate material made up of water, carbon dioxide, carbon and hydrogen, which is then transformed into oil or
gas.

How Oil and Gas Forms

• At a depth of 2,000 meters, when the temperature reaches 100°C, kerogen (source of Kerosene, gasoline, etc.) starts to
release hydrocarbons
• Between 2,000 and 3,800 meters, it turns into oil. This depth interval is known as the oil window.
• When the source rock sinks further, to between 3,800 and 5,000 meters, production of liquid hydrocarbons peaks.
The liquids produced become increasingly lighter and gradually turn into methane gas, the lightest hydrocarbon. This
depth interval is known as the gas window.
• There are no hydrocarbons below a depth of 8 to 10 kilometers, because they are destroyed by the high
temperature.
• The proportion of liquids and gas generated in this way depends on the type of source rock. If the organic debris is
composed mostly of animal origin, it will produce more oil than gas. If it is composed mainly of plant debris, the source
rock will produce mostly gas.
• With an estimated average sedimentation of 50 meters every million years, it takes 60 million years for dead animals
to become liquid hydrocarbons. It is hardly surprising; therefore, that oil is classified as a non-renewable energy source.

How Oil and Gas Migrate

• Starting out from the source rock where they are formed, hydrocarbon molecules, which are light, set off on an
upward journey to the surface. They accumulate in porous rock and are blocked by impermeable rock, thereby creating
oil and gas deposits.

The Slow Rise to the Surface of Oil and Gas

• In the source rock, hydrocarbons are present in greater volumes under higher pressures than the initial kerogen. Little by
little, they are expelled into the water-containing rocky layers located adjacent to the source rock. Because hydrocarbons
are lighter than water, gas and oil rise upward by circulating between the mineral grains of the rock. This slow, constant
movement away from the source rock is called migration.

• Migration is a complicated process. The rate depends on the permeability of the rocks they cross and the size of the
molecules: gas molecules rise more quickly than oil molecules, because they are smaller and more mobile. Some
hydrocarbon molecules are prevented from moving upward, either because they dissolve in the water contained in the
rock they encounter (this affects gas much more often than oil) or because they adhere to the grains that make up the rock.
This phenomenon is known as migration loss. These losses can be significant, especially if the oil and gas have a long
way to travel. This is why some source rock hydrocarbons will never be suitable for development.

The Formation of Deposits in Reservoir Rock, Under Cap Rock

• A hydrocarbon deposit can only form in reservoir rock. Hydrocarbon molecules may accumulate in large quantities in
this porous, permeable rock.

• Sedimentary rock is formed of solid particles deposited in seas, oceans, lakes or lagoons. The appearance of the rock is
different depending on the size of these particles: very large grains form rock consisting of gravel, small grains bond
together to form sand, and the smallest grains of all form clay or mud.

• There are also empty spaces within the rock that determine its porosity. The higher the percentage of space within the
rock, the more porous the rock, which can contain large quantities of fluids such as water, oil or gas. Pumice is an
example of a porous rock. These spaces, or pores, may be connected. Their connectivity is known as permeability, which
is what allows fluids to circulate within the rock. Not all rock is both permeable and porous. Oil exploration engineers
look for reservoir rocks — also known as reservoirs — that combine good porosity (large quantities of hydrocarbons) and
good permeability (which makes it easy to extract these hydrocarbons because they flow unimpeded inside the rock).

• However, a hydrocarbon deposit will only form if the reservoir rock is capped by a layer of impermeable rock that
prevents the oil or gas from rising vertically to the surface and forms a closed space that prevents the oil or gas from rising
laterally. This cap rock forms a barrier and traps the hydrocarbons. While clay and crystallized salt (evaporite) layers form
the best cap rock, any rock that is sufficiently impermeable — such as highly compact carbonates — can serve as a cap
rock Absence of Cap Rock

• If the hydrocarbon molecules are not prevented from rising, they will move through the reservoir rock and cannot
accumulate.

• Oil or gas that reaches the surface at the end of its migration is exposed to bacteria and ambient air. This triggers
complex chemical reactions that convert them into water and carbon dioxide. However, when significant quantities of
hydrocarbons arrive at the surface more quickly than the final degradation process, the heaviest molecules may remain in
the ground in the form of viscous, almost solid bitumen, buried at depths of a few meters. But these bitumen deposits will
quickly disappear when the hydrocarbons stop arriving at the surface to replenish them.

From Traps to Commercial Deposits

• A hydrocarbon deposit can only form in reservoir rock. Hydrocarbon molecules may accumulate in large quantities in
this porous, permeable rock.

• Sedimentary rock is formed of solid particles deposited in seas, oceans, lakes or lagoons.
The appearance of the rock is different depending on the size of these particles: very large grains form rock consisting of
gravel, small grains bond together to form sand, and the smallest grains of all form clay or mud.

• There are also empty spaces within the rock that determine its porosity. The higher the percentage of space within the
rock, the more porous the rock, which can contain large quantities of fluids such as water, oil or gas. Pumice is an
example of a porous rock. These spaces, or pores, may be connected. Their connectivity is known as permeability, which
is what allows fluids to circulate within the rock. Not all rock is both permeable and porous. Oil exploration engineers
look for reservoir rocks — also known as reservoirs — that combine good porosity (large quantities of hydrocarbons) and
good permeability (which makes it easy to extract these hydrocarbons because they flow unimpeded inside the rock).

• However, a hydrocarbon deposit will only form if the reservoir rock is capped by a layer of impermeable rock that
prevents the oil or gas from rising vertically to the surface and forms a closed space that prevents the oil or gas from rising
laterally. This cap rock forms a barrier and traps the hydrocarbons. While clay and crystallized salt (evaporite) layers form
the best cap rock, any rock that is sufficiently impermeable — such as highly compact carbonates — can serve as a cap
rock. Absence of Cap Rock

• If the hydrocarbon molecules are not prevented from rising, they will move through the reservoir rock and cannot
accumulate.

• Oil or gas that reaches the surface at the end of its migration is exposed to bacteria and ambient air. This triggers
complex chemical reactions that convert them into water and carbon dioxide. However, when significant quantities
of hydrocarbons arrive at the surface more quickly than the final degradation process, the heaviest molecules may remain
in the ground in the form of viscous, almost solid bitumen, buried at depths of a few meters. But these bitumen
deposits will quickly disappear when the hydrocarbons stop arriving at the surface to replenish them.

From Traps to Commercial Deposits

• Commercial oil and gas deposits occupy closed spaces created by deformations in geological layers. These spaces,
known as traps, must be large enough to make developing the deposit economically viable. Reservoir rock, which is both
porous and permeable, can hold a given quantity of hydrocarbons. Cap rock, which seals these reservoirs, stops the
hydrocarbons from migrating upwards to the surface.
• But before a deposit can be formed, these hydrocarbons must also be sealed in a closed space called a trap.

About Oil and Gas Traps

• There are two main types of trap:

 Structural traps - which are formed by changes in geological layers caused by the movement of tectonic
plates. Reservoir rock is sometimes deformed until it forms a completely sealed space. These anticlinal
traps are dome-shaped and the most common type of structural trap.
 Stratigraphic traps - are made up of sedimentary layers that have not undergone tectonic deformation.
In this case, a cap rock completely seals off the reservoir rock. For example, salt domes can act as cap
rocks in this type of trap.

• The trap contains hydrocarbons, but also residual water. Because they are lighter than the water, the hydrocarbons
migrate above the water table.

• Hydrocarbon traps can contain:

Oil, with significant quantities of dissolved gas.
Gas, with light liquid hydrocarbons known as condensate.
Both oil and gas. In this case, the gas, which is lighter than the oil, accumulates in the upper part of the trap.
• If the reserves are developed, the gas dissolved in the crude oil will be turned into liquefied petroleum gas (LPG),
used primarily as fuel. Condensate will be refined to produce naphtha, used as a feedstock in the petrochemical industry,
or kerosene, a fuel used in aviation.

Conserving Hydrocarbons

• Once trapped, the hydrocarbons are still at risk of deterioration that could prevent the formation of a commercial deposit.

• At depths of less than 1,000 meters, the accumulation can be infiltrated by meteoric water (precipitation). This water
contains bacteria and oxygen that come into contact with the gas and oil, triggering chemical reactions that separate them
into water and carbon dioxide.

• Bacteria and oxygen start by attacking light and medium hydrocarbon molecules. After a period of time, the initial oil is
significantly degraded, leaving only viscous, solid hydrocarbons that are more difficult to extract than non-degraded oil or
gas.

• Below 1,000 meters, the temperature is in most cases higher than 50°C and the bacteria that cause the degradation
cannot survive. Although no longer threatened by bacteria or oxygen, traps located deep underground can be affected by
tectonic activity — some traps have even been created this way. This can cause fractures and faults in the rock, breaking
the seal and letting the hydrocarbons leak out of the trap. More violent tremors can even destroy the trap by substantially
reducing or destroying the seal.

Fossil Fuel Power Generation

• Electrical energy generation using steam turbines involves three energy conversions, extracting thermal energy from the
fuel and using it to raise steam, converting the thermal energy of the steam into kinetic energy in the turbine and using a
rotary generator to convert the turbine's mechanical energy into electrical energy.

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 C. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

• As you descend deeper into the Earth's crust, underground rock and water become hotter. This heat can be recovered
using different geothermal technologies depending on the temperature. But the heat resources in geothermal reservoirs are
not inexhaustible.
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Thermal Gradient
• The adjective geothermal comes from the Greek words ge (earth) and thermos (heat). It covers all techniques used to
recover the heat that is naturally present in the Earth’s subsurface, particularly in aquifers, the rock reservoirs that contain
groundwater. About half this thermal (or “heat”) energy comes from the residual heat produced when the planet was
formed 4.5 billion years ago and about half from natural radioactivity.

• The temperature of geothermal water increases with depth, depending on the thermal gradient — the average rate at
which the temperature rises with depth — of the region where it is found. The average value of the gradient worldwide is
3°C per 100 meters of depth, but it varies between 1°C and 10°C per 100 meters depending on the physical conditions and
geology of the region.

The Different Types of Geothermal Energy

• Geothermal technologies differ with the temperature of geothermal water, which determines what can be done with it:
 At 20°C to 90°C, geothermal heat and water are used for geothermal heating. This is called low-temperature
geothermal energy

 At 90°C to 160°C, the water is used on the surface in liquid form. It transfers its heat to another fluid, which
vaporizes at low temperature and drives a turbine to generate power. This is called medium-temperature
geothermal energy

 At temperatures above 160°C, the water turns into steam when it reaches the Earth’s surface. It drives turbines to
generate power. This is called high-temperature geothermal energy.

• The different temperature ranges are general, and practices may vary according to the economic conditions of the
particular location.

Availability of Geothermal Resources

• This heat varies in different areas. The average geothermal heat flow — the energy available for any given surface area
and period — on the surface is low. It averages 0.06 watts per square meter per year, or 3,500 times less than the solar
energy flow received in a single year by the same surface area. This is why priority is given to using heat resources in
those areas that are most likely to provide significant amounts of energy. These “geothermal reservoirs” are found in all
the Earth’s sedimentary basins, but high-temperature geothermal energy is most likely to be found near volcanoes. In
volcanic areas, geothermal heat flow can reach 1 watt per square meter.

• Geothermal reservoirs tend to be depleted with use, some faster than others. Their replenishment capacity depends on:
 Heat sources within the Earth’s crust, mainly radioactivity and residual heat.

 Energy from outside the reservoir (solar heat) for very low-temperature applications using heat pumps. Ensuring
that these reservoirs will be reheated is especially crucial for geothermal heat pumps: external factors, such as low
winter temperatures, cool the subsurface, meaning that less heat is available to be harnessed.

 The circulation of groundwater that is reheated on contact with heat sources located away from the reservoir
before returning to the reservoir.

• Therefore, these heat resources must be replenished to use a reservoir in a sustainable manner. This involves capping the
amount of heat used and putting a time limit on the operation of the site.

• In addition, the availability of geothermal energy is geographically limited. Significant losses occur when heat is
transported over long distances. This can cause problems, because production sites cannot always be located close enough
to the place of consumption to meet energy needs.
How is heat from inside the earth tapped as a source of energy for human use?

• Thermal energy, contained in the earth, can be used directly to supply heat or can be converted to mechanical or
electrical energy.
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High-Temperature Geothermal Energy: Power

• Medium and high-temperature geothermal energy harnesses extremely hot water and steam from beneath the Earth to
generate electricity in dedicated power plants.

(Source: http://www.energy.ca.gov/geothermal/images/geysers_unit_18.jpg)

Global Resources

• Global high-temperature geothermal energy resources used for power generation are found in a relatively few countries,
in areas characterized by volcanic activity. They are mainly located in Asia, the Pacific islands, the African Great Lakes
region, North America, the Andean countries of South America, Central America and the Caribbean.

• Around 20 countries in the world produce geothermal power, for a total installed capacity of 10.93 GW. It plays an
essential role in some countries like the Philippines, where it accounts for 17% of electricity produced, and Iceland,
where it represents 30%. Global installed capacity is projected to double by 2020. Medium-Temperature Geothermal
Power Plants

• Geothermal water at temperatures of 90 to 160°C can be used in liquid form to generate power; this is called medium-
temperature geothermal energy.
• This technology involves power plants that harness groundwater via geothermal wells. This type of power plant is built
near aquifers located at depths of 2,000 to 4,000 meters. In volcanic areas (“hotspots”), where the subsurface holds more
heat, the water used by the power plants is sometimes found closer to the surface, at depths of less than 1,000 meters.

• In these plants, water that has been pressurized to stop it boiling circulates through a heat exchanger. This equipment
contains pipes filled with geothermal water that are in contact with pipes filled with another fluid, generally a
hydrocarbon. When it comes into contact with the water-filled pipes, the fluid heats up, boils and vaporizes. The steam
obtained drives a turbine that generates power. In the process, the steam cools, returning to its liquid state before being
reused in another production cycle.

High-Temperature Geothermal Energy in Volcanic Areas

• If the geothermal water is hotter than 160°C, it can be used directly in the form of steam to drive turbines and generate
power. This is called high-temperature geothermal energy. This principle was applied as long ago as 1913 in the world’s
very first geothermal power plant, in Larderello, Italy.

• This type of power plant uses water from water tables in volcanic regions, at depths of 1,500 to 3,000 meters. On very
rare occasions, the water is present in the reservoir in the form of steam. In 95% of cases, the water is liquid. The drop in
pressure experienced by the liquid in the wells as it flows to the surface causes some of the liquid to become vapor.

• At the surface, the liquid water is separated from the dry steam in a separator. The dry steam is fed to the turbine, while
the liquid water can be vaporized again by reducing its pressure even further. The residual liquid water is injected back
into the reservoir.

• Medium and high-temperature geothermal energy is used in a wide variety of applications. In industry, for example,
geothermal water and steam can be used to wash and dry wool. They can also be used to manufacture pulp or treat
biomass.

D. HYDROPOWER, THE LEADING RENEWABLE ENERGY

(Source: http://water.usgs.gov/edu/graphics/wuhytypicalplant.gif)

• Water energy encompasses both plants installed on land — on rivers and lakes — and ocean energy, which is still being
developed and harnesses the force of waves, tides and currents. Widely used for decades, hydropower plants are the
world’s leading renewable energy source, producing 83% of renewable power.
 (Source: http://www.eco-business.com/media/uploads/ebmedia/fileuploads/
shutterstock_168301589_hydro_news_featured.jpg)

• The kinetic energy generated by moving water has been used by humankind for centuries, to drive watermills that
produce mechanical energy. Modern hydropower, sometimes referred to as “white coal," is harnessed in plants where
electricity is generated. Around 40 countries use hydropower to produce more than a fifth of their electricity1.
Hydropower accounts for 16% of electricity worldwide, behind coal and gas, but ahead of nuclear.

From Dams to Plants

• A hydroelectric power plant has three main components:

 A dam that creates a large waterfall and stores enough water to supply the plant at all times. As well as producing
and storing energy, a dam also helps to regulate flooding.

 A penstock that channels water from its natural environment (river or lake) to supply the dam reservoir. It may be
an open channel, a tunnel or pipeline.

 A powerhouse that houses the turbines driven by the waterfall and the generator driven by the turbines.

Types of Hydropower Plant

• The type of plant varies with the site's configuration, the waterway and the intended use. Run-of-river plants produce
energy using the flow of the river. With dams less than 25 meters high, these “small hydro” plants generate power
continuously to meet daily needs.

• Off-stream plants are modular, meaning that energy can be produced on demand, with dams used to create reservoirs
that can be released as required. On lakes, water falls from a significant height (over 300 meters); on locks, from between
20 and 300 meters.

• Pumped storage power plants are specifically designed for modular operation. They have two reservoirs at different
heights. When demand requires, water is released from the higher reservoir to the lower reservoir. When there is excess
production — for example, from wind or solar sources — the surplus electricity is used to pump water into the higher
reservoir.

Site Selection and Financing

• First, the right topographical, geological and hydrographical conditions are required. The biggest hydropower producers
are countries crossed by fast-flowing rivers and mountainous countries. Gorges in rivers are good places for building
dams. Similarly, a large flat valley is ideal for holding water. There must be sufficient rainfall in the catchment area (all
upstream water).

• Large and medium-size dams are very expensive to build. Governments are increasingly trying to obtain funding from
private sources or large international organizations such as the World Bank for these projects. But because the payback
period is seen as too long, hydropower projects have difficulty attracting investors. The future of hydropower therefore
depends to a large extent on the persuasiveness of states and potential public-private partnerships.

The Advantages of Hydropower

• The water used to generate hydropower is renewable and storable, meaning it can be used at peak consumption times
and then reused. This way of storing potential energy is particularly efficient as a hydro plant can reach its maximum rated
capacity in just a few minutes. By way of comparison, a thermal energy plant takes around 10 hours to reach full capacity
and a nuclear reactor takes four times longer than that.
• Hydropower is extremely efficient, with 90% of the water’s energy converted into electricity. In addition, hydropower
plants do not generate greenhouse gases and other emissions.
• While construction is a capital intensive, operating and maintenance costs are low. Plants have an extremely long life
and the technology is highly reliable. In France alone, of the 60- odd large dams still in use, many were built before 1960.
The oldest, located in the Nièvre region, began operating in 1858.
• With all these advantages, developing hydropower can only be beneficial. However, it still presents difficulties.

ReferenceS:
Thompson and Turk, Introduction to Earth Science, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd., Philippine Edition

Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education,
https://d30y9cdsu7xlg0.cloudfront.net/png/2070-200.png
http://www.openlearningworld.com/World_Geography/imgs/figure_7.3.3.jpg)

ACTIVITY #8
ACTIVITY TITLE: ENERGY RESOURCES
Name: ____________________________________ Strand:____________________
Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________

Part 1. Identify the following statements below. (Put your Answer at the back of this paper)
1-5. List down the atleast 5 Renewable source of energy.
6- 9. List down atleast 4 Non – Renewable source of Energy
10. This is also called the Clean Energy and can be replenished.
11. This type of energy source won’t replenish.
 12. It is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins
called coal beds or coal seams.
13. It is the formation of coal from plant material by the processes of digenesis and metamorphism.
14. What is the name of the period 360 million to 290 million years ago?
15. This type of coal is 86 to 98% pure carbon and 8 to 3% volatile matters. It is an excellent fuel that is still used to
heat homes.
16. This type of coal contains 70 to 86% carbon and 46 to 31% volatile matters. It is used to make coke, used in
metallurgy.
17. This type of coal is 65 to 70% carbon and 63 to 53% volatile matters. It is a low-grade fuel with a high moisture
content that is used in industrial boilers.
18. This type of coal consists of partially decomposed vegetation. Technically speaking, it isn’t coal. It has a carbon
content of less than 60% and is composed entirely of volatile matters.
19. This type of coal is 70 to 76% carbon and 53 to 42% volatile matters. It is burned in industrial boilers.

20. At 2000 meters below the surface of the Earth, the source will have produced?
21. At 2000 - 3800 meters below the surface of the Earth, the rock source will have produced?
22. At 3800 - 5000 meters below the surface of the Earth, the rock source will have produced?
23. LPG is stands for?
24. It is the Energy we can harness for the hot temperature of the earth.
25. It is the Energy we can harness from our bodies of water that are moving.
26. 20°C to 90°C temperature is what type of Geothermal Energy?
27. 160°C and above temperature is what type of Geothermal Energy?
28. 90°C to 160°C temperature is what type of Geothermal Energy?
29. What do you call the rock that becomes the source of petroleum?
30. It is called the coal Bearing Period.

Part 2. Draw in a bond paper a schematic diagram of:

 Hydroelectric Power Plant
 Geothermal Power Plant
 Coal Power Plant

Lesson 8: WATER RESOURCES

Time frame: 1 week
C. Learning competencies
The learners will be able to:
1. Identify ways to address the different environmental concerns related to the use of fossil fuels, geothermal and
hydroelectric energies.
2. describe how water is distributed on earth (S11ES-Ie-f-13)
3. Identify the various water resources on earth (S11ES-If-14)
4. Explain how different activities affect the quality and availability of water for human use (S11ES-Ig-16(a))
5. Suggest ways of conserving and protecting water resources (S11ES-Ig-16(b))
 LESSON PROPER
WATER RESOURCES
A. Water
Water is a simple compound, made of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen bonded together.
More than any other substance on the Earth, water is important to life and has remarkable properties. Without
water, life could probably not even exist on Earth. When looking at Earth from space, the abundance of water
on Earth becomes obvious — see Figure 1. On land, water is also common: it swirls and meanders through
streams, falls from the sky, freezes into snowflakes, and even makes up most of you and me. In this section,
we’ll look at the distribution of water on Earth, and also examine some of its unique properties.

Distribution of Water on earth

As Figure 1 makes clear, water is the most abundant substance on the Earth’s surface. About 71% of the
Earth’s surface is covered with water, most of which is found in the oceans. In fact, 97.5% of Earth's water,
nearly all of it, is in the Earth’s oceans. This means that just 2.5% of Earth's water is fresh water, water with low
concentrations of salts. Most freshwater is found as ice in the vast glaciers of Greenland and the immense ice
sheets of Antarctica. That leaves just 0.4% of Earth’s water that is fresh water that humans can easily use. Most
liquid freshwater is found under the Earth’s surface as groundwater, while the rest is found in lakes, rivers, and
streams, and water vapor in the sky.

Figure 2. Fractional distribution of water

Where and in what forms is water available on Earth?

 The world’s water exists naturally in different forms and locations: in the air, on the surface, below the
ground and in the oceans. Just 2.5% of the Earth’s water is fresh water, and most is frozen in glaciers and ice
sheets. About 96% of all liquid freshwater can be found underground. The remaining small fraction is on
the surface or in the air. Knowing how water cycles through the environment can help in determining how
much water is available in different parts of the world.
The Earth’s water cycle (Figure 3 below) is the global mechanism by which water moves from the air
to the Earth (precipitation) and eventually back to the atmosphere (evaporation). The principal natural
components of this cycle are precipitation, infiltration into the soil, runoff on the surface, groundwater
discharge to surface waters and the oceans, and evapotranspiration from water bodies, the soil, and
plants. “Blue water”— the water in rivers, lakes, and aquifers— can be distinguished from “green water” —
which feeds plants and crops, and which is subsequently released into the air. This distinction may help
managers focus on those areas which green water feeds and passes through, such as farms, forests, and
wetlands.

Figure 3. Water cycle

How does water move from the atmosphere to the ground and back?

About 10% of the Earth’s freshwater that is neither frozen nor underground is found in the
atmosphere. Precipitation, in the form of rain or snow, for instance, is an important form of available
freshwater. About 40% of precipitation has previously evaporated from the oceans; the rest from land.
The amount of precipitation varies greatly around the world, from less than 100 mm a year in desert climates
to over 3,400 mm a year in tropical settings. In temperate climates, about a third of precipitation returns to the
atmosphere through evaporation, a third filters into the ground and replenishes groundwater and the remainder
flows into water bodies. The drier the climate, the higher the proportion of precipitation that returns to the
atmosphere and the lower the proportion that replenishes groundwater. A large part of the freshwater that
returns to the atmosphere passes through soil and plants. Reliable figures are available only for some regions.
Soil moisture is important for plant growth. Finding out how much moisture soil contains is important
for such activities as farming and “river flow forecasting”, and for understanding climate and natural and
water systems. Satellite data are increasingly complementing measurements of soil moisture taken on the
ground to provide a broader and more up-to-date picture to decision-makers.

How much freshwater is found at the Earth’s surface?

About three-quarters of the world’s freshwater are frozen in ice sheets and glaciers. Most remains
inaccessible, located in the Arctic, Antarctica or Greenland. Land-based glaciers and permanent snow and
ice, however, supply water in many countries, releasing water in amounts that vary seasonally and over longer
time periods. Because of climate change, glaciers are now being more closely monitored. Surface waters,
including lakes, ponds, reservoirs, rivers, streams and wetlands hold only a small volume of the Earth’s total
fresh water (0.3%). Still they represent about 80% of the renewable surface water and groundwater that is
available in a given year. T These water bodies perform many functions in the environment, and provide
people with the prime source of drinking water, energy and recreation, as well as a means of irrigation and
transport. Lakes and other reservoirs counteract fluctuations in river flow from one season to the next because
they store large amounts of water. Lakes contain by far the largest amount of fresh surface water. But the
hydrology of only about 60% of the largest lakes has been studied in detail, leaving much to be learned.
River basins are a useful “natural unit” for the management of water resources, though they often extend
across national borders. International river basins have drainage areas covering about 45% of the Earth’s land
surface (excluding the Polar Regions). Some of the largest basins are the Amazon, which carries 15% of all
water returning to the oceans, and the Congo-Zaire Basin, which carries one-third of all river water in
Africa.
River flows can vary greatly from one season to the next and from one climatic region to another. In
tropical regions, large flows are witnessed year round, whereas in dry lands, rivers are often ephemeral and only
flow periodically after a storm. Dry lands make up about 40% of the world’s land area and have only 2% of all
water runoff. Past data records for river flow and water levels help to predict yearly or seasonal variations,
though it is difficult to make accurate longer-term forecasts. Some records in industrialized countries go back
up 150 to 200 years. By contrast, many developing countries started keeping records only recently and data
quality is often poor. Wetlands, including swamps, bogs, marshes, and lagoons, cover 6% of the world’s
land surface and play a critical role in the conservation of water resources. Many wetlands were destroyed
or converted to other uses during the last century. Those that remain can play an important role in supporting
ecosystems, preventing floods, and increasing river flows.

Ninety-six percent of liquid fresh water can be found underground. Groundwater feeds springs and
streams, supports wetlands, helps keep land surfaces stable, and is a critical water resource. About 60% of the
water that is taken from the ground is used for farming in arid and semi-arid climates, and between 25%
and 40% of the world’s drinking water comes from underground. Hundreds of cities around the world,
including half of the very largest, make significant use of groundwater. This water can be especially useful
during shortages of surface water. Groundwater aquifers vary in terms of how much water they hold, their
depth, and how quickly they replenish themselves. The variations also depend on specific geological features.
Much of the water underground is replenished either very slowly or not at all, and is thus termed “non-
renewable”. The largest aquifers of non-renewable water are found in North Africa, the Middle East,
Australia, and Siberia.
There is some debate about how and when to use this water. Many aquifers that contain non-renewable
groundwater resources are shared by more than one country and need to be managed in common for the benefit
of all administrative entities concerned. If the infiltration of precipitation recharges the aquifer, the groundwater
is considered “renewable” and can be used for irrigation, domestic and other purposes. While most renewable
groundwater is of a high quality and does not require treatment, it should be analyzed before it is used to avoid
possible health impacts. However, few countries measure the quality of underground water or the rate at which
it is being withdrawn. Monitoring is being improved in Europe and India, but remains minimal in many
developing countries, and is deteriorating in many industrialized ones. This makes it hard to manage
underground water resources sustainably.
References:
Thompson and Turk, Introduction to Earth Science, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd., Philippine Edition
Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education,
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http://www.openlearningworld.com/World_Geography/imgs/figure_7.3.3.jpg)

http://www.eco-business.com/media/uploads/ebmedia/fileuploads/ shutterstock_168301589_hydro_news_featured.jpg
http://water.usgs.gov/edu/graphics/wuhytypicalplant.gif
ACTIVITY #9
ACTIVITY TITLE: ENERGY RESOURCES
Name: ____________________________________ Strand:____________________
Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________

Part 1. Identification: Identify the following items below.

1 – 2, water is primarily of _____________ and ____________ atom.
3. At what percent the water covers the earth surface?
4. At what percent the fresh water of our planet comprises?
5. At what percent of fresh can only be used to 7Billion human being?
6. At what percent of fresh water can be found underground?
7. What is the name of the largest body of water?
8. What is the name of longest river in the Philippines?
9. What is the name of the largest lake in the Philippines?
10. Which part of the world most of the frozen water can be found?

Part 2. Essay
Based on your answers above, is it necessary to conserved water? how are you going to do that?

Part 3: Draw and Label

At the back of this paper, draw a schematic diagram of a water cycle.
 LESSON 9: HUMAN ACTIVITY AND ENVIRONMENT
Learning Objectives:
the students will:
 Discuss the effects of human activity to the environment
 Demonstrate how human race addresses climate change
 Reflects the importance in addressing climate change

A. LESSON PROPER
Soil is especially vulnerable to erosion it is bare or exposed. Plant therefore serves a tremendous role in
preventing soil erosion. If the soil is covered with plants, erosion is slowed down.
Reasons of Soil Erosion
Agricultural Depletion – Farming can degrade the top soil and lead to an increase in erosion. To Plant a field,
the farmer must till the soil, breaking it up and loosening it so the plants can take root. Planting cover crops
(Root crops) in the fall can help maintain the soil through winter months, reducing the amount of erosion. In
Addition, rotating crops planted (varying the crops) can help return nutrients to the soil to prevent degradation.
Overgrazing Animals – Grazing animals are animals that live on large areas of grassland. They wander over
the area and eat grasses and shrubs. They can remove large amount of the plant cover for an area. If too many
animals graze the same land area, once the tips of grasses and shrubs have been eaten, They will use their
hooves to pull plants out by their roots.
Deforestation – Deforestation is another practice that can greatly increase the rate of erosion in a region. One
of the most important barriers to erosion is plant life; as long – live trees and other species put down roots that
literally help hold the soil. Logging kills these plants, and even if the operation of planting new trees to replace
the ones, the younger trees require years to put down the kind of root system that once protected the soil.
Mining – is a major contributor to erosion especially on a local level. Many mining techniques involve shifting
large amount of Earth, such as strip mining or mountaintop removal. These operations leave large amounts of
loosed soil exposed to elements, and they often require large amount of water, which can exacerbate the erosion
process. Even once the mining operation is completed and the company replaces the Earth, It lacks the
established vegetation that helped it maintain its coherence before removal and until plants can re-establish
themselves, erosion will continue to be a problem.
Development and Expansion – Urban and sub urban development can also exacerbate erosion, especially if the
developers ignore the nature state of land. Construction of buildings often begins by clearing the area of any
plants or other natural defenses against soil erosion, In Addition, some landscapers replace natural ground
cover with plant species unsuited to the climate, and these plants may not be as effective at preventing soil
erosion.
Recreational activities – like driving off road or hiking also cause erosion.
B. Human Activity and Environment
All energy production and use has environmental impacts. Fossil fuels and nuclear produce more solid,
liquid and gaseous wastes, while renewables (geothermal and hydroelectric) face challenges of land and water
use, visual and noise pollution. Making energy cleaner is usually more expensive, and these costs are passed
along to the consumer.

A successful energy future will depend on managing environmental impacts while keeping energy
affordable. And this can only be achieved by formulating and implementing comprehensive energy and
environmental policies with the cooperation of the international community in the form of treaties like the
Kyoto Protocol.

The following are considered priority solutions advocated by international communities, led by the
United States of America, that are addressed in these international treaties:

1. Curbing Global Warming

Climate change is the single biggest environmental and humanitarian crisis of our time. We must act
now to spur the adoption of cleaner energy sources at home and abroad. Climate change is the single biggest
environmental and humanitarian crisis of our time. The Earth's atmosphere is overloaded with heat-trapping
carbon dioxide, which threatens large-scale disruptions in climate with disastrous consequences. We must
act now to spur the adoption of cleaner energy sources at home and abroad.

2. Creating the Clean Energy Future

Dependence on fossil fuels threatens our national security and is a major contributor to global warming and
toxic air pollution. By investing in renewable energy sources such as the sun, wind and biomass, we can help
solve the energy and climate crises. Our best weapon against global climate change is clean energy. Renewable
power, conservation, energy efficiency in buildings and elsewhere, more efficient vehicles and clean fuels --
these are the solutions that will reduce the impacts on our climate, revive our economy, and create jobs.

3. Reviving the World's Oceans

The world's oceans are on the brink of ecological collapse. We can restore marine vitality by ending
overfishing, creating marine protected areas and improving the way we govern our oceans. Powerful forces
have pushed the world's oceans to the brink of ecological collapse. Marine vitality can be restored by ending
overfishing, creating marine protected areas, improving oceans governance, and combating emerging threats
like ocean acidification. By focusing on these solutions, we can achieve the broadest, most long-lasting benefits
for our oceans and those who rely on oceans-related jobs.

4. Defending Endangered Wildlife and Wild Places

The destruction of our last remaining wild lands means the loss of vast troves of biological diversity, critical
regulators of global climate, and irreplaceable sanctuaries. Our government joins forces with NGOs and other
environment activists to defend some of our country's most imperiled species and their habitats.
5. Protecting Our Health by Preventing Pollution
We must reduce or eliminate the dangerous chemicals in the products we buy, the food we eat and the air
we breathe. Toxic chemicals in our environment, such as mercury, lead, and certain manmade chemicals, have
been linked to cancer, birth defects and brain impairments. Reducing or eliminating the load of these dangerous
chemicals in the products we buy, the air we breathe, the food we eat and the water we drink can help reduce
the toll of human disease and suffering.

6. Ensuring Safe and Sufficient Water

Clean and plentiful water is the cornerstone of prosperous communities. Yet as we enter the 21st century,
swelling demand and changing climate patterns are draining rivers and aquifers and pollution is threatening the
quality of what remains. Our government is integrating our expertise in pollution prevention, water efficiency
and climate change to sustain Philippines' precious water resources, working to advance smart water efficiency
policies to ensure that communities get the water they need while keeping our lakes, rivers, and streams full and
healthy.

7. Fostering Sustainable Communities

The choices we make for where and how we live have enormous impacts on our wellbeing, economy, and
natural environment. The government develops and advocates sustainable solutions for our communities. The
Philippines, through the Department of Energy, will work on ensuring the implementation of the following
plans and programs to contribute to the attainment of these broad policy and program frameworks. These plans
and programs are embodied in DOE's Energy Reform Agenda (ERA).

 Power Sector Development

The development plans on power systems, transmission highways, distribution facilities and missionary
electrification provide the platform to put in place long-term reliable power supply, improve the country’s
transmission and distribution systems and attain nationwide electrification. Specifically, the PEP highlights the
implementation of critical power infrastructures to address possible power outages. Based on the Plan, the
government will concentrate its efforts on the completion of committed power projects, as well as attract local
and foreign investors to venture into indicative and potential power projects to include electrification projects.

 Fuelling Sustainable Transport Program

As one of the biggest user of energy, the energy sector is mainly concerned on other alternative options to
fuel the transport sector. Thus, the PEP will pursue the implementation of the Fueling Sustainable Transport
Program (FSTP) which seeks to convert public and private vehicles from diesel and gasoline to compressed
natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electric power. Under the program, CNG buses are
envisioned to ply throughout the country. It also includes the promotion of electric vehicles for public transport
and the increase in biofuels blends to 20.0 percent. With the FSTP, the government hopes to reduce the carbon
footprint from road transport in the Philippines. It has been estimated that road transportation accounts for
around 50.0 percent of the total air pollutants in the country.

 Indigenous Energy Development Program

As energy demand is anticipated to grow significantly over the indicated planning period, it is incumbent for
the energy sector to pursue all means to develop the country’s indigenous resources. In view of this, the Plan
looks into a highly diverse energy mix to fuel the Philippine economy within the planning period. Even with the
dawning of renewable energy development, the DOE recognizes the fact that the country will remain dependent
on conventional fuels for many years to come to address its growing energy requirements. The Plan programs
the conduct of energy contracting rounds as an effective strategy to bring in critical investments for the
exploration, development and production of local energy resources.

 National Renewable Energy Plan

With the global trend towards a clean energy future, the Renewable Energy Act was passed in 2008 to fully
harness the country’s renewable energy potential such as geothermal, hydro, wind, solar, biomass and ocean. To
guide the full implementation of the law, the National Renewable Energy Program (NREP) was launched on 14
June 2011 by President Aquino. The PEP includes the targets set under the NREP to strengthen its energy
security plan. Specifically, the NREP seeks to increase the country’s renewable energy-based capacity by 2030.

 Energy Efficiency and Conservation Program

With the escalating prices of imported fuels, the call for energy efficiency and conservation has graduated
from merely just a personal virtue to that of a national commitment. The PEP includes the National Energy
Efficiency and Conservation Program (NEECP) as one of the centerpiece strategies in pursuing energy security
of the country and looks into it as a major solution to the energy challenges of the future. To lay the groundwork
for a national energy efficiency plan, the PEP recognizes the need for an energy conservation law as a critical
measure in managing the country’s energy demand. The proposed legislation aims to incorporate policies and
measures to develop local energy auditors and energy managers, establish the ESCO industry, encourage the
development of energy efficient technologies and provide incentives for the effective promotion of efficiency
initiatives in the energy market sector.

 Natural Gas Master plan

A complementary initiative to ensure the country’s energy security is the review and update of the Master
Plan Study for the Development of the Natural Gas Industry in the Philippines. Said update includes an
evaluation of the natural gas infrastructure requirements in the Visayas and Mindanao regions in view of the
DOE’s plan to implement a Natural Gas Infrastructure Development Plan in these regions. The Master plan,
with technical assistance from Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and World Bank, evaluates the
opportunities, critical infrastructures and required investments for the development of the natural gas industry.
References:
Thompson and Turk, Introduction to Earth Science, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd., Philippine Edition
Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education,
https://d30y9cdsu7xlg0.cloudfront.net/png/2070-200.png
http://www.openlearningworld.com/World_Geography/imgs/figure_7.3.3.jpg)

ACTIVITY #10
ACTIVITY TITLE: ENERGY RESOURCES
Name: ____________________________________ Strand: ____________________
Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________

ESSAY:
As a student and as catalyst for change, what are your suggestions to the United Nations and to the World
how to address CLIMATE CHANGE? (be specific into your Plans) (at least 300 words)
 LESSON 10. Endogenic Processes
D. Learning competencies
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 Define the concept of Endogenic processes
 Identify the different types of tectonic forces
 Explain where the earth’s internal heat comes from
 Develop the sense of preparedness in case of earthquakes.

LESSON PROPER
Endogenic Process
Continental Drift Theory
 The continental drift hypothesis was developed in the early part of the 20th century, mostly by Alfred
Wegener. Wegener said that continents move around on Earth’s surface and that they were once joined together
as a single supercontinent called Pangaea, meaning all earth in ancient Greek. He suggested that Pangaea
broke up long ago and that the continents then moved to their current positions.

Evidence for Continental Drift

Besides the way the continents fit together, Wegener and his supporters collected a great deal of
evidence for the continental drift hypothesis. For one, identical rocks of the same type and age are found on
both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Wegener said the rocks had formed side-by-side and that the land had since
moved apart. Mountain ranges with the same rock types, structures, and ages are now on opposite sides of the
Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachians of the eastern United States and Canada, for example, are just like mountain
ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain, and Norway. Wegener concluded that they formed as a
single mountain range that was separated as the continents drifted.
Ancient fossils of the same species of extinct plants and animals are found in rocks of the same age but
are on continents that are now widely separated. Wegener proposed that the organisms had lived side by side,
but that the lands had moved apart after they were dead and fossilized. He suggested that the organisms would
not have been able to travel across the oceans. For example, the fossils of the seed fern  Glossopteris were too
heavy to be carried so far by wind. The reptile Mesosaurus could only swim in fresh
water. Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus were land reptiles and were unable to swim.
Grooves and rock deposits left by ancient glaciers are found today on different continents very close to
the equator. This would indicate that the glaciers either formed in the middle of the ocean and/or covered most
of the Earth. Today glaciers only form on land and nearer the poles. Wegener thought that the glaciers were
centered over the southern land mass close to the South Pole and the continents moved to their present positions
later on. Coral reefs and coal-forming swamps are found in tropical and subtropical environments, but ancient
coal seams and coral reefs are found in locations where it is much too cold today. Wegener suggested that these
creatures were alive in warm climate zones and that the fossils and coal later had drifted to new locations on the
continents.
Although Wegener’s evidence was sound, most geologists at the time rejected his hypothesis of
continental drift. Scientists argued that there was no way to explain how solid continents could plow through
solid oceanic crust. Wegener’s idea was nearly forgotten until technological advances presented even more
evidence that the continents moved and gave scientists the tools to develop a mechanism for Wegener’s drifting
continents.
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geophysical/chapter/theory-of-continental-drift/

Figure 1. Shows Different fossils found in the colored area in the ancient Pangea
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geophysical/chapter/theory-of-continental-drift/

ENDOGENIC PROCESSES – are internal processes that occur within the earth. These result in reshaping the
earth’s landforms. Endogenic processes include, tectonic processes and volcanism.

Tectonic Plates
 Earth’s surface layer, 50 to 100 km (30 to 60 miles) thick, is rigid and is composed of a set of large and
small plates. Together, these plates constitute the lithosphere, from the Greek lithos, meaning “rock.” The
lithosphere rests on and slides over an underlying partially molten (and thus weaker but generally denser) layer
of plastic partially molten rock known as the asthenosphere, from the Greek asthenos, meaning “weak.” Plate
movement is possible because the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary is a zone of detachment. As the
lithospheric plates move across Earth’s surface, driven by forces as yet not fully understood, they interact along
their boundaries, diverging, converging, or slipping past each other. While the interiors of the plates are
presumed to remain essentially undeformed, plate boundaries are the sites of many of the principal processes
that shape the terrestrial surface, including earthquakes, volcanism, and orogeny (that
is, formation of mountain ranges).
Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/plate-tectonics

Figure 2. Picture shows the Tectonic plates of the world.

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plates_tect2_en.svg

List of Tectonic Plates

Ancient plates and cratons
 African Plate.
 Antarctic Plate.
 Eurasian Plate.
 Indo-Australian Plate.
 North American Plate.
 South American Plate.

Figure 3. Shows the layers if the Earth

source: https://www.britannica.com/science/plate-tectonics

TECTONICS (PROCESSES) – geology: of or relating to changes in the structure of the Earth’s structure.
Tectonics is the study of the processes that deform the Earth’s crust.
3 TYPES OF TECTONIC PROCESSES
 Folding – or folds occur when rocks are pushed towards each other from opposite sides. The rock layers’
bend into folds
 Faulting – it is the fracturing and displacement of brittle rocks strata along a fault plane.
 Shearing – when tectonic forces are parallel but moving in opposite directions.

TECTONIC FORCES – forces that deform rocks.

3 TYPES OF TECTONIC FORCES
 Tensional Stress
 Compressional Stress
 Shearing Stress

TECTONIC BOUNDARIES
The Earth’s outer shell, the lithosphere, consisting of the crust and uppermost mantle, is divided into a
patchwork of large tectonic plates that move slowly relatively to each other. There are 7-8 major plates and
many minor plates. Varying between 0 to 100mm per year, the movement of a plate is driven by convection in
the underlying hot and viscous mantle.

There are three main types of plate boundaries:

 1. Convergent boundaries: where two plates are colliding.

Subduction zones occur when one or both of the tectonic plates are composed of oceanic crust. The denser plate
is subducted underneath the less dense plate. The plate being forced under is eventually melted and destroyed.

i. Where oceanic crust meets ocean crust

Island arcs and oceanic trenches occur when both of the plates are made of oceanic crust. Zones of active
seafloor spreading can also occur behind the island arc, known as back-arc basins. These are often associated
with submarine volcanoes.

ii. Where oceanic crust meets continental crust

The denser oceanic plate is subducted, often forming a mountain range on the continent. The Andes is an
example of this type of collision.

iii. Where continental crust meets continental crust

Both continental crusts are too light to subduct so a continent-continent collision occurs, creating especially
large mountain ranges. The most spectacular example of this is the Himalayas.

 2. Divergent boundaries – where two plates are moving apart.

The space created can also fill with new crustal material sourced from molten magma that forms below.
Divergent boundaries can form within continents but will eventually open up and become ocean basins.

i. On land
Divergent boundaries within continents initially produce rifts, which produce rift valleys.

ii. Under the sea

The most active divergent plate boundaries are between oceanic plates and are often called mid-oceanic ridges.

 3. Transform boundaries – where plates slide passed each other.

The relative motion of the plates is horizontal. They can occur underwater or on land, and crust is neither
destroyed nor created.

Because of friction, the plates cannot simply glide past each other. Rather, stress builds up in both plates and
when it exceeds the threshold of the rocks, the energy is released – causing earthquakes.

Source: https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Earthquakes/Earthquakes-at-a-Plate-
Boundary/Tectonic-Plates-and-Plate-Boundaries

Figure 4. Shows Schematic views of Boundaries

source: https://www.britannica.com/science/plate-tectonics

Fault lines – Is a break or fracture in the ground that that occurs when the earth tectonics plates move or shift
and are areas where earthquakes are likely to occur.
Trenches – It is a deep and Narrow hole or ditch in the ground. The Deepest trench in the world is the
Marianna trench in the Pacific.

Figure 5. Shows the Map of the Philippines and Its Faultline

source: https://philpropertyexpert.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/PH-ring-of-fire.jpg

VOLCANISM – any of various processes and phenomena associated with the surficial discharge of
molten rock, pyroclastic fragments, or hot water and steam, including volcanoes, geysers, and fumaroles.
Although volcanism is best known on Earth, there is evidence that it has been important in the development of
the other terrestrial planets—Mercury, Venus, and Mars—as well as some natural satellites such as
Earth’s Moon and Jupiter’s moon Io.
THE THREE MAIN TYPES OF VOLCANOES ARE:
Stratovolcano (or composite volcano) — a conical volcano consisting of layers of solid lava flows mixed with
layers of other rock. Stratovolcanoes consist of many layers (strata) of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and
volcanic ash. They generally have steep slopes and are the most common type of volcanoes on Earth
 Fig. 6. Plumes of steam, gas, and ash often occurred at Mount St. Helens, a stratovolcano, in the early 1980
Source: https://www.zmescience.com/other/science-abc/types-of-volcano/

 Cinder cone volcano —. A cinder cone volcano is simply a steep conical hill of tephra (volcanic debris)
that accumulates around and downwind from a volcanic vent. The cinder cones are made from pyroclastic
material, which is pretty loose. Cinder cones are commonly found on the flanks of shield volcanoes and
stratovolcanoes.

Figure 7. Kostal Cone in Wells Gray Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada. Image via Black Tusk
Source: https://www.zmescience.com/other/science-abc/types-of-volcano/

 Shield volcano —  a type of volcano built entirely or mostly from fluid lava vents. They are named like
this because when viewed from above, you can see just how massive and imposing they are – like a warrior’s
shield.
hese are the classical Hawaii examples – steady flow and accumulation of lava leading to the shield-type
formation. Mauna Loa, a shield volcano on the pisland of Hawaii, is the largest single mountain in the world,
rising over 30,000 feet above the ocean floor and reaching almost 100 miles across at its base.

Figure 8. “gentle” flow of a shield volcano – image via USGS.

Source: https://www.zmescience.com/other/science-abc/types-of-volcano/

EARTHQUAKES
What is an Earthquakes?
An earthquake is what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another. The
surface where they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The location below the earth’s surface where the
earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is called
the epicenter.
Sometimes an earthquake has foreshocks. These are smaller earthquakes that happen in the same place
as the larger earthquake that follows. Scientists can’t tell that an earthquake is a foreshock until the larger
earthquake happens. The largest, main earthquake is called the main shock. Main shocks always
have aftershocks that follow. These are smaller earthquakes that occur afterwards in the same place as the main
shock. Depending on the size of the main shock, aftershocks can continue for weeks, months, and even years
after the main shock!

Figure 9. The Schematic diagram of an Earthquake

source: https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/a-normal-dip-slip-fault

Where did it happen?

The earth has four major layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle and crust. The crust and the top
of the mantle make up a thin skin on the surface of our planet.
But this skin is not all in one piece – it is made up of many pieces like a puzzle covering the surface of
the earth. Not only that, but these puzzle pieces keep slowly moving around, sliding past one another and
bumping into each other. We call these puzzle pieces’ tectonic plates, and the edges of the plates are called
the plate boundaries. The plate boundaries are made up of many faults, and most of the earthquakes around the
world occur on these faults. Since the edges of the plates are rough, they get stuck while the rest of the plate
keeps moving. Finally, when the plate has moved far enough, the edges unstick on one of the faults and there is
an earthquake.

Figure 10. Layers of the Earth

Source: https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/crust-mantle-and-core-earth

How can we measure Earthquakes?

The size of an earthquake depends on the size of the fault and the amount of slip on the fault, but that’s
not something scientists can simply measure with a measuring tape since faults are many kilometers deep
beneath the earth’s surface. So how do they measure an earthquake? They use the seismogram recordings made
on the seismographs at the surface of the earth to determine how large the earthquake was (figure 5). A short
wiggly line that doesn’t wiggle very much means a small earthquake, and a long wiggly line that wiggles a lot
means a large earthquake. The length of the wiggle depends on the size of the fault, and the size of the wiggle
depends on the amount of slip.
The size of the earthquake is called its magnitude. There is one magnitude for each earthquake.
Scientists also talk about the intensity of shaking from an earthquake, and this varies depending on where you
are during the earthquake.
figure 11. Show an animated sketch of seismograph
Source: https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/cartoon-sketch-seismograph
NOTE: We can’t predict when is an Earthquake will happen, so all of us should prepare anytime. Always
remember to: DROP, HOLD AND COVER.
References:
Thompson and Turk, Introduction to Earth Science, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd., Philippine Edition
Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geophysical/chapter/theory-of-continental-drift/
https://www.britannica.com/science/plate-tectonics
https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Earthquakes/Earthquakes-at-a-Plate-
Boundary/Tectonic-Plates-and-Plate-Boundaries
https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/cartoon-sketch-seismograph

ACTIVITY #11
ACTIVITY TITLE: ENERGY RESOURCES
Name: ____________________________________ Strand: ____________________
Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________

Test I. Identify in following statements below.

1. It the name of the super continent exist million years ago.
2. Who postulated the continental drift theory.
3. What is called the internal processes that occur within the earth.
4. It is the Greek word for rock.
5. These plates moves within the crust.
6 – 11. List the six tectonic plates
12. What is the name of the tectonic boundaries that collide/moving toward its other.
13. What is the name of the tectonic boundaries where two plates are moving apart.
14. What is the name of the tectonic boundaries where plates slide passed each other.
15. It is a break or fracture in the ground that that occurs when the earth tectonics plates move or shift and are
areas where earthquakes are likely to occur.
16. It is a deep and Narrow hole or ditch in the ground.
17. It refers to any of various processes and phenomena associated with the surficial discharge of
molten rock, pyroclastic fragments, or hot water and steam, including volcanoes, geysers, and fumaroles.
18-20. List down the three types of Volcanoes
21. It is the tremor that happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another.
22. What do we call the main tremor of an Earthquake?
23. What do we call the tremor before the main big shock of an Earthquake.
24. What do we call the device used to measure the intensity of an Earthquake?
25. It is the location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts.

Test 2. Essay( at the back of this paper)

1. The Philippines is preparing for “The Big One”, when the fault line traverse across Metro Manila will move.
Does it is necessary? If so, Are we ready for that event? Explain.
2. Are we ready if the Sulu and Cotabato fault-line will moved again? What are your recommendations to the
local government of Pagadian for further preparations?

LESSON 11: EXOGENIC PROCESS

Time Frame: 1 week
 E. Learning competencies
The learners would be able to:
 Describe how rocks undergo weathering.
 Explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and deposited elsewhere.
 Make a report on how rocks and soil move downslope due to direct action of gravity.

.
LESSON PROPER
a. WEATHERING
It involves little or no movement of the decomposed rocks and minerals. The weathered material
simply accumulates where it forms. Erosion is the removal of weathered rocks that occurs when rain, running
water, wind, glacier, or gravity transport the material to a new location. Agents of erosion may carry the
weathered material great distances and finally deposit it as layers of sediments at Earth’s surface.
Weathering occurs both Physical (also known as mechanical) and Chemical Processes. Physical
weathering reduces solid rocks to small fragments but does not alter the chemical composition of the rocks and
minerals. In contrast, Chemical weathering occurs when air and water chemically react with rocks to alter its
composition and mineral content.
Physical (Mechanical) Weathering
Five processes cause mechanical weathering: Pressure-release fracturing, frost wedging, abrasion, organic
activity and thermal expansion and contraction. Two additional processes – salt cracking and hydrolysis-
expansion – result from combination of Mechanical and Chemical processes.
 Pressure – Release Fracturing - propagation of fractures near the surface of solid rock due to
expansion related to release of confining pressure when deeply buried rock is unroofed. Fractures
typically propagate along surfaces close to and subparallel to the surface of the outcrop.

Figure 1. Shows a Fractured rock is once underneath the earth surface

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:VU0K1843_(39985550).jpg
 . Frost wedging – Water expands by 7 or 8 percent when it freezes (ice is less dense than liquid water,
that is why ice will float in the water). If the water accumulates in a crack and then freezes, the ice
expands and wedges the rock apart.

Figure 2. A rock in Abisko, Sweden fractured along existing joints possibly by frost weathering or

thermal stress.
source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Abiskorock.JPG
 Abrasion – It is a mechanical weathering of rocks cause by friction and
Impact. When you try to hammer a certain rock, you deform the
rock using the impact of the hammer.
 Organic Activity – It is when tree roots raise and crack some rocks/ or even concrete
sidewalks.
 Figure 3. Soil formation in action. A rock is being weathered under the influence of physical, chemical
and biological factors and, given enough time, it will be transformed into a soil (Photo: Dr. M. Krzic,
UBC).
Source: https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Classification_Formation_2.jpg
 Thermal Expansion and Contraction – Rocks at the Earth’s surface are exposed to daily and yearly
cycles of heating and cooling. They expand when they are heated and contact when they are cool. The
force generated by this thermal expansion and contraction may fracture the rock.
Chemical Weathering
Rock is durable over a human lifetime. Over geologic time, however, air and water chemically attack rocks
near Earth surface. The most important processes of chemical weathering are: Dissolution, hydrolysis, and
oxidation. Water, acid and bases and oxygen in the atmosphere or in the surface or ground water cause
these processes to decompose rocks.
 Hydrolysis - Hydrolysis is the reaction of minerals in weakly acidic waters. Most natural surface waters
are slightly acidic because carbon dioxide from the air dissolves in the water. Some of the dissolved
CO2 reacts with the water forming the chemical compound carbonic acid.

Figure 4. The cracks in the rock cause by chemical weathering.

source: https://natureinfocus.files.wordpress.com/2015/12/p1490181doolinrocks4.jpg
 Oxidation -  is the reaction of oxygen with chemicals in a rock. For instance, oxygen reacts with iron
to form iron oxide -- rust -- which is soft and vulnerable to physical weathering.

Figure 5. Shows the rusting of Iron (metal)

source: https://brilliant.org/wiki/weathering/
Factors that affects Weathering
 Climate – areas that are cold and dry tend to have slow the rates of the chemical weathering and the
weathering is mostly physical; chemical weathering is most active in areas with high temperature and
rainfall.
 Rock type – The minerals that constitute rocks have different susceptibilities to weathering. The
susceptibility of minerals (from high to low) roughly follows the inverse of the order of crystallization of
minerals in the Bowen’s reaction series. Thus, olivine which crystallized first is the least resistant
whereas; quartz which crystallizes last is the most resistant.
 Rock Structure – rate of weathering is affected by the presence of joints, folds, faults, bedding planes
through which agents of weathering enter a rock mass. Highly – jointed/fractured rocks disintegrate
faster than a solid mass of rock of the same dimension.
  Topology – Physical weathering occurs more quickly on the steep slope than on a gentle one. On a
gentle slope, water may stay longer in contact with rocks, hence chemical weathering is enhanced.
 Time – Length of exposure to agents of weather determines the degree of weathering of a rock.
b. EROSION
What causes valleys to form? Why do streams and lakes get muddy after a rain storm? Why are the
rocks at the bottom of a river usually round? The answer to all these questions is EROSION!
Erosion is the process by which the surface of the Earth gets worn down. Erosion can be caused by
natural elements such as wind and glacial ice. But anyone who has ever seen a picture of the Grand Canyon
knows that nothing beats the slow steady movement of water when it comes to changing the Earth.
The key to erosion is something called "fluid flow." Water, air, and even ice are fluids because they tend to
flow from one place to another due to the force of gravity. Of the three, liquid water is the most common agent
of erosion because there's so much of it on the surface of the Earth.
(source:
http://teacher.scholastic.com/dirt/erosion/whateros.htm)

Figure 6. Shows the Edge of a Canyon

Source: http://teacher.scholastic.com/dirt/erosion/whateros.htm

C. MASS WASTING
TYPES OF MASS WASTING
It is the downhill movement of rock and soil material due to gravity. The term landslide is often used as
a synonym for mass wasting, but mass wasting is a much broader term referring to all movement downslope.
Geologically, landslide is a general term for mass wasting that involves fast-moving geologic material. Loose
material along with overlying soils are what typically move during a mass-wasting event. Moving blocks
of bedrock are called rock topples, rock slides, or rock falls, depending on the dominant motion of the blocks.
Movements of dominantly liquid material are called flows. Movement by mass wasting can be slow or rapid.
Rapid movement can be dangerous, such as during debris flows.
(source: https://opengeology.org/textbook/10-mass-wasting/)

Rock fall

are the fastest of all landslide types and occurs when a rock falls through the air until it comes to rest on
the ground—not too complicated. In Utah, they are common in the spring and fall because of freeze-thaw
weathering. In the daytime, temperatures in the spring and fall tend to be above freezing, which allows liquid
water to enter cracks within rocks.

At night, the temperatures cool below freezing and the water within the rocks freezes and expands which
causes the rock to break more. The following morning, the ice will melt and go deeper within the crack to
refreeze later that night. This freeze-thaw action over time can cause rocks to break off and fall to the ground.
The debris the accumulates at the base of these steep slopes is called talus. Rock falls can also occur when
heavy precipitation is falling on a steep slope, causing the rocks to lose friction and fall
Rotational slide
Occur when the landslide occurs in a curved manner concave to the sky. When this type of slide occurs, the
upper surface of the slide tilts backwards toward the original slope and the lower surface moves away from the
slope.
Transitional slides
Occurs when slope failure occurs parallel to the slope. Often times the slope failure occurs on soil
composed of clay or shale, or along old fault lines, or previous slide areas. What makes translational slides
dangerous is that they tend to flow faster and travel farther than rotational slides.
Debris Flow
It is one of the most common, but most dangerous of the various types of landslides because of their speed and
consistency. Debris flows tend to be a mixture of rock and water with two to three times the density of flooding streams.
That density allows debris flows strip away the land and pick up objects as large as school buses.
Volcanic Mass Wasting

Lahars were mentioned in the module on volcanoes, but in essence they are volcanic landslides. Recall that volcanoes
eject pyroclastic material ranging is size from ash to boulders. Now there tends to be two ways lahars occur. One is if a
thunderstorm precipitates large amounts of moisture on the pyroclastic material and the pyroclastic flow down slope. The
other option is if a volcano is snow-capped and the heat from the volcano causes some of the snow to melt and mix with
the pyroclastic material. What makes lahars so dangerous is that they have the consistency of concrete and can travel
hundreds of miles
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-geophysical/chapter/types-of-mass-wasting/)
References:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-geophysical/chapter/types-of-mass-wasting/)
https://opengeology.org/textbook/10-mass-wasting/)
http://teacher.scholastic.com/dirt/erosion/whateros.htm
https://wiki.ubc.ca/File:Classification_Formation_2.jpg
Thompson and Turk, Introduction to Earth Science, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd., Philippine Edition
Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education

ACTIVITY #12
ACTIVITY TITLE: ENERGY RESOURCES
Name: ____________________________________ Strand: ____________________
Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________

Test 1. Identify the following statements below

1. It is a type of weathering which reduces solid rocks to small fragments but does not alter the chemical
composition of the rocks and minerals.
2. It is a type of weathering which occurs when air and water chemically react with rocks to alter its
composition and mineral content.
3. It is a weathering process in which there is propagation of fractures near the surface of solid rock due to
expansion related to release of confining pressure when deeply buried rock is unroofed.
4. It is a type of Weathering which causes the rocks to break due to cold water.
5. It is a type of weathering cause by impact and friction.
6. It is a type of weathering cause by the variation of temperature from hot to cold/ hot.
7. It is a type of weathering in which rocks and minerals react to acid water.
8. It is a type of weathering in which rocks and minerals react to oxygen.
9-13. Enumerate the factors that affects weathering.
14. It is the general term for landslide.
15. It is the process by which the surface of the Earth gets worn down.
16-20. List down the types of mass wasting.
21-25. What is the difference between mass wasting and soil Erosion?
Test 2. Essay
1. Can we suppress the exogenic processes that is happening in our planet? If yes, how can we suppress?
If no, why it can’t be?

LESSON 12: Geologic Times

Time frame: 1 week
 F. Learning competencies
At the end of the lesson, students able to
1. Explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the subdivisions of geologic time.
2. Describe how marker fossils (also known as guide fossils) are used to define unidentified subdivisions of geologic
time scale.
 Describe how the Earth’s history can be interpreted from the geologic time scale.
G. Overview
“Rocks are records of events that took place at the time they formed. They are books. They have a
different vocabulary, a different alphabet, but you learn how to read them – John McPhee”
In many locations, 19th century geologist found thick sequences of rock layer with abundant fossils that we
now know represents millions, or hundreds of millions, of years of Earth history. This fossil record suggests that
sudden, catastrophic events had abruptly decimated life on Earth and that new life – forms emerged following
these MASS EXTINCTION.
The most dramatic extinction occurred 248million years ago, at the end of Permian period. At that time,
90% of all species in the ocean suddenly died out. On land, 2/3 of the reptile and amphibian species and 30% of
insect species vanished.
LESSON PROPER
A. GEOLOGIC THEORIES HYPOYHESIS
Extraterrestrial impact
 A research was conducted by the Father and Son team Walter and Luiz Alvarez who tested the meteorite
impact site.
 They found a high concentration of Iridium, a rare Earth Metal
 They suggested that 65 million years ago, a 10 km meteorite hit the Earth
 It ignites fire and ejected fumes and dust in the atmosphere, which block the sunlight
 They called the event TERMINAL CREATACEOUS EXTINCTION, which kills off Dinosaurs and
other life forms
Volcanic Eruptions
 It ejects gas and fine ash into the atmosphere
 The ash blocks the sunlight causing the global temperature to cool down.
 Sulfur dioxide forms a small particles called aerosol reflect light and cool the Earth
 Scientist have noted that some mass extinction coincided with unusually high rates of volcanic activity.
For example, a massive flood basalts erupted onto Earth’s surface in Siberia 248million years ago at the
same time the PERMIAN EXTINCTION OOCCURED.
Supercontinents and Earth’s Carbon Dioxide Budget
 In the modern oceans, cold polar seawater sinks to the sea floor and flows as a deep ocean current
towards the equator.
 The current transport oxygen to the deep ocean basins and forces the deep water to rise near the equator,
where it warmed (it is called Convection current under the ocean).
 Surface marine organisms absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide and use it to produce organic tissue
 As the marine animal dies, it settles at the bottom of the sea
 So then, CO2 will be rise at the bottom of the sea and rise again through convection currents
 And since, CO2 is stored at the bottom of the sea, there is no trap to the heat which gradually decreases
the global temperature; Glaciers and ice caps were formed.
Answer this: Differentiate the three Hypothesis stated above.
B. GEOLOGIC TIME
 Scientist measures geologic time in two ways: Relative age and Absolute age
 Relative age measurement – refers only to the order in which events occurred. Determination of
relative age is based on a simple principle: In order for an event to affect a rock, the rock must exist
first. Thus, rock must be older than the event.
 Absolute age - is age in years. Dinosaurs became extinct 65 million years ago. The terminal Permian
mass extinction occurred 248 million years ago. The absolute age tells us both the order in which events
occurred and the amount of time that has passed since they occurred.
C. RELATIVE GEOLOGIC TIME
Geologist used a combination of common sense and few simple principles to determine the order in which
rocks formed and changed over time. This are the following:
 Principle of origin horizontality -based on the observation that sediments usually accumulate in
horizontal layers. If Sedimentary rocks lies at an angle, or folded, we can infer that tectonic force titled
of folded them after they formed.
 Principle of Superposition – states that sedimentary rocks become younger from the bottom to top (as
long as the tectonic force, have not turn them upside down). It means the older sediments is at the
bottom and the younger is at the top.
 Principle of Crosscutting relationship – is based on the obvious fact that rock must exist first before
anything can happen to it.
 Evolution – States that life-forms have change through geologic time.
 Principle of Faunal succession – states that species succeeded one another through time in a definite
and recognizable order and that the relative ages of sedimentary rocks can therefore be recognized from
their fossils
UNCONFORMITIES AND CORRRELATION in the RELATIVE GEOLOGIC TIME
the 2km wall of the Grand Canyon are composed of sedimentary rocks laying on the igneous and
metamorphic rock. Their ages is about 200 million years to 2 billion years. The principle of superposition tells
us that that at the deepest is the oldest rock however, no principle assures that rock formed continuously from 2
billion years to 200 million years. The rock record may be incomplete. To address this, the geologist used the
following below to answer the missing gap. the following are might occur in rocks.
 layers of sedimentary rocks are conformable if they were deposited without detectible interruption.
 Unconformity represents an interruption in the deposition, usually of long duration
 Types of unconformities are:
o In the Disconformity, the layers above and below the unconformity are parallel. It is very
difficult to recognized unless an obvious soil layer or erosional surface developed.
o In the Angular unconformity, tectonic activity tilted older sedimentary rock layers and erosion
planed them off before the younger sediments accumulated
o Nonconformity, is an unconformity in which sedimentary rocks lie on igneous rocks
 Correlation is a process of establishing the age relationship of rock or geologic features from different
locations on Earth; can be done by comparing characteristics of the layers or the types of fossils found in
those layers. It has two types, the time correlation and lithologic correlation (continuity of rock unit)
D. ABSOLUTE GEOLOGIC TIME
Scientist wanted to measure the age of the events that occurs in the history. Measuring the absolute time
relies on the two:
o A process that occurs at constant rate, such as Earth’s rotation every 24 hours
o some way to keep a cumulative record of that process such as marking in the calendar each time
the sun rises
Geologist have found a natural process that occurs at a constant rate and accumulates its own record: It is
the radioactive decay of elements that are present in many rocks. Thus, many rocks have built in calendars.
What is Radioactivity decay?
Every element has its half-life. Example, the half-life of Potassium -40 isotope is 1.3 billion years. If
you have 1 kg of potassium, after 1.3 billion years, half of it will be transform to another element, then
another 1.3 billion years the ½ kg will again be halved so this time you have ¼ remain potassium isotopes
and this process will continue until all patossiumn-40 will be consumed (0kg).
What is Isotope?
An isotope is an atom of the same element but it differs in the number of neutron. example the isotopes
of hydrogen: (better to review the concept of chemistry for this)
o Protium – Also known as ordinary water, has no neutron
o Deuterium – has 1 neutron
o Tritium – has 2 neutrons

What is radioactive dating?

 It is the process of measuring the absolute age of rocks, minerals and fossils by measuring the concentration
of radioactive isotopes and their decay products. For example,
In a certain fossil, only 25% of the Carbon -14 isotope which has a half-life of 5730 years remains, how old
is the fossils?
Answer: Just try to backward counting. So the Fossil is 17,190 years old.
E. GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
Herein attached a table of Geologic Time scale
The Earliest Eons – the Hadean, Archean and Proterozoic eons often are not subdivided at all even
though they cinstitute the a time interval of 4 billion years. These early Eons usually called “PreCambrian”
means that it is before the cambrean Period where fossil remain is rich.
 Hadean Eon – From the greek word for “Beneath the Earth” is the earliest ranging from 4.6 – 3.8
billion years ago. This means upon the creation of our planet since Earth is more or less 4.5 billion years
old. I has no Fossil
 Archean Eon – From the greel word for “ancient” The period 3.8 – 2.5 Billion years ago. It has few
fossils found but not properly preserved. It Indicates that life begun on Earth 3. 2 to 3.5 Billion years
ago, although the dates are uncertain.
 Proterozoic Eon – From the greek word for“Earlier Life”. It is around 2.5 billion – 543 million years
ago. The first Proterozioc shell-bearing organism have been Identified.
After the Pre- cambrian Period is the PHANEROZIOC EON. It is the most recent, from 543 million to
years ago up to the precent. It is Subdivided into ERAs. The MESOZOIC, CENOZOIC, and the
PALEOZOIC era.
 Paleozoic Era – From the greek word “old Life”. It Contains a fossils of early invertebrates (no
back bone animals), ferns, amphibians, and reptiles and 30% percent of the insect species. It ended
248 million years ago during the Permian mass extinction where 90 % of all marine species, 2/3 of
the reptile and amphibian species, 30% percent of the insect wiped out. (hypothesized that it is due
to Volcanic Activities)
 Mesozoic Era – Most famous for the dinosaurs that roamed the land. Mamals and flowering plants
also evolved in this era. It ended 65 million years ago, during the Another mass extinction that wiped
out Dinosaurrs. (hypothesized that it is due to the Meteorite impact)
 Cenozoic Era – From the greek word “ Recent life’. Mammals and grasses became abundant.
Humans have developed and live wholly in the ceno zioc era.

The Eras in the PHANEROZIOC EON is also divided into Period.

 Some of the period are named after special characteristics of rocks formed during that period.
example the CRETACEOUS PERIOD is named from the latin word Creta“means Chalk” after the
chalk beds of this ages in Africa, North America and Europe.
 Other periods are named for the geographic localities where rocks of that age were first describe.
Example, Jurrasic Period is named for the JURASSIC mountains of France and Switcherland.
 The Cambrian Period is name for Cambria, the roman name for WALES, where rocks of this age
were first studies.
References:
Thompson and Turk, Introduction to Earth Science, Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd., Philippine Edition
Silva, Abon, Guzman et. al., Teaching Guides for Earth Science, Commission on Higher Education

ACTIVITY #13
ACTIVITY TITLE: ENERGY RESOURCES
Name: ____________________________________ Strand: ____________________
Year & Section: _________________________ Subject: _________________

H. Test 1. Identification. Identify the following below.

1. It is a measure refers only to the order in which events occurred.
2. It is a measure of age in years. Example, Dinosaurs became extinct 65 million years ago.
3. layers of sedimentary rocks are _______if they were deposited without detectible interruption.
4. This principle is based on the observation that sediments usually accumulate in horizontal layers. If
Sedimentary rocks lies at an angle, or folded, we can infer that tectonic force titled of folded them after they
formed.
5. This principle states that sedimentary rocks become younger from the bottom to top (as long as the tectonic
force, have not turn them upside down). It means the older sediments is at the bottom and the younger is at the
top.
6. This principle is based on the obvious fact that rock must exist first before anything can happen to it.
7. This principle States that life-forms have change through geologic time.
8. This principle states that species succeeded one another through time in a definite and recognizable order and
that the relative ages of sedimentary rocks can therefore be recognized from their fossils.
9. This is the process by which atoms will dis integrate to form new element or atom.
10-12. List the three types of conformities.
13. It is an atom of the same element but it differs in the number of neutron.
14-17. List down the Four Eons.
18. What is an Eon?
19. What is an Era?
20. What is the Era that we belong today?

Test II. Essay (At the back of this paper)

1. Do you believe that there is a Dinosaurs? explain your answer by providing some evidences.
2. Do you believe that Humans came from Apes and undergoes Evolution? Explain your answer.