G.E.

8
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER 1 – GENERAL CONCEPTS and HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

This module introduces students to the study of Science,

Technology, and Society (STS) beginning with general concepts and
its historical development. It also covers the impact of Science
and Technology and their interactions within various social
contexts with emphasis on the role of Science and Technology in
Philippine nation building.

Section 1 Introduction to Science, Technology, and Society

This section introduces Science, Technology, and Society

(STS) as a field of study. After defining Science and
technology, the section traces the historical roots of STS as
an academic field. It also enumerates emerging ethical dilemmas
that reinforce the importance of the study of STS in an age of
scientific progress and technological development.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section, the students should be able to:
1. discuss the general concepts related to science and
technology;
2. explain the scope of the study of STS; and
3. demonstrate preparedness and readiness in the study of STS.

Science comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning “knowledge.”

It refers to a systematic and methodical activity of building and
organizing knowledge about how the universe behaves through
observation, experimentation or both. According to the famous
American science historian. John Heilbron (2003, p. vii), “Modern
science is a discovery as well as an invention.” Heilbron
considered science as a discovery of regularity in nature, enough
for natural phenomena to be described by principles and laws. He
also explained that science required invention to devise
techniques, abstractions, apparatuses, and organizations to
describe these natural regularities and their-law like
descriptions.
Technology, is the application of scientific knowledge, laws,
and principles to produce services, materials, tools and machines
aimed at solving real-world problems. It comes from the Greek root
word “techna”, meaning art, skill, or cunning of hand.

Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
 According to Mark Zuckerberg, technological tool is something
that takes a human’s sense or ability and augments it and makes it
more powerful. For example, I wear contact lenses or glasses; that
is a technology that enhances my human ability of vision and makes
it better.
Wolpert (2005) made an interesting comparison between science
and technology that is helpful in the study of their interaction
with society. In his landmark paper, The Medawar Lecture 1998: Is
Science Dangerous? Wolpert explained that reliable scientific
knowledge has no moral or ethical value. It is meant simply to
explain how nature and the universe work and that the obligation
of scientists, besides studying the nature of the universe, is to
explain the possible uses and application of such scientific
knowledge. Along this line, Wolpert made it clear that science is
not the same as technology. Scientists are not responsible for the
application of knowledge in technology. He further explained that
the very nature of science is that it is not possible to predict
scientific discoveries and how these discoveries may be applied.
While scientists are responsible for the reliable conduct of
scientific inquiry and its honest interpretation and
dissemination, technological applications of science are
influenced by other sectors such as politics and governance,
religion and business. With this distinction, one can surmise the
need for the study of the various ways in which science and
technology act and are enacted in society. This is particularly
timely and relevant concern because of the advancements in science
and technology today.
Nowadays, advancements in science and technology have become
pervasive. They are manifested in the activities that humans pursue
and the tools they use every day. The beauty of this is that an
advancement builds upon itself. As such, human todays love more
productive and more exciting lives that their predecessors. With
the way things go, it could be expected that this generation’s
children, and the children of their children have the chance to
lead even better lives than this generation already does.
However, the dynamism and immensity of scientific and
technological progress also pose challenges and drawbacks to the
way humans live. The introduction of machines tremendously cut the
need for human workforce and gave rise to questions about whether
machines will eventually replace humans. The invention of drugs
that cured the previously incurable diseases introduced new
strains of bacteria and viruses that are resistant to the very
same drugs that once fought them-take an antibiotic-resistant
strain of gonorrhea as an example. The rise of social media
drastically changed the way humans communicate, interact, and
Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
share information; however, this tends to put people’s privacy at
risk. Indeed, science and technology have served a predominantly
double-edged function. This is succinctly captured in a famous
line of popular American scientist, Carl Sagan, quoted in Tom
head’s (2006) book:
“We live in a society absolutely dependent on science and
technology and yet have cleverly arranged things so that almost no
one understands science and technology. That’s a clear
prescription for disaster.”

As problems in science and technology continue to rise and

become more observable, the need to pay attention to their
interactions with various aspects of human life, e.g., social,
political, and economic, becomes ever more necessary. How the
different aspects of society shape and influence the progression
and further development of science and technology is the area of
concern of a relatively new academic discipline called Science,
Technology, and Society.
Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is a relatively young
field that combines previously independent and older disciplines,
such as the history of science, philosophy of science, and
sociology of science. As an academic field, STS, according to
Harvard University’s Kennedy School (2018), traces its roots from
the interwar period and start of the Cold War. It was during this
period when historians and scientists found interest in the
interconnections of scientific knowledge, technological systems,
and society. The rise of STS as an academic field resulted from
the recognition that many schools today do not really prepare
students to respond critically, reflectively, and proactively to
the challenges posed by science and technology in the contemporary
world.
In general, STS applies methods drawn from history, philosophy,
and sociology to study the nature of science and technology and
ultimately judge their value and place in society. As an
interdisciplinary field, the emergence of STS was a result of
questions about science and technology’s dynamic interaction with
various aspects of society and thus was viewed as a socially
embedded enterprise. Thus, as the Kennedy School effectively
encapsulates, STS seeks to bridge the gap between two traditionally
exclusive cultures—humanities (interpretive) and natural sciences
(rational)-so that humans will be able to better confront the
moral, ethical, and existential dilemmas brought by the continued
developments in science and technology.
The John J. Reilly Center for Science, Technology, and Values
of the University of Notre Dame is responsible for listing the ten
Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
emerging ethical dilemmas and policy issues in science and
technology every year. Below is the list for 2018:

1. Helix – a digital app store designed to read genomes

2. BlessU-2 and Pepper – first robot priest and monk
3. Emotion-Sensing Facial Recognition – a software being
developed to assess your reactions to anything such as
shopping and playing games
4. Ransomware – a way of holding data hostage through hacking
and requiring a ransom to be paid
5. Textalyzer – a device that analyzes whether a driver was using
his or her phone during an accident
6. Social Credit System – a system of scoring citizens through
their actions by placing them under constant surveillance
(which China plans to adopt)
7. Google Clips – a hands-free camera that lets the user capture
every moment effortlessly
8. Sentencing Software – a mysterious algorithm designed to aid
courts in sentencing decisions
9. Friendbot – an app that stores the deceased’s digital
footprint so one can still “chat” with them
10. Citizen App – an app that notifies users of ongoing
crimes or major events in a specific area

Even though several items in the list sound unfamiliar to many,

it can be a useful springboard in the study of science and
technology. The list points to the overgrowing challenges,
questions, and issues that need to be addressed and resolve when
science and technology and humanity intertwine. However, methods
of critiquing these emerging dilemmas may come from similar methods
used in previous critiques of science and technology issues. For
example, one can use methods used in critiquing the rise of
clinical trials of gene therapy in the 1990s. Today’s approach in
critiquing emerging science and technology issues, such as the
ones listed above, may be influenced by how scientists and non-
scientists evaluated the positive and negative implications of
clinical trials in the 1990s. For this purpose, one can continue
to specifically draw from the tenets of history, philosophy, and
sociology in making informed and critical judgments of the ethical
and moral values of these innovations in science and technology

Section 2 Historical Antecedents of Science and Technology

Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
 This section tackles how social contexts shaped and were shaped
by science and technology across three historical periods. By
introducing the historical antecedents of science and technology,
the section explores the dynamic interactions between different
societal factors and science and technology. Along with the
discussion of these antecedents during the ancient period, middle
ages, and modern ages, this section also includes a discussion on
important Philippine inventions and innovations. It emphasizes the
various social, cultural, economic, and political impacts of
scientific and technological innovation throughout history.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the historical antecedents of science and technology

across time; and
2. Explain how Philippine scientific and technological
inventions shaped and were shaped by various social contexts.

One of the key interests of STS as an academic field is the

history of science and technology. As a strand of STS, the history
of science and technology focuses on how science and technology
have changed across time. Also, it explores the impacts of
scientific and technological innovations on the prevailing social,
cultural, political, and economic contexts throughout history.
Conversely, it also pays attention to the condition that shaped
science and technology. Quite often, interests lie in historical
antecedents of scientific and technological innovations.
An antecedent is defined as a precursor to the unfolding or
existence of something. Thus, historical antecedents in science
and technology are factors that paved the way for the presence of
advanced and sophisticated scientific and technological
innovations today. Knowledge of the history of science and
technology is useful in appraising these innovations today. By
understanding how previous generations influenced and were
influenced by developments in science and technology, today’s
generation can come up with informed decisions in the proper
application of science and technology to daily life.

Ancient Period
The rise of ancient civilizations paved the way for advances in
science and technology. These advances during the Ancient period
Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
allowed civilizations to flourish by finding better ways of
communication, transportation, self-organization, and of living in
general.
Ancient Wheel. People from ancient civilizations used animals
for transportation long before the invention of the wheel. No one
knows exactly who invented the wheel and when. There is, however,
a general agreement that the ancient wheel grew out of a mechanical
device called the potter’s wheel-a heavy flat disk made of hardened
clay which was spun horizontally on an axis. It is believed that
the Sumerians invented the potter’s wheel shortly after 3500 BC.
The invention of the ancient wheel is often credited to the
Sumerians since no other ancient civilization used a similar device
at the time. It could be that a potter thought of shifting the
potter’s wheel to a 90-degree angle for the purpose of
transportation or the wheel was reinvented for this purpose.
Nonetheless, it would not be until 1000 to 1500 years later that
the wheel was first used on carts.
Paper. Roughly around 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptian began
writing on papyrus, a material similar to thick paper. Papyrus is
made from the pith of the papyrus plant cyperus papyrus. It is
lightweight, strong, durable, and most importantly, portable.
Before the Egyptian invented the papyrus, writing was done on
stone. Because of the difficulty of writing on stone, writing was
reserved only for very important occasions. With the advent of the
papyrus, documentation and record-keeping became efficient,
widespread, and vast. Through its use, information dissemination
became exponentially faster. Records were kept and stood the test
of time.
Shadoof. The shadoof was an early tool invented and used by
ancient Egyptians to irrigate land. Among Egyptians who live near
the Nile river, irrigation was necessary to water their crops. The
shadoof, also spelled as shaduf, is a hand-operated device used
for lifting water. Its invention introduced the idea of lifting
things using counterweights. Because of this invention, irrigation
and farming became much more efficient. The shadoof is also
believed to be an ancient precursor of more sophisticated
irrigation tools.
Antikythera mechanism. Even before the invention of the
antecedents of the modern computer, the Greeks had already invented
the ancient world’s analog computer orrery. Discovered in 1902 and
retrieved from the waters of Antikythera, Greece, the Antikythera
mechanism is similar to a mantel clock. Upon its discovery, the
bits of wood seen on its fragments suggest that it must have been
housed in a wooden case. It is akin to a clock in the way that the
case has a circular face and rotating hands. A knob on the side
Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
makes it possible for it to be wound forward or backward, its
mechanism allows it to display celestial time. Thus, it is widely
believed that Antikythera mechanism was used to predict
astronomical positions and eclipses for calendar and astrological
purposes. It is also believed that the Antikythera mechanism, which
is one of the oldest known antecedents of modern clockwork, was
invented by Greek scientists between 150-100 BC.
Aeolipile. Also known as the Hero’s engine, the aeolipile is
widely believed to be the ancient precursor of the steam engine.
Hero of Alexandria is credited for the demonstration of the use of
aeolipile during the 1 st century AD. The aeolipile is a steam-
powered turbine which spun when the water container at its center
was heated, thus making it practically the first rudimentary steam
engine. It is not clear whether the aeolipile served any practical
purpose, but it is believed to be one of many “temple wonders” at
the time. Nonetheless, Vitruvius, a Roman author, architect, and
civil engineer, described the aeolipile as a scientific invention
through which “the mighty and wonderful laws of the heavens and
the nature of winds” may be understood and judged.

Middle Ages
Between the collapse of the Roman Empire in 5 th century AD and
the colonial expansion of Western Europe in late 15 th century AD,
major advances in scientific and technological development took
place. These include steady increase of new inventions,
introduction of innovations in traditional production, and
emergence of scientific thinking and method. The Middle Ages was
not as stagnant as alternate terms such as the ‘Medieval Period’
or ‘Dark Ages’ suggest. In fact, many medieval universities at the
time stirred scientific thinking and built many infrastructures
for scientific communities to flourish. As such, some of humanity’s
most important present-day technologies could be traced back to
their historical antecedents in the Middle Ages.
Heavy Plough. Perhaps one of the most important technological
innovations during the middle ages is the invention of the heavy
plough. Clay soil, despite being more fertile than lighter types
of soil, was not cultivated because of its heavy weight. However,
through the invention of the heavy plough, it became possible to
harness clay soil. Professor Thomas Bernebeck Andersen of the
University of Southern Denmark succinctly describes the impact of
the invention of the heavy plough: “The heavy plough turned
European agriculture and economy on its head. Suddenly, the fields
with the heavy, fatty, moist clay soils became those that gave the
greatest yields.” Because of this, Europe, particularly its
Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
northern territories, saw rapid economic prosperity. The heavy
plough stirred an agricultural revolution in Northern Europe
marked by higher and healthier agricultural yields and more
efficient agricultural practices.
Gunpowder. Around 850 AD, Chinese alchemists accidentally
invented black powder or gunpowder. Multiple accounts suggest that
the gunpowder might have been an unintended product of attempts
made by Chinese to invent the elixir of life, which is why the
Chinese called it huayao, roughly translated as “fire potion”.
Prior to the invention of gunpowder, swords and spears were used
in battles and wars. Towards the end of the 13 th century, the
explosive invention crept into most parts of Europe and Asia. Since
its invention, the gunpowder has allowed for more advanced warfare.
From fiery arrows to cannon and grenades, the gunpowder has
prompted foundation for the functionality of almost every new
weapon used in war since its invention. It ushered in an
unprecedented advancement in warfare and combat throughout the
Middle Ages.
Paper Money. Although it was not until the 17 th century that
bank notes began to be used in Europe, the first known versions of
paper money could be tracked back to the Chinese in 17 th century
AD as an offshoot of the invention of block printing, which is
similar to stamping. Before the introduction of paper money,
precious metals, such as gold and silver were used as currency.
However, the idea of assigning value to a marked piece of paper
did not immediately become popular. In fact, when the Mongols
attempted to introduce paper money into the Middle East market in
the 13th century, it did not gain immediate success. Nonetheless,
traders and merchants eventually realized the huge advantage of
using paper money because it was easier to transport around
compared to the previous forms of currencies.
Mechanical Clock. Although devices for timekeeping and recording
sprung from the ancient times, such as the Antikythera mechanism,
it was not until the Middle Ages that clockwork technology was
developed. The development of mechanical clocks paved the way for
accurately keeping track of time. The sophistication of clockwork
technology of the mechanical clock drastically changed the way
days were spent and work patterns were established, particularly
in the more advanced Middle Age cities.
Spinning Wheel. Another important invention of the Middle Ages
is the spinning wheel, a machine used for transforming fiber into
thread or yarn and eventually woven into cloth or loom. Although
no consensus could be made regarding the origin of the spinning
wheel, it is theorized that the Indians invented the spinning wheel
between 6th and 11th century AD. Prior to the invention of the
Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
spinning wheel, weaving was done predominantly through the more
time-consuming and tedious process of hand spinning. According to
White (1974), the invention of the spinning wheel sped up the rate
which fiber could be spun by a factor of 10 to 100 times. Thus,
White argued that this invention ushered in a breakthrough in linen
production when it was introduced in Europe in 13 th century AD.
Modern Ages
As the world population steadily increased, people of the Modern
Ages realized the utmost importance of increasing the efficiency
of transportation, communication, and production.
Industrialization took place with greatest in human health, food
safety, and environment which had to be addressed as scientific
and technological progress unfolded at an unimaginable speed.
Compound Microscope. A Dutch spectacle maker named Zacharias
Janssen is credited for the invention of the first compound
Microsoft in 1590. Together with his father Hans, Zacharias began
experimenting with lenses by putting together several lenses on a
tube. This led to an amazing discovery that an object, when placed
near the end of the tube, can be magnified far larger than what a
simple magnifying lens can do. Janssen’s compound microscope was
an important progression from the single lens microscope. It was
capable of magnifying three times their size when fully closed and
up to ten times when extended to the maximum. Today, the compound
microscope is an important instrument in many scientific studies,
such as in the areas of medicine, forensic studies, tissue
analysis, atomic studies, and genetics.
Telescope. Perhaps the single, most important technological
invention in the study of astronomy during the Modern Ages was the
practical telescope invented by Galileo Galilei. This invention
can magnify objects 20 times larger than the Dutch perspective
glasses. It was Galileo who first used the telescope skyward and
made important astronomical discoveries, and identified the
presence of craters and mountains on the moon. Galileo’s remarkable
technological contribution drastically changed the study of
astronomy. For the first time, it became clear that the universe
is far larger than previously imagined and the Earth far smaller
compared to the entire universe.
Jacquard Loom. As the Industrial Revolution reached full speed,
the Jacquard loom was considered as one of the most critical
drivers of the revolution. Built by French weaver Joseph Marie
Jacquard, the Jacquard loom simplifies textile manufacturing.
Prior to the invention of the Jacquard loom, a drawloom was used
which required two individuals to operate-the weaver and the
“drawboy”-if figured designs on textiles were needed. As such,
intensified manual labor and greater effort had to be exerted to
Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
produce complex designs. In 1801, Jacquard demonstrated the
ingenuity of his version of a loom in which a series of cards with
punched holes automatically created complex textile designs and
made mass production easier. The Jacquard loom is also an important
antecedent of modern computer technology as it demonstrated the
use of punched cards to instruct a machine to carry out complex
tasks, i.e., making different textile patterns.
Engine-Powered Airplane. Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright are
credited for designing and successfully operating the first
engine-powered aircraft. The Wright brothers approached the design
of powered aircraft and flight scientifically. Orville and Wilbur
proved that aircrafts could fly without airfoil-shaped wings. They
demonstrated thin in their original Flying Machine patent (US
patent #821393), showing that slightly tilted wings, which they
referred to as aeroplanes, were the key features of a powered
aircraft. Their pioneering success marked an age of powered
flights. Sans modern knowledge on aerodynamics and a comprehensive
understanding of the working of aircraft wings, the Wright brothers
were brilliant scientists who paved the way for modern aircraft
technology.
Television. The Scottish engineer John Logie Baird is largely
credited for the invention of the modern television. Baird
successfully televised objects in outline on 1924, recognizable
human faces in 1925, and moving objects in 1926, and projected
colored images in 1928. Baird’s television technology caught on
really swiftly. In fact, the British Broadcasting Corporation
(BBC) used this for its earliest television programming in 1929.
Despite being the first television invented, Baird’s television
was later on criticized for its fuzzy and flickering images,
primarily because it was mechanical compared to electronic
versions that were developed much later.

Inventions by Filipino Scientists

The Philippines boasts of, its own history and tradition of
scientific and technological innovations. Filipinos have long been
known for their ingenuity. As with all other inventions, necessity
has always been the mother of Philippine inventions. Most of these
inventions appealed to the unique social and cultural context of
the archipelagic nation. Throughout Philippine history, Filipinos
are responsible for developing many scientific and technological
innovations focused on navigation, traditional shipbuilding,
textiles, food processing, indigenous arts and techniques, and
even cultural inventions. The following are some of the most
important inventions by Filipino scientists.
Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
 Electronic Jeepney (e-jeepney). The jeepney is perhaps one of
the most recognizable national symbols of the Philippines and the
most popular mode of transportation in the country. It is also
perhaps one of the most enduring symbols of Filipino ingenuity.
Jeepneys were designed and improvised from scratch out of military
jeeps that the Americans left in the country after World War II.
As demand for more responsive transportation technology arose, the
e-jeepney was introduced in Metro Manila and Bacolod City. The e-
jeepney is the inventive response to criticisms to the traditional
jeepney that belched smoke, directly causing air pollution which
made it unsustainable and uneconomical. E-jeepneys are designe d
to be environment-friendly, eliminating noise and air pollution as
they run on electricity. They are also more economical for
electricity is cheaper than ordinary diesel, allowing jeepney
drivers to earn more profit.
Erythromycin. Perhaps one of the most important medical
inventions is the Erythromycin. The Ilonggo scientist Abelardo
Aguilar invented this antibiotic out of a strain of bacterium
called Streptomyces erythreus, from which this drug derived its
name. As with the case of several other local scientists, however,
Aguilar was not credited for this discovery by Eli Lilli Co.,
Aguilar’s US employer, to whom he sent the strain for separation.
The US company eventually owned the merits for this discovery.
Medical Incubator. World-renowned Filipino pediatrician and
National scientist, Fe del Mundo, is credited for the invention of
the incubator and jaundice relieving device. Del Mundo was the
first woman pediatrician to be admitted to the prestigious Harvard
University’s School of Medicine. She is also one of the founder of
the first pediatric hospital in the country. Her pioneering work
in pediatrics that spanned a total of eight decades won her the
1977 Ramon Magsaysay Award, Asia’s premier prize granted to
outstanding individuals whose selfless service remarkably
contributed to the betterment of society. Her original improvised
incubator consisted of two native laundry baskets of different
sizes that are placed one inside the other. Warmth is generated by
bottles with hot water placed around the baskets. A makeshift hood
over the baskets allows oxygen to circulate inside the incubator.
Del Mundo’s incubator was particularly outstanding as it addressed
the state of Philippine rural communities that had no electricity
to aid the regulation of body temperature of newborn babies. For
this purpose, del Mundo’s invention was truly ingenious.
Mole Remover. In 2000, a local invention that had the ability
to easily remove moles and warts on the skin without the need for
any surgical procedure shot to fame. Rolando dela Cruz is credited
for the invention of a local mole remover that made use of extracts
Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
of cashew nuts (Annacardium occidentale), which are very common in
the Philippines. The formula caught on for its accessibility,
affordability, and painless and scarless procedure. Dela Cruz won
a gold medal for this invention in the International Invention,
Innovation, Industrial Design, and Technology Exhibition in Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia in 2000.
Banana Ketchup. Filipino food technologist, Maria Orosa, is
credited for the invention of banana ketchup, a variety of ketchup
different from the commonly known tomato ketchup. Her invention
appeals particularly to Filipinos who love using condiments to go
along with their food. Historical accounts posit that Orosa
invented the banana ketchup at the backdrop of World War II when
there was a huge shortage of tomatoes. As a result, Orosa developed
a variety of ketchup that made use of mashed banana, sugar,
vinegar, and spices, which were all readily available. Orosa’s
banana ketchup was brownish-yellow in natural color, but is dyed
red to resemble the color of the most loved tomato ketchup.

Section 3 Intellectual Revolutions and Society

This section reviews the intellectual revolutions that changed

the way people perceive the influence of science on society in
general. It focuses on three of the most important intellectual
revolutions in history: Copernican, Darwinian and Freudian. By
discussing these intellectual revolutions in the context of
science, technology, and society, the attention of students is
drawn again toward the complex interplay of the various social
contexts and the development of modern science. The section also
engages students in a critical analysis of ongoing intellectual
Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
and scientific revolutions, which they may find themselves to be
part of.

Intended Learning Outcome

At the end of this section, the students should be able to:
1. Identify the intellectual revolutions that shaped society
across time;
2. Explain how intellectual revolutions transformed the views of
society about dominant scientific thought; and
3. Research on other intellectual revolutions that advance
modern science and scientific thinking.

In the study of the history of science and technology, another

important area of interest involves the various intellectual
revolutions across time. In this area, interest lies in how
intellectual revolutions emerged as a result of the interaction of
science and technology and of society. It covers how intellectual
revolutions altered the way modern science was understood and
approached.

For this discussion, intellectual revolutions should not be

confused with the Greek’s pre-Socratic speculations about the
behavior of the universe. In science and technology, intellectual
revolutions refer to the series of events that led to the emergence
of modern science and the progress of scientific thinking across
critical periods in history. Although there are many intellectual
revolutions, this section focuses on three of the most important
ones that altered the way humans view science and its impacts on
society: the Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian revolutions. In
the words of French astronomer, mathematician, and freemason, Jean
Sylvian Bailley (1976 in Cohen, 1976), these scientific
revolutions involved a two-stage process of sweeping away the old
and establishing the new.
In understanding intellectual revolutions, it is worth noting
that these revolutions are, in themselves, paradigm shifts. These
shifts resulted from a renewed and enlightened understanding of
how the universe behaves and functions. They challenged long-held
views about the nature of the universe. Thus, these revolutions
were often met with huge resistance and controversy.

Copernican Revolution
The Copernican Revolution refers to the 16 th-century paradigm
shift named after the Polish mathematician and astronomer,
Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus formulated the heliocentric model
of the universe. At the time, the belief was that the Earth was
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the center of the Solar System based on the geocentric model of
Ptolemy (i.e., Ptolemaic model).
Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model in a 40-page
outline entitled Commentariolus. He formalized his model in the
publication of his treatise, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium
(The Revolution of Celestial Sphere) in 1543. In his model,
Copernicus repositioned the Earth from the center of the Solar
System and introduce the idea that the Earth rotates on its own
axis. The model illustrated the Earth, along with the other
heavenly bodies, to be rotating around the Sun.
The idea that the Sun is at the center of the universe instead
of the Earth proved to be unsettling to many when Copernicus first
introduced his model. In fact, the heliocentric model was met with
huge resistance, primarily from the Church, accusing Copernicus of
heresy. At the time, the idea that it was not the Earth, and, by
extension, not man, that was at the center of all creation was
unthinkable. Copernicus faced persecution from the Church because
of this.
Moreover, although far more sensible than the Ptolemaic model,
which as early as the 13 th century had been criticized for its
shortcomings, the Copernican model also had multiple inadequacies
that were later filled in by astronomers who participated in the
revolution. Nonetheless, despite problems with the model and the
persecution of the Church, the heliocentric model was soon accepted
by other scientists of the time, most profoundly by Galileo
Galilei.
The contribution of the Copernican Revolution is far-reaching.
It served as a catalyst to sway scientific thinking away from age-
long views about the position of the Earth relative to an
enlightened understanding of the universe. This marked the
beginning of modern astronomy. Although very slowly, the
heliocentric model eventually caught on among other astronomers
who further refined the model and contributed to the recognition
of heliocentrism. This was capped off by Isaac Newton’s work a
century later. Thus, the Copernican Revolution marked a turning
point in the study of cosmology and astronomy making it a truly
important intellectual revolution.

Darwinian Revolution
The English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, Charles
Darwin, is credited for stirring another important intellectual
revolution in the mid-19th century. His treatise on the science of
evolution, On The Origin of Species, was published in 1859 and
began a revolution that brought humanity to a new era of
intellectual discovery.
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C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
 The Darwinian Revolution benefitted from earlier intellectual
revolutions especially those in the 16 th and 17th centuries, such
that it was guided by confidence in human reason’s ability to
explain phenomena in the universe. For his part, Darwin gathered
evidence pointing to what is now known as natural selection, an
evolutionary process by which organisms, including humans,
inherit, develop, and adapt traits that favored survival and
reproduction. These traits are manifested in off-springs that are
more fit and well-suited to the challenges of survival and
reproduction.
Darwin’s theory of evolution was, of course, met with resistance
and considered to be controversial. Critics accused the theory of
being either short in accounting for the broad and complex
evolutionary process or dismissive of the idea that the functional
design of organisms was a manifestation of an omniscient God. The
Darwinian Revolution can be likened to the Copernican Revolution
in its demonstration of the power of the laws of nature in
explaining biological phenomena of survival and reproduction.
The place of the Darwinian Revolution in modern science cannot
be underestimated. Through the Darwinian Revolution, the
development of organisms and the origin of unique forms of life
and humanity could be rationalized by a lawful system or an orderly
process of change underpinned by laws of nature.

Freudian Revolution
Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freud, is credited for stirring a
20th-century intellectual revolution named after him, the Freudian
Revolution. Psychoanalysis as a school of thought in psychology is
at the center of this revolution. Freud developed psychoanalysis-
a scientific method of understanding inner and unconscious
conflicts embedded within one’s personality, springing from free
associations, dreams, and fantasies of the individual.
Psychoanalysis immediately shot into controversy for it emphasized
the existence of the unconscious where feelings, thoughts, urges,
emotions, and memories are contained outside of one’s conscious
mind. Psychoanalytic concepts of psychosexual development, libido,
and ego were met with both support and resistance from many
scholars. Freud suggested that humans are inherently pleasure-
seeking individuals. These notions were particularly caught in the
crossfire of whether Freud’s psychoanalysis fit in the scientific
study of the brain and mind.
Scientists working on a biological approach in studying human
behavior criticized psychoanalysis for lack of vitality and
bordering on being unscientific as a theory. Particularly, the
notion that all humans are destined to exhibit Oedipus and Electra
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complexes (i.e., sexual desire towards the parent of the opposite
sex and exclusion of the parent of the same sex) did not seem to
be supported by empirical data. In the same vein, it appeared to
critics that psychoanalysis, then, was more of an ideological
stance than a scientific one.
Amidst controversy, Freud’s psychoanalysis is widely credited
for dominating psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20 th
century. Pschodynamic therapies that treat a myriad of
psychological disorders still remain largely informed by Freud’s
work on psychoanalysis.

Section 4 Science and Technology and Nation Building

This section situates science, technology, and society in the

context of Philippine nation building. It initially surveys
contributions of Filipino scientists to science and technology. It
then traces the historical development and impact of science and
technology on the various segments of Philippine society. These
discussions are geared toward engaging students in a critical
analysis of science and technology as a tool for nation building.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section, the students should be able to:
1. Identify the contributions of Filipino scientists in science
and technology;

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Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
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C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
 2. Enumerate critical points in the history of science and
technology in the Philippines and how these developments
affected society and the environment; and
3. Explain the role of science and technology in nation building.

Science and technology in the Philippines had its beginnings

during the pre-colonial times. During this period, people used
herbal medicine to treat illnesses. To facilitate trading,
Filipinos made use of writing, numerical, measurement, and
calendar systems. Farming, fishing, mining, and weaving, were the
first livelihood skills developed by Filipinos. In some cases, the
techniques Filipinos developed for livelihood purposes resulted in
majestic architectural designs that managed to attract worldwide
attention like the Banaue Rice Terraces of Ifugao.
During the Spanich colonial period, science and technology
developed through the establishment of formal education
institutions and the launching of scientific organizations.
Schools were mandated to teach religion, mathematics, reading and
writing, music and arts, and health and sanitation. Medicine and
biology were taught in different educational and training
institutions. To construct buildings, churches, bridges, roads and
forts, engineering was introduced and developed as well. The rapid
development of scientific principles influenced by Western culture
during the Spanish colonial period was shortchanged. This is why
agriculture and industrial developments were during the latter
part of the Spanish era. Instead, trade was prioritized due to
possible bigger profits.
When the Americans came, institutions for science and technology
were reorganized as well. For example, the former Laboratorio
Municipal was replaced by the Bureau of Government Laboratories
under the United States’ Department of Interior. The Bureau was
established for the purpose of studying tropical diseases and
pursuing other related research projects. Eventually in 1905, the
Bureau was changed to Bureau of Science, which became the main
research center of the Philippines. In 1933, the National Research
Council of the Philippines was established. Developments in
science and technology during the American regime were focused on
agriculture, medicine, and pharmacy, food processing, and
forestry. In 1946, the Bureau of Science was replaced by the
Institute of Science.

During the time of former President Ferdinand Marcos, the role

of science and technology in national development was emphasized.
He mandated the Department of Education and Culture, now known as
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the Department of Education (DepEd), to promote science courses in
public high schools. Additional budget for research projects in
applied sciences and science education was granted by Marcos. A
big chunk of the war damage fund from the Japanese was donated to
private universities and colleges for the creation of science and
technology-related courses and to promote research. The 35-hectare
lot in Bicutan, Taguig was procalaimed in 1968 as the Philippine
Science Community, now the site of the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST). Seminars, workshops, training programs, and
scholarships on fisheries and oceanography were also sponsored by
the government during Marcos’ presidency. The Philippine Coconut
Research Institute (PHILCORIN) was tasked to promote the
modernization of the coconut industry. Several agencies and
organizations were then established like the Philippine Textile
Research Institute, Philippine Atomic Energy Commission (now the
Philippine Nuclear Institute), National Grains Authority (now the
National Food Authority), Philippine Council for Agricultural
Research (now the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic, and
Natural Resources Research and Development), Philippine
Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration
(PAGASA), Philippine National Oil Company, Plant Breeding
Institute, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Bureau of
Plant Industry, Bureau of Forest Products, and the National
Committee on Geological Sciences. The National Science Development
Board (NSBD) was reorganized as the National Science and Technology
Authority (NSTA) in 1981. In 1976, Marcos established the National
Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) to be the reservoir of
scientific and technological expertise in the country. Salary
increases for teachers and administrators at the Philippine
Science High School were granted and the Mindanao and Visayas
campuses of the Philippine Science High School were established
during Marcos’ time.

In 1986, under President Corazon Aquino, NSTA was renamed DOST.

This was done in order for the science and technology sector to be
represented in the cabinet and thus play an integral role in the
country’s sustainable economic recovery and growth. The Science
and Technology Master Plan penned by DOST aimed to update the
production sector, improve research activities, and develop
infrastructures for the science and technology sector.

In 1987, during the presidency of Fidel Ramos, the Philippines

had approximately 3,000 competent scientists and engineers. The
“Doctors to the Barrio” Program made healthcare accessible even in
far-flung areas in the country. Incentives were given to people
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who played significant roles in the science and technology sector.
The National Program for Gifted Filipino Children in Science and
Technology was created for high school students who wanted to major
in science and engineering in college. It was also during Ramos’
term that a number of laws and statutes related to the science and
technology sector were mandated such as RA 8439: Magna Carta for
Scientist Engineers, Researchers and other Science and Technology
Personnel in Government; RA 7687: Science and Technology
Scholarship Act of 1994; RA 7459: Inventors and Inventions
Incentives Act; and RA 8293: The Intellectual Property Code of the
Philippines.

RA 8749: The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 and RA 8792:

Electronic Commerce Act of 2000 were both signed and mandated
during the term of President Joseph Estrada. He was also
responsible for implementing cost-effective irrigation
technologies and providing basic health care services for those
who could not afford them.

During the administration of President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo,

the science and technology sector were developed to strengthen the
education system and to address poverty. The term Filipinnovation
was coined to refer to the Philippines as an innovation hub in
Asia. Arroyo also promulgated RA 9367: Biofuels Act, to utilize
indigenous materials as sources of energy. However, the act was
not able to produce positive outcomes because of the lack of
technology to source raw materials. It was also in Arroyo’s term
that farmers were encouraged to use rice that can withstand
environmental hazards. RA 10601: Agriculture and Fisheries
Mechanization (AFMech) Law was also passed to modernize
agricultural and fisheries machinery and equipment.

In 2014, President Benigno Aquino III named new National

Scientists namely, Gavino C. Trono, for Marine Biology, Angel C.
Alcala, for Biological Science, Ramon C. Barba, for Horticulture,
and Edgardo D. Gomez also for Marine Biology.

Today, in the administration of President Rodrigo Duterte, the

science and technology sector is seen to be a priority based on
the budget for research and development (R&D) that grew by nearly
six times over the same period. Formulation of programs and
policies that will aid in shaping the country is backed up
President Duterte. The focus of DOST is to put the results of R&D
into commercialization in order to gain new intellectual
properties. Currently, the Philippines has the Philippine Space

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C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.
Technology Program which launched Diwata-2 in 2018 after the launch
of Diwata-1 in 2016 that displayed the Philippine flag in space.
Besides space technology, the current administration also gives
importance to agriculture and disaster preparedness.

Science and Technology in the Philippines and the Environment

Science and technology have numerous contributions to society.

The mechanization of farming, for instance, is necessary for
agriculture, being the number one source of food production.
Agricultural development needs to cope with the rapidly and
exponentially growing population. Tools such as water pumps and
sprinklers help in managing the damaging effects of extreme heat
caused by climate change on crops. Science and technology have
also made it possible to produce genetically modified crops, which
grow faster and are more resistant to pests. Fertilizers that
increase nutrients in the soil enhance the growth of the crops and
produce high-quality yields. However, many researches shows that
genetically modified crops and fertilizers made from strong
chemicals are not environment friendly. Science and technology has
improved transportation by land, air, and sea Communication has
also improved through technological advancements. With the
internet and the rise of social media, information is transmitted
easily and rapidly. Through technological developments, ways of
learning also changed. Learning management systems used in
education are now accessible through computers, mobile phones,
tablets, and other gadgets. Online learning has also become popular
in various disciplines like mathematics, physics, biology,
geography, economics, and others.

These contributions of science and technology, however, always

come with adverse impacts especially on the environment. One is
resource depletion. The increasing number of new and advanced
technologies in the production and manufacture of different goods
and services results in the depletion of the Earth’s natural
resources. Wastes are also become too dependent on science and
technology, making them disregard its consequences that may be
damaging to the environment.

Lifted from:
Quinto, Edward Jay M. and Nieva, Aileen D. (2019).
Science, Technology, and Society: Outcome-Based Module.
C & E Publishing, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines.