Republic of the Philippines

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY

Don Severino delas Alas Campus
Indang, Cavite

BIOL5 Lecture 6B: Plant Form and Function

Slide 1: Introduction
Good day students! I hope you are all safe and sound. We are now going to discuss the
second half of our plant form and function lecture which will cover some of the most important
processes in plants. So I won’t keep you waiting so as not to wilt your interests. Let’s start!
I am _______________ your guide for this audio lecture.
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Slide 2: Overview
In this lecture, we will discuss about how plants reproduce, adapt to changes in the
environment, and respond to different stimuli.
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Slide 3: Plant Reproduction

Just like animals, plants are living organisms, which means they need to reproduce in
order to pass on their genes to future generations. Plants can create offspring through either
sexual or asexual reproduction. In this lecture, we are going to discuss about the sexual
reproduction of flowering plants.
Flowering plants are the largest and most diverse group of plants. Generally, their
reproduction involves flowers, fruits and seeds. Flowers are the main reproductive part of plants.
Both male and female gametes are produced by flowers, which makes them the site of sexual
reproduction. In fact, almost all parts of a flower are involved in the process of reproduction, which
happens when a male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg) fuse together forming a zygote
which then develops into seeds inside the ovary. Eventually, this ovary becomes a fruit, enclosing
the seeds. These seeds inside will then be dispersed and germinated into the soil, giving rise to
a new plant. And, the cycle goes on.
Now, to get to know more about plant’s sexual reproduction in detail, first, we need to
understand the different parts of a flower and their functions towards reproduction.

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Slide 4: Parts of a flower

A flower has female and male parts. The male part of a flower is called the stamen. The
female part of a flower is called pistil or carpel. A stamen is made up of two main parts, an anther
Prepared by: BALDOMERO, J. N., LAGERA A. J., & ROTAIRO, H. I.
Instructors
Department of Biological Sciences, CAS, CvSU
Source: General Biology: Compendium by Johnny Ching & Concepts of Biology 1st Ed. by Charles Molnar and Jane
Gair.
and a filament. The anther produces pollen grains which contains the male gametes or sperm
cells. This filament holds the anther in position, making the pollen available for dispersal by wind,
insects, or birds. The pistil, on the other hand, is generally shaped like a bowling pin and is located
in the flower's center. It includes the stigma, style and ovary. The stigma is located at the top and
is connected by the style to collect the pollen grains. The style supports the stigma and connects
it to the ovary. The ovary contains the female gametes or the egg cells, which is located inside
the ovules.
Other non-reproductive or accessory parts of a flower are the sepals and the petals.
Sepals are small, green, leaflike structures located at the base of a flower which protects the
flower bud. Collectively, they are called a calyx. While, petals are the colored portions of a flower.
They may contain perfume in order to attract pollinators. Collectively, th e petals are called
a corolla. The petals and sepals are called perianth.

Slide 5: Types of flowers

Some flowers contain both the stamen and the pistil. Such flowers are called bisexual
flowers. Examples are gumamela and tomato flowers. On the other hand, some flowers possess
either the stamen (we call them staminate flowers) or the pistil (called the pistillate flowers) . Such
flowers are called unisexual flowers. For example, corn and cucumber. They are staminate and
pistillate flowers, respectively. Now, let us find out how reproduction takes place in a flower?

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Slide 6: Pollination
In order to fuse these two gametes together, the male gametes have to reach the female
gametes through a process called pollination. Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther
to a stigma, either by wind or by pollinators. The flowers pollinated by insects, animals or birds
often have brightly colored or patterned flowers that contain fragrance or nectar. While searching
for nectar, pollinators transfer pollen from flower to flower, either on the same plant or on different
plants. Wind-pollinated flowers often lack showy floral parts and nectar because they don't need
to attract pollinators.
They have two forms of pollination: the self-pollination and the cross-pollination. Self-
pollination occurs when the pollen from the anther is deposited on the stigma of the same flower.
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another
flower on a different individual of the same species or the same kind. Cross -pollinated plants are
usually more successful than self-pollinated plants. So, more plants reproduce by cross-
pollination than by self-pollination.
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Slide 7: Double Fertilization

After pollination, fertilization occurs. In this diagram, we can see how fertilization happens
in flowering plants. Once a pollen grain reaches the stigma of a suitable flower, it must develop
and grow through the style to reach the ovary. These pollen grains have two cells: the pollen tube
cell and the generative cell or the male gametes. The pollen tube cell grows int o a pollen tube
that travels through the style until it reaches the ovary. It makes a path for the two male gametes
Prepared by: BALDOMERO, J. N., LAGERA A. J., & ROTAIRO, H. I.
Instructors
Department of Biological Sciences, CAS, CvSU
Source: General Biology: Compendium by Johnny Ching & Concepts of Biology 1st Ed. by Charles Molnar and Jane
Gair.
or two sperm cells leading them all the way to the ovules where the female gamete or egg cells
are present. As they get to the ovaries, the two sperm cells will undergo two different process of
fertilization. One sperm fertilizes or unites with the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote. The other
sperm will go and unite with the two polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that develops into an
endosperm, which is a tissue that provides nourishment to the embryo as it germinates. Together,
these two fertilization events in flowering plants are known as double fertilization. After fertilization
is complete, no other sperm can enter the ovary. The fertilized ovule or zygote will start dividing
into many cells, forming an embryo (which is the future plant) which will develop into a seed. At
the same time, the tissues of the ovary enclose the seeds, which will eventually make the ovary
into a fruit.

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Slide 8: Seed structure and development

The mature ovule develops into the seed. A seed contains all of the genetic information
needed to develop into an entire plant. It is made up of three parts: the seed coat, the endosperm,
and embryo. The seed coat is the hard outer covering that protects the seed from disease and
insects. It also prevents water from entering the seed and from initiating the germination before
the proper time. The endosperm is a built-in food supply, which can be made up of proteins,
carbohydrates or fats. And also, the embryo which is the miniature plant in a dormant or an
inactive state of development. It will begin to grow when conditions are favorable.

The process of seed development begins with double fertilization, where the fusion of
gametes and the fusion of the two polar nuclei and sperm happens at the same time. Right after
fertilization, the zygote will undergo cell divisions forming an embryo. In the same way, the primary
endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food for the
young plant to consume until the roots have developed after germination.

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Slide 9: Fruit structure and development

After fertilization, the ovary of the flower where seeds are located develops into a fruit. The
fruit encloses the seeds and the developing embryo, providing it with protection. In most cases,
flowers in which fertilization has taken place will develop into fruits, while unfertilized flowers will
not. As the fruit matures, the seeds also mature. Take note that the only part of the fruit that
contains genes from both the male and female flowers are the seeds. The rest of the fruit arises
from the maternal plant and is genetically identical to it. The fruit primarily contains two parts: the
pericarp and the seed. The pericarp layer is actually the outer wall of the ovary from which the fruit
developed. The pericarp has three layers: the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp.

The exocarp is the outermost layer of the pericarp that forms the skin. The mesocarp is the
thick, fleshy and juicy middle layer, which is usually edible. Lastly, the innermost layer of the fruit
which encloses the seed/s.

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Prepared by: BALDOMERO, J. N., LAGERA A. J., & ROTAIRO, H. I.

Instructors
Department of Biological Sciences, CAS, CvSU
Source: General Biology: Compendium by Johnny Ching & Concepts of Biology 1st Ed. by Charles Molnar and Jane
Gair.
Slide 10: Fruit types

Fruits are diverse and can be categorized based on the part of the flower they are
developed from. They can be classified as simple, aggregate, or multiple. Simple fruits develop
from a single ovary of a single flower. They include fruits such as tomatoes, lemon, cucumber,
and eggplant. Other types of simple fruits are dry. Their wall is either papery or leathery and hard
compared to the fleshy ones. Examples are peanuts, poppies, maples and walnuts. Accessory
fruit is another type of simple fruit. They have some other flower part united with the ovary.
Examples are apples, pears, and strawberries.

An aggregate fruit develops from a single flower with many ovaries. The flower is a simple
flower with one corolla, one calyx and one stem, but it has many pistils or ovaries. Each ovary is
fertilized separately. Such fruits are raspberries and strawberries. Multiple fruits are derived from
a tight cluster of separate, independent flowers borne on a single structure. Each flower has its
own calyx and corolla. Pineapples and figs are examples.

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Slide 11: Seed dispersal

Aside from protecting seeds, fruits are also responsible for seed dispersal. Seeds
contained within fruits need to be dispersed, so they should find favorable and less competitive
conditions in which to germinate and grow. Some fruits have built-in mechanisms on dispersing
seeds by themselves such as bursting. Examples are violet, jewelweed, and witch-hazel.
However, some fruits require the help of agents like wind, animals, and water.

Wind-dispersed fruits are lightweight and may have wing-like appendages that allowthem
to be carried by the wind. An example of which is the dandelion, maple, and milkweeds. They
have hairy, weightless structures that are suited for dispersal by wind. Another way of dispersing
seeds is through animals. Some fruits develop hooks on their surfaces by which they get attached
to the hairy bodies of moving animals and get carried away to distant places. These fruits may be
carried several kilometers by the animals before they are rubbed off from their body and fall to
the ground. While some animals eat fruits, and the undigested seeds are excreted in their
droppings, which allows seed germination if conditions are favorable. Examples are beggar-ticks,
sandbur, and blackberries.

On the other hand, seeds dispersed by water are contained in light and buoyant fruit,
giving them the ability to float. Coconuts are well known for their ability to float on water to reach
land where they can germinate. Similarly, lotus and cattail produce lightweight fruit that can float
on water. Humans can also play a big role in dispersing seeds when they eat and carry fruits to
new places and throw away the inedible part that contains the seeds.

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Slide 12: Seed germination

Now, let us talk about how seeds grow and become a new plant. The process by which
different plant species grow from a single seed into a plant is called germination. In order for the
seeds to grow, it requires certain influencing factors such as water, oxygen, sunlight, and optimal
temperature. Water helps the seed to swell up so that the embryo can start growing. Sunlight, on
Prepared by: BALDOMERO, J. N., LAGERA A. J., & ROTAIRO, H. I.
Instructors
Department of Biological Sciences, CAS, CvSU
Source: General Biology: Compendium by Johnny Ching & Concepts of Biology 1st Ed. by Charles Molnar and Jane
Gair.
the other hand, speeds up and improve the process of germination. The oxygen releases energy
for the embryo to germinate. And with optimal temperature, each plant requires a certain
temperature to begin growing.

During the primary stage of germination, the seeds take up water rapidly and this results
in swelling and softening of the seed coat at an exact temperature. This stage is referred to as
imbibition. The seed activates and starts to respire and produce proteins. It also uses up the
stored food (which is the endosperm). The radicle or the embryonic root emerges to form a
primary root in order to start absorbing water underground. After the growth of the radicle, the
plumule (embryonic shoot) starts to rise, which makes the shoot or the first true leaves to grow
towards the sunlight. In the final stage of seed germination, the cell of the seeds become
metabolically active, it will start to elongate and divide to give rise to a seedling or a young plant.
Take note that seeds will lie dormant or inactive in their hard seed coats waiting for optimal
conditions.

Plant reproduction is important not only for the plant itself but also for the planet and for
all living things. We live in a world where interaction between organisms and the environment is
necessary to survive. Plants grow and reproduce because of some important reasons: (1) sustain
their population to prevent from becoming extinct, (2) mix genetic materials leading to variation
among species, (3) absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen from their leaves, which humans
and other animals need to breathe, and (4) to provide food for all living things. However, plant
growth and reproduction vary on their habitat. And so, plants need to adapt.

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Slide 13: Plant Adaptations

Plants have adaptations to help them survive, live, and grow in different areas.
Adaptations are special features that allow a plant or animal to live in a particular place or habitat.
These adaptations might make it very difficult for the plant to survive in a different place. This
explains why certain plants are found in one area, but not in another. For example, you wouldn't
probably see a cactus living in the Arctic. Nor would you see lots of really tall trees living in
grasslands.

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Slide 14: Adaptations to Water

Aquatic plants are plants that live in water. Many kinds of aquatic plants have its own
distinct adaptive characteristics. These plants may be either entirely floating or partially
submerged.

The water lily is an example of a floating plant. Floating plants grow on the surface of
the water and are anchored by their roots to bottom of the body of water . Water lilies have
adapted so that chloroplasts are present only on the surface of the leaves that are exposed to
the sun.
Another example is the cattail. It is an example of a partially submerged plant. They
may be found in swamps, and wetlands. Cattails have waxy leaves that protect them from the
water, as well as chloroplasts on both sides to take advantage of the sun when they are
emerged. With regards to reproduction, they have roots called rhizomes which creeps to help

Prepared by: BALDOMERO, J. N., LAGERA A. J., & ROTAIRO, H. I.

Instructors
Department of Biological Sciences, CAS, CvSU
Source: General Biology: Compendium by Johnny Ching & Concepts of Biology 1st Ed. by Charles Molnar and Jane
Gair.
plant spread, and their brown flower which is composed of many seeds. The wind and the
water current spread these seeds easily, allowing cattails to reproduce rapidly.

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Slide 15: Adaptations to Extreme dryness

Plants that live in extremely dry environments have the opposite problem, which is howto
get and keep enough water. Plants that are adapted to very dry environments are
called xerophytes. Their adaptations may help them increase water intake, decrease water loss,
or store water when it is available. The best example for this is the cactus. They have spines in
order to lower the temperature of the cactus surface which reduces water loss. They also have
specialized root system that is shallow and widespread to absorb enough amount of water within
the shortest time. The stems are their main storage organs. Cacti species have different shapes
in order to store and keep water.

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Slide 16: Adaptations to Air

Plants that have no attachment to the ground are called air plants or epiphytes. They
usually grow on the surface of other plants and absorbs nutrients from rain, air, or vapor. Most
epiphytes are ferns or orchids that live in tropical or temperate rainforests. Being elevated above
the ground lets epiphytes adapt to their environment such as: get enough sunlight for
photosynthesis, reduce the risk of being eaten by herbivores, and increase the chance of
pollination by wind.

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Slide 17: Plant response s

When plants have to adapt to their surroundings, they usually respond through hormones
that tell certain cells to do certain things. Plant hormones are chemical substances that control a
plant’s patterns of growth and development. Hormones move through a plant from the place
where they are produced to the place where it will trigger a response. Plant hormones are divided
into several different types based on their functions.
In the same way, plants also respond to environmental factors such as light, moisture,
temperature, and gravity. This is what we call tropisms. Tropisms show how plants respond to
certain environmental stimulus such as light, touch, gravity, and seasonal changes. Each
response demonstrates the ability of plants to respond effectively to their habitat conditions.
Let us discuss more about plant hormones and tropism in the following slides.

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Slide 18: Plant Hormones: Cytokinins and Gibberellins

Cytokinins are plant hormones that are produced in the growing roots and developing
seeds, fruits, roots, and branches. They stimulate cytokinesis, which is the final stage of cell

Prepared by: BALDOMERO, J. N., LAGERA A. J., & ROTAIRO, H. I.

Instructors
Department of Biological Sciences, CAS, CvSU
Source: General Biology: Compendium by Johnny Ching & Concepts of Biology 1st Ed. by Charles Molnar and Jane
Gair.
division. They are also involved in the growth of side branches. This sideways growth is called
lateral growth, which causes roots, seeds, and fruits to grow thicker.

Gibberellins are hormones that increase the size of stems and fruit. They are also
responsible for the large size of many fruits and the rapid upward growth of some flower stalks.
Grape growers often spray their vines with a gibberellin solution, which makes the fruits grow
larger and elongates the stems in the bunches, making room for more grapes.

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Slide 19: Plant Hormones: Ethylene and Auxins

Ethylene is a plant hormone that causes ripening and is naturally produced by fruits. Say
for example, when you put an apple in an airtight container for a day, and it will get soft and start
to look rotten. The apple is being ripened abnormally fast by it s own production of ethylene.
Commercial growers can use ethylene to their advantage. Tomatoes are picked and transported
before they are ripe. Once they reach their destination, they are exposed to ethylene gas, which
makes them turn into a ripe-tomato red. This is called artificial ripening.

Auxins are plant hormones involved in the lengthening of plant cells produced in the apical
meristem, or growing tip of the plant. They stimulate cell elongation. Gardeners can use this
property of auxins to control branching patterns by cutting off the tip of a growing stem. With no
growing tip, there is less auxin in the stem. In the same way, the lengthening of cells triggered by
auxins also control some forms of tropism, the movement of a plant in response to an
environmental stimulus.

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Slide 22: Plant tropism: Phototropism

When light hits a plant stem, it causes auxins to build up on the shaded side. Remember
that in a stem, auxins cause cell elongation. Cell lengthening on the shaded side of a stemcauses
the stem to bend toward the light. This tendency of a plant to grow toward light is called
phototropism. In this picture, it specifically shows that when plants grow towards the light, it is
called positive phototropism while the roots growing away from light is negative phototropism.

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Slide 21: Plant tropism: Gravitropism

When a seed germinates underground, the root grows downward into the soil, and the
shoot grows upward toward the soil surface. This up-and-down growth of a plant is called
gravitropism, because the plant is responding to Earth’s gravitational pull. Auxins play a part in
gravitropism. Root growth is stimulated by low levels of auxin. At the same time, high levels of
auxin stimulate shoot growth, causes the stem to grow upward.

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Slide 22: Plant tropism: Thigmotropism

Prepared by: BALDOMERO, J. N., LAGERA A. J., & ROTAIRO, H. I.
Instructors
Department of Biological Sciences, CAS, CvSU
Source: General Biology: Compendium by Johnny Ching & Concepts of Biology 1st Ed. by Charles Molnar and Jane
Gair.
 Many plants also have a response to touch, called thigmotropism. This quality is apparent
in climbing plants and vines. Tendrils emerge from the leaf base of these plants and grow in coils
around anything they touch. Plants are sensitive to many kinds of touch-like stimuli. An example
are the vines and climbing plants growing around a house or fence are attracted to the feel of the
object. On the other hand, the folding movement of Mimosa pudica or makahiya plant is called
thigmonasty or seismonasty.

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Slide 23: Plant tropism: Photoperiodism

Photoperiodism is another example of tropism where plants take signals from the
changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. It is responsible for the timing of the
seasonal activities such as flowering and growth. Plants can be classed as short-day or long-day
plants, however the critical factor in determining their activity is night length.
Plants that flower when the period of light during the day is short is called short day plants.
These plants will traditionally not flower during the summer months when night lengths are short.
They require the night period to exceed a critical length. Chrysanthemums are an example of a
short-day plant.
On the other hand, the plants that flower when the period of light during the day is long is
called long day plants. These plants will traditionally not flower during the winter and autumn
months when night lengths are long. They require the night period to be less than a critical length.
Carnations are an example of a long-day plant.

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Slide 24: Winter Dormancy

Winter dormancy is a period during which an organism’s growth and activity is decreased
or stopped. As cold weather approaches deciduous plants (plants that shed their leaves) turn off
photosynthetic process, transport materials form leaves to roots, which seal le aves off from the
rest of the plant. Leaf abscission is the shedding off of leaves from deciduous trees. It occurs after
the chlorophyll is no longer able to absorb light. This makes leaves turn yellow, orange, red or
brown.

Slide 24: Last Slide

I hope we learned a thing or two about our green buddies! Truly, the world is full of amazing
organisms and I am not even talking about us humans. Let us all remember that we are part of
the web of life together with other living organisms and that we are not above it. As humans, our
duty is to protect diversity and to maintain the balance of the ecosystem. I hope you enjoyed
listening. Thank you very much!

Prepared by: BALDOMERO, J. N., LAGERA A. J., & ROTAIRO, H. I.

Instructors
Department of Biological Sciences, CAS, CvSU
Source: General Biology: Compendium by Johnny Ching & Concepts of Biology 1st Ed. by Charles Molnar and Jane
Gair.