A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development

Module
In

CRIM 103
Course Code

HUMAN BEHAVIOR
AND
VICTIMOLOGY

College of Criminal Justice Education

Bachelor of Science in Criminology
 2

Module No. 2

MENTAL DISORDERS
AND
VICTIMOLOGY

2nd Semester AY 2021

JERALD JARDIN CENA, R. Crim

Instructor 1
INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This module would provide you an educational experience while

independently accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as well to
ensure that learning is unhampered by health and other challenges. It covers the
topic about Basic Types of Human Behavior, Classification of Human Behavior,
Pillars of Human Development Theories, Factors Affecting Human Behavior,
Abnormal Behavior, and Mental Disorders.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 3

Reminders in using this module:

1. Keep this material neat and intact.

2. Answer the pretest first to measure what you know and what to be learned
about the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and reinforcement for better
understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social media
platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly answering
and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were spent in the
preparation in order that learning will still continue amidst this Covid-19
pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain physical
distancing.

Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU

Mascot.

Welcome to Western Philippines University!

Shape your dreams with quality learning experience.

STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY!

CHAPTER II

Discussions:

Mental Disorders

MENTAL DISORDERS AND CRIMINALITY

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 4

This chapter presents the common disorders that are somehow associated with abnormal
persons. Such abnormalities are: anxiety disorders, delusional disorders, mood disorders,
personality disorders, schizophrenia, sexual disorders, somatoform disorders and
dissociative disorders. Likewise, research studies were presented regarding association of the
disorders to criminality or criminal behavior.

EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to have:

a. understood the types of mental disorders and their sub-types, as well as their effects
to human behavior;

b. contrasted the differences of mental disorders;

c. identified and analyzed how the mental disorders are associated to criminality based
on research findings; and

d. recognized the importance of understanding mental disorders and their connection

to administration criminal justice.

Lesson 1
Mental Disorders

What is Mental Disorder?

A mental disorder is a broad term used to group physical and psychological
symptoms that cause abnormal thoughts and behaviors. Mental disorders are more
commonly referred to as mental illnesses. These illnesses cause abnormal behavior that is
disruptive to a person's life. Mental illnesses may be associated with the brain, but they have
more in common with other bodily illnesses than they do differences.

Causes of Mental Disorder

The most common model used by psychologists to explain’ why mental disorder
occurs is called the biopsychosocial model. The word simply means that biological,
psychological and social factors all contribute to mental disorders.

Two General Kind of Mental Disorder

A. Neurosis

What is Neurosis?
Neurosis is a class of functional mental disorder involving distress but neither
delusions nor hallucinations, whereby behavior is not outside socially accepted norms.

Neurosis is also known as psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder, and thus those

suffering from it are said to be neurotic. It involves impaired social, intellectual and/or
vocational functioning without disorganization of personality or loss of contact with reality.
The kinds or symptoms are:

1. Anxiety Reaction. Anxiety reaction has diffused fearfulness, tension, and restlessness
with sometimes snowball into episodes of panic.

2. Dissociative Reaction. Dissociative reaction is a massive repression or dissociation of

certain aspect of experience or memory varying in intensity from sleepwalking to amnesias
and multiple personality disturbances.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 5

3. Conversion Reaction. Conversion reaction illustrates symbolic resolution of conflict

that imitates the effects of physical illnesses like paralysis, blindness, anesthesia, etc.

4. Phobic Reaction. Phobic reaction refers to intense, irrational fear of specific objects or
events that may have a symbolic significance on the afflicted individual.

5. Obsessive-Compulsive Reaction. Obsessive-compulsive reaction has, repetitive,

irrational thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions) which usually involve some
symbolic effort at conflict resolution.

6. Depressive Reaction. Depressive reaction refers to depression, usually accompanied by

guilt, feelings of inferiority, and anxiety.

B. Psychosis

What is Psychosis?
Psychosis came from the word psyche, for mind/soul, and osis, for abnormal
condition. It means abnormal condition of the mind, and is a generic psychiatric term for a
mental state often described as involving a "loss of contact with reality." People suffering
from psychosis are said to be psychotic. Disorganization of personality marked by impaired
vocational and social functioning and intellectual deterioration. It has the following
characteristics: disorientation of time, place and/or person: delusion (false beliefs);
hallucination (false perception); bizarre behavior, inappropriate emotional responses;
distortion of thinking, association, and judgment. The kinds and symptoms are:

1. Involution Reaction. Involution reaction demonstrates severe depression during

the involution period without previous history of psychosis.

2. Affective Reaction. There is a presence of inappropriately exaggerated mood and

marked change in activity level with associated thought disorder.

3. Manic-Depressive Reaction. Manic-depressive reaction shows cyclical

disturbances involving various combinations of/or alternation between excitement
and delusional optimism on the one hand and immobilizing, delusional depression
on the other.

4. Schizophrenic Reaction. Schizophrenic reactions are bizarre behavior;

disturbances of thought and reality testing; emotional withdrawal; and varying levels
of psychotic thinking and behavior.

Comparison between Neurosis and Psychosis

Neurosis Psychosis

1. Is associated with anxiety and Is associated with hallucinations

phobia. and delusions.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 6

2. Corresponding mental disorders Corresponding mental disorders

include anxiety disorders, eating include schizophrenia, manic
disorders (anorexia nervosa and depressive disorder, dissociative
bulimia), phobias, depression, identity disorder.
obsessive compulsive personality
disorder.
3. Neurotic people are more in Can lead to lost contact with
touch with reality. reality.

4. Is rarely connected with organic Can be caused by organic

changes inside the brain. problems with the brain.

Note. The kinds of neurosis and psychosis is broadly presented in the succeeding
Lessons.

Anxiety Disorder

Anxiety is a psychological disorder that involves excessive levels of negative

emotions, such as nervousness, tension, worry, fright, and anxiety. It is a generalized
feeling of apprehension, fear, or tension that may be associated with a particular
object or situation or may be free-floating, not associated with anything specific.
Anxiety can cause such distress that it interferes with a person's ability to lead a
normal life.

What is the difference between Anxiety and Fear?

Anxiety is defined as an unpleasant emotional state for which the cause is
either not readily identified or perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable,
whereas, fear is an emotional and physiological response to a recognized external
threat or a response to a real danger or threat.

What are the symptoms of an Anxiety Disorder?

Symptoms vary depending on the type of anxiety disorder, but general
symptoms include:

1. feelings of panic, fear, and uneasiness,

2. uncontrollable, obsessive thoughts,
3. repeated thoughts or flashbacks of traumatic experiences,
4. nightmares,
5. ritualistic behaviors, such as repeated hand washing,
6. cold or sweaty hands and/or feet,
7. shortness of breath,
8. numbness or tingling in the hands or feet,
9. nausea,
10. muscle tension,
11. dizziness, and the like.

Types of Anxiety Disorder

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder. This disorder involves excessive, unrealistic

worry and tension, even if there is little or nothing to provoke the anxiety.
Accordingly, symptoms include restlessness or feeling keyed up, difficulty
concentrating, irritability, muscle tension and jitteriness, deep disturbance, and
unwanted, intrusive worries.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 7

2. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). People with OCD are plagued by

constant thoughts or fears that cause them to perform certain rituals or routines.
The disturbing thoughts are called obsessions — are anxiety provoking thoughts
that will not go away (ex.: one may have repetitive thoughts of killing a child, of
becoming contaminated by a handshake, or of having unknowingly hurt someone
in a traffic accident; and the rituals are called compulsions — are irresistible
urges to engage in behaviors (ex.: a person with an unreasonable fear of germs
who constantly washes his or her hands, compulsive counting, touching, and
checking).

3. Panic Disorder. This disorder keeps recurring attacks to a person of intense

fear or panic, often with feelings of impending doom of death. People with this
condition have feelings of terror that strike suddenly and repeatedly with no
warning. Other symptoms of a panic attack include sweating, chest pain,
palpitations (irregular heartbeats), and a feeling of choking, which may make the
person feel like he or she is having a heart attack or "going crazy."

4. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PTSD is a condition that can

develop following a traumatic and/or terrifying event, such as sexual or physical
assault, the unexpected death of a loved one, or natural disaster. People with
PTSD often have lasting and frightening thoughts memories of the event, and
tend to be emotionally numb.

5. Specific Phobias. It exhibits intense fear of a specific object or situation, such

as snakes, heights, or flying. Phobia is an exaggerate is an exaggerated,
unrealistic fear of a specific situation, activity, or object. The level of fear usually
is inappropriate to the situation and may cause the person to a avoid common
everyday situations.

Kinds of Specific Phobias

1. Arachnophobia The fear of spiders.

2. Ophidiophobia The fear of snakes.
3. Acrophobia The fear of heights.
4. Agoraphobia The fear of open or crowded spaces.
5. Cynophobia The fear of dogs.
6. Astraphobia The fear of thunder/lightning.
7. Claustrophobia The fear of enclosed spaces.
8. Mysophobia The fear of germs.
9. Aerophobia The fear of flying.
10. Trypophobia The fear of holes.
11. Carcinophobia The fear of cancer.
12. Thanatophobia The fear of death.
13. Glossophobia The fear of public speaking.
14. Monophobia The fear of being alone.
15. Atychiphobia The fear of failure.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 8

16. Ornithophobia The fear of birds.

17. Alektorophobia The fear of chickens.
18. Enochlophobia The fear of crowds.
19. Aphenphosmphobia The fear of intimacy.
20. Trypanophobia The fear of needles.
21. Anthropophobia The fear of people.
22. Aquaphobia The fear of water.
23. Autophobia The fear of abandonment.
24. Hemophobia The fear of blood.
25. Gamophobia The fear of commitment/marriage.
26. Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia The fear of long words.
27. Xenophobia The fear of the unknown.
28. Vehophobia The fear of driving.
29. Basiphobia The fear of falling.
30. Theophobia The fear of God.
31. Ailurophobia The fear of cats.
32. Metathesiophobia The fear of change.
33. Globophobia The fear of balloons.
34. Nyctophobia The fear of darkness.
35. Androphobia The fear of men.
36. Phobophobia The fear of fear.
37. Philophobia The fear of love.
38. Triskaidekaphobia The fear of number 13/bad luck.
39. Gephyrophobia The fear of bridges.
40. Entomophobia The fear of bugs and insects.
41. Lepidopterophobia The fear of winged insects.
42. Podophobia The fear of feet.
43. Paraskevidekatriaphobia The fear of Friday the 13th.
44. Gynophobia The fear of women.
45. Apiphobia The fear of bees.
46. Anatidaephobia The fear of ducks.
47. Pyrophobia The fear of fire.
48. Katsaridaphobia The fear of cockroaches.
49. Iatrophobia The fear of doctors.
50. Pediophobia The fear of dolls.
51. Zoophobia The fear of animals.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 9

52. Scelerophobia The fear of crime.

53. Cibophobia The fear of food.
54. Phasmophobia The fear of ghost.
55. Equinophobia The fear of horses.
56. Musophobia The fear of mice.
57. Catoptrophobia The fear of mirrors.
58. Agliophobia The fear of pain.
59. Tokophobia The fear of pregnancy.
60. Telephonophobia The fear of talking on the phone.
61. Cacomorphobia The fear of fat people.
62. Gerascophobia The fear of getting old.
63. Nosocomephobia The fear of hospitals.
64. Ligyrophobia The fear of loud noises.
65. Didaskaleinophobia The fear of school.
66. Technophobia The fear of technology.
67. Chronophobia The fear of the future.
68. Ergophobia The fear of work.
69. Coulrophobia The fear of clowns.
70. Samhainophobia The fear of Halloween.
71. Photophobia The fear of light.
72. Numerophobia The fear of numbers.
73. Ombrophobia The fear of rain.
74. Coasterphobia The fear of roller coaster.
75. Thalassophobia The fear of the ocean.
76. Coleciphobia The fear of worms.
77. Kinemortophobia The fear of zombies.
78. Myrmecophobia The fear of ants.
79. Erotophobia The fear of sex or sexual intimacy.
80. Taphophobia The fear of being buried alive.

6. Social Anxiety Disorder. This is also called social phobia. It involves

overwhelming worry and self-consciousness about everyday social situations. The
worry often centers on a fear of being judged by others, or behaving in a way that
might cause embarrassment or lead to ridicule.

Three Types of Anxiety According to Freud

1. Reality Anxiety. It refers to fear of real dangers in the external world.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 10

2. Neurotic Anxiety. It refers to fear that instincts will get out of control and cause
the person to do something for which he or she will be punished.

3. Moral Anxiety. It refers to fear of the conscience. People with well-developed

superegos tend to feel guilty when they do something that is contrary to the moral
code by which they have been raised.

Anxiety Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings.

Among offenders with Anti-social Personality Disorder (APD), the presence of

anxiety disorders may increase behavior problems and limit participation in offender
rehabilitation programs and work training. People with APD and anxiety disorders
have high rates of help-seeking behavior. An untreated anxiety disorder may also
increase the risk of substance misuse, which, in turn, increases the risk of repeat
offending.

Delusional Disorder: False Belief

Delusional disorder is sometimes referred to as paranoia; delusions are

false, sometimes even preposterous, beliefs that are not part, of the person’s culture.
One might think he is Jesus Christ; another Napoleon.
The concept delusional disorder was derived from the Greek word paranous
(paranoia). Para means besides, while nous means mind, or in other words it
refers to a mind besides itself. The term paranoia was previously used to describe
a number of observable phenomena including delirium associated with fever,
delusional jealousy and being overly suspicious.

Seven Types of Delusional Disorder

1. Persecutory Type (Delusion of Persecution). The central theme of this

delusion is that the individual is being conspired against, spied on, followed,
poisoned, cheated, harassed or obstructed. Individuals who hold these beliefs are
either suspicious generally, or may be suspicious of one or more persons. These
individuals may often show anger, resentment and violence, and therefore the
persecutory type is commonly associated with violent criminal conduct. Individuals
suffering from such delusions could also hold the belief that there is some injustice
that needs to be remedied by legal action.

2. Jealous Type. The central theme of this delusion is that the individual’s spouse
or lover is being unfaithful. The individual’s belief is confirmed by drawing incorrect
inferences from “evidence” he or she has gathered to support the belief. For example,
stains on bed sheets or ruffled clothing may be used as supporting “evidence”. The
individual may confront his or her spouse or lover with the evidence, restrict the
spouse’s autonomy, follow the spouse or lover to investigate the belief, or even attack
the spouse or lover.

3. Erotomanic Type. The central theme of this delusional is that another person is
in love with the individual. The other person is usually of a high status such as a
famous person or a sports hero, or could be a complete stranger. The delusion is that
the other person and the deluded person have a romantic and spiritual relationship,
rather than a sexual relationship. The individual may try to contact the object of the
delusion by telephone, sending letters, stalking or gifts. Individuals suffering from
this delusional, especially males, may experience some form of confrontation with the
law during their efforts to “rescue” the objects of their delusions from some sort of
“danger.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 11

4. Grandiose Type (Delusion of Grandeur). The central theme of this delusion

is that the individual believes he or she has an extraordinary talent or has made an
important discovery. The individual may also believe that he or she has a special
relationship with a prominent person such as being the adviser to the president, or
that he or she is the prominent person. In this case the actual person is considered
the impostor. In some cases, individuals suffering from grandiose delusions may
believe that they are the Savior.

5. Somatic Type. This delusion is centered on bodily functions or sensations. In

some cases, the individuals may believe that they omit a foul odor from their skin,
mouth or rectum. Sometimes it is believed that there are internal parasites in the
body, or that a certain part of the body is ugly or not functioning properly. Self-
mutilation can take place to free the body from the parasites.

6. Mixed Type. In this subtype, no delusional theme is predominant. There could

be a combination of delusional themes, for example, having delusions of love as well
as delusions of jealousy. Guenter Parche, a 38-yearold man, stabbed the tennis star
Monica Seles with a serrated steak knife with a five-inch blade, not because he hated
her enough to kill her but rather because he was a fan of the number two-ranked
Steffi Graf. He was obsessed and jealous to such a degree that he wanted to put the
number one-ranked Seles out of action. By stabbing Seles, he paid heed to his
delusion of love and jealousy.

7. Unspecified Type. Where a dominant delusional belief cannot be clearly

determined or does not fall within the description of the other subtypes, it is
classified as an unspecified type of delusional disorder. For example, this would be
where an individual has delusions of reference but there is no predominant
persecutory component. In this case the person believes that others actions, or
specific occurrences, refer to him or her. Such a person may believe that a group of
friends who are innocently talking to each other about sports may be referring to him
or her. The person with the delusion of reference may feel threatened and it is
possible that he or she may react on the basis of the unsubstantiated belief. Although
the person is out of hearing range and cannot follow the conversation, there might be
an attack if he or she is convinced that they are mocking him or her. |

Types of Delusional Disorders not Included in the DSM-IV-TR

DSM-IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition,

text revision)

1. Delusions of Control. The central theme of this delusion is that a person believe
that he is under control. The individual may believe that his or her thoughts are being
controlled or influenced from outside him or her. These delusions are often
accompanied by delusions of description of how the individual’s thoughts are being
controlled by means of, for example, electronic devices, computers or telepathy.

2. Delusions of Reference. The predominant delusional theme is the false belief

that others are talking about one. It could also refer to instances where an individual
falsely believes that the behavior of others refers to him or her. A person acting
under this type could be considered dangerous, for example if the individual tries to
“defend” himself or herself against another individual who he or she believes is
referring to them. In this case, the deluded individual will not be acting in self-
defense but would be committing a crime.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 12

3. Delusions of Self-accusation or Delusion of Guilt. This delusion is

associated with intense feelings of guilt and remorse, and could be regarded as the
extreme opposite of the grandiose delusion, where the individual replaces feelings of
saving the world with the delusional belief that the world is coming to an end. The
depressed individual could feel that the salvation of the world depends on his or her
own death, and may mutilate himself or herself or have suicidal tendencies.

Causes Delusional Disorder

1. Genetic. The fact that delusional disorder is more common in people who have
family members with delusional disorder or schizophrenia suggests there might be a
genetic factor involved. It is believed that, as with other mental disorders, a tendency
to develop delusional disorder might be passed on from parents to their children.

2. Biological. Researchers are studying how abnormalities of certain areas of the

brain might be involved in the development of delusional disorders. Abnormalities in
the functioning of brain regions that control perception and thinking may be linked
to the formation of delusional symptoms.

3. Environmental/Psychological. Evidence suggests that delusional disorder can

be triggered by stress. Also, alcohol and drug abuse contribute to the condition.
Isolated people, such as immigrants or those with poor sight and hearing, are more
vulnerable to developing delusional disorder.

Delusion and Criminality: Research Findings

Delusional disorders may be uncommon but they are a reality. Those suffering
from delusional disorders may seem harmless or eccentric until they commit a crime.
Criminal behavior is sometimes motivated by delusional thinking. For
example, individuals with persecutory delusions may act violently in pre-emptive
(perceived) self-defense. Those with erotomanic delusions may stalk the object of
their delusional affection, and those with jealous delusions may seek retribution for
perceived infidelity. Mental illness is observed more often in prison than would be
expected in a general community sample.

Mood Disorder

Mood disorder is characterized by extreme and unwanted disturbances in

feeling or mood. It refers to major disturbances in one’s condition or emotion, such
as depression and mania. It is otherwise known as affective disorder.

Types of Mood Disorder

1. Bipolar Disorder. It is formerly known as manic-depression; there are

swings in mood from elation (extreme happiness) to depression (extreme sadness)
with no discernable external cause.

Two Phases of Bipolar

a. Manic Phase. During this phase, the patient may show excessive, unwarranted
excitement or silliness, carrying jokes too far. They may also show poor judgment and
recklessness and may be argumentative. Manic may speak rapidly, have unrealistic

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 13

ideas, and jump from subject to subject. They may not be able to sleep or sit still for
very long.

b. Depressive Episode. The other side of the bipolar coin is the depressive
episode. Bipolar depressed patients often sleep more than usual and are lethargic.
During bipolar depressive episodes, a patient may also show irritability and
withdrawal.

Accordingly, the depressed person speaks slowly and monotonously while the
manic person speaks rapidly, dramatically, often with many jokes and puns. The
depressed person has low self-esteem while the manic person has inflated self-
esteem.

2. Depressive Disorder. Depressive disorder is when the person experiences

extended, unexplainable periods of sadness.

Three Kinds of Depressive Disorder

a. Major Depressive Disorder. A person with this depression is in a depressed

mood for most of the day, nearly every day or has lost interest or pleasure in all, or
almost all, activities, for a period of at least two weeks.

b. Single Episode. Single episode depression is like major depression only it strikes
in one dramatic episode.

c. Recurrent. Recurrent depression is an extended pattern of depressed episodes

which include any of the features of major depressive disorder.

Mood Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings

Arrest and incarceration are potential complications of bipolar disorder,

which has a higher prevalence among incarcerated individuals than in the
community. Early onset of bipolar disorder is associated with juvenile antisocial
behavior and greater likelihood of arrest. Individuals with bipolar disorder who had
been arrested had more hospitalizations than those who had not and were more likely
to be experiencing manic symptoms.
Bipolar disorder is associated with a heightened risk of suicide compared with
the general population. A 15-fold increased risk of suicide in men and a 20-fold
increased risk in women. Similarly, in a single year approximately 0.017% of the
international population died by suicide, whereas for people with bipolar disorder it
was as high as 0.4%. More controversially, bipolar disorder has been linked with
aggressive and criminal behaviors such as robbery and assault, especially during
manic episodes. A systematic review found that people with bipolar disorder were
more likely to have committed a violent crime than the general population.

Activity

(Your activity will be sent to you in separate file, wait for the
instructions of your instructor.)

Lesson 2.

Personality Disorder

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 14

Personality disorders are chronic maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns

that are thoroughly integrated into the individual’s personality and that are
troublesome to others or whose pleasure sources are either harmful or illegal.

Types and Categories of Personality Disorder

Cluster A: Odd or Eccentric Behaviors

1. Schizoid Personality Disorder (SPD). Those with SPD may be perceived by

others as somber, aloof and often are referred to as loners.

Manifestations:

a. Social isolation and a lack of desire for close personal relationships.

b. Prefers to be alone and seem withdrawn and emotionally detached.
c. Seem indifferent to praise or criticism from other people.

2. Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD). Although they are prone to unjustified

angry or aggressive outbursts when they perceive others as disloyal or deceitful, those
with PPD more often come across as emotionally “cold” or excessively serious.

Manifestations:

a. They feel constant suspicion and distrust toward other people.

b. They believe that others are against them and constantly look for evidence to
support their suspicions.
c. They are hostile toward others and react angrily to perceived insults.

3. Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD). This disorder is characterized both by

a need for isolation as well as odd, outlandish, or paranoid beliefs. Some researchers
suggest this disorder is less severe than schizophrenia.

Manifestations:

a. They engage in odd thinking, speech, and behavior.

b. They may ramble or use words and phrases in unusual ways.
c. They may believe they have magical control over others.
d. They feel very uncomfortable with close personal relationships and tend to be
suspicion of others.

Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Behaviors

1. Antisocial Personality Disorder (APB). APD is characterized by lack of

empathy or conscience, a difficulty controlling impulses and manipulative behaviors.
Antisocial behavior in people less than 18 years old is called conduct disorder.

Manifestations:

a. Act in a way that disregards the feelings and rights of other people.
b. Anti-social personalities often break the law.
c. Use or exploit other people for their own gain.
d. They may lie repeatedly, act impulsively, and get into physical fights.
e. They may mistreat their spouse, neglect or abuse their children and exploit their
employees.
f. They may even kill other people.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 15

g. People with this, disorder are also sometimes called sociopaths or

psychopaths.

People with this disorder are at high risk for premature and violent death, injury,
imprisonment, loss of employment, bankruptcy, alcoholism, drug dependence, and failed
personal relationships.

2. Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). This mental illness interferes with an

individual’s ability to regulate emotion. Borderlines are highly sensitive to rejection,
and fear of abandonment may result in frantic efforts to avoid being left alone, such
as suicide threats and attempts.

Manifestations:

a. They have intense emotional instability, mostly in relationship with others.

b. They make frantic efforts to avoid real/imagined abandonment by others.
c. They may experience minor problems as major crises.
d. They express their anger, frustration, and dismay through suicidal gestures, self-
mutilation, and other self-destructive acts.
e. They tend to have an unstable self-image or sense of self.

Borderline personalities are at high risk for developing depression, alcoholism, drug
dependence, and bulimia; dissociate disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder.
Furthermore, 10 percent of people with this disorder commit suicide by the age of 30.

3. Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD). NPD is characterized primarily by

grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy. Narcissistic tend to be
extremely self-absorbed, intolerant of others’ perspectives, insensitive to others’
needs and indifferent to the effect of their own egocentric behavior.

Manifestations:

a. They have a grandiose sense of self-importance.

b. They seek excessive admiration from others and fantasize about unlimited success or
power.
c. They believe they are special, unique, or superior to others. However, they often have
very fragile self-esteem.

4. Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD). Individuals with this personality

disorder exhibit a pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and attempt to get
attention in unusual ways, such as bizarre appearance or speech.

Manifestations:

a. They strive to be the center of attention.

b. They act overly flirtatious or dress in ways that draw attention.
c. They may also talk in dramatic or theatrical style and display exaggerated emotional
reactions.

Cluster C: Anxious, Fearful Behaviors

1. Avoidant Personality Disorder (APD). Those with avoidant personalities are

often hypersensitive to rejection and unwilling to take social risks. Avoidant displays
a high level of social discomfort, timidity, fear of criticism, avoidance of activities that
involve interpersonal contact.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 16

Manifestations:

a. They possess intense, anxious shyness.

b. They are reluctant to interact with others unless they feel certain of being liked.
c. They fear of being criticized and rejected.
d. They often view themselves as socially inept and inferior to others.

2. Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD). People with this disorder typically

exhibits a pattern of needy and submissive behavior, and rely on others to make
decisions for them.

Manifestations:

a. They have severe and disabling emotional dependency on others.

b. They have difficulty in making decisions without a great deal of advice and
reassurance from others.
c. They urgently seek out another relationship when a close relationship ends.
d. They feel uncomfortable by themselves.

3. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD). It is also called as

Anankastic Personality Disorder. Persons with OCPD are so focused on order
and perfection that their lack of flexibility interferes with productivity and efficiency.
They can also be workaholics, preferring the control of working alone, as they are
afraid that work completed by others will not be done correctly.

Manifestations:

a. They have a preoccupation with details, orderliness, perfection, and control.

b. They devote excessive amounts of time to work and productivity and fail to take
time for leisure activities and friendships.
c. They tend to be rigid, formal, stubborn, and serious.

This disorder differs from obsessive-compulsive disorder, which often

includes more bizarre behavior and rituals.

Somatoform Disorder

Somatoform disorder is a mental disorder characterized by physical

symptoms that mimic physical disease or injury for which there is no identifiable
physical cause. The symptoms that result from a somatoform disorder are due to
mental factors.
People who have this disorder may undergo several medical evaluations and
tests to be sure that they do not have an illness related to a physical cause or central
lesion. Patients with this disorder often become very worried about their health
because the doctors are unable to find a cause for their health problems.

Six Major Types of Somatoform Disorder

1. Conversion Disorder (Hysteria). This is a condition where a patient displays

neurological symptoms such as numbness, paralysis, or fits, even though no
neurological explanation is found and it is determined that the symptoms are due to
the patient’s psychological response to stress. Symptoms are grouped as follows:

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 17

a. Sensory Symptoms. These include anesthesia, excessive sensitivity to

strong stimulation (hyper anesthesia), loss of sense of pain (analgesia), and
unusual symptoms such as tingling or crawling sensations.

b. Motor Symptoms. Any of the body's muscle groups may be involved: arms,
legs, vocal cords. Included are tremors, tics (involuntary twitches), and
disorganized mobility or paralysis.

c. Visceral Symptoms. Examples includes trouble swallowing, frequent

belching, spells of coughing or vomiting, all carried to an uncommon extreme.
In both sensory and motor symptoms, the areas affected may not correspond
at all to the nerve distribution in the area.

2. Hypochondriasis. It refers to condition in which persons are preoccupied with

their health and are convinced that they have some serious disorder despite
reassurance from doctors to the contrary.

3. Somatization Disorder. Also called as briquet’s disorder or, in antiquity,

hysteria is a psychiatric diagnosis applied to patients who chronically and
persistently complain of varied physical symptoms that have no identifiable physical
origin.

4. Pain Disorder. It occurs when a patient experiences chronic pain in one or more
areas, and is thought to be caused by psychological stress. The pain is often so severe
that it disables the patient from proper functioning. It can last as short as a few days,
to as long as many years.

5. Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD). It is previously known as

dysmorphophobia and sometimes referred to as body dysmorphia or
dysmorphic syndrome. It occurs when the affected person is excessively
concerned about and preoccupied by a perceived defect in his or her physical features
(body image).

6. Undifferentiated Somatoform Disorder. In this kind, only one unexplained

symptom is required for at least 6 months. Included among these disorders are false
pregnancy, psychogenic urinary retention, and mass psychogenic illness (so-called
mass hysteria).

Difference between Factitious Disorder and Malingering

Factitious disorder is the term used to describe a pattern of behavior centered

on the exaggeration or outright falsifications of one’s own health problems or the
health problems of others. Some people with this disorder fake or exaggerates
physical problems; others fake or exaggerate psychological problems or a
combination of physical and psychological problems. Factitious disorder differs from
a pattern of falsified of exaggerated behavior called malingering. While malingerers
make their claims out of a motivation for personal gain, people with factitious
disorder have no such motivation.

Malingering is not a form of mental illness. However, people who adopt

malingering behaviors often have a diagnosable mental illness called antisocial
personality disorder. Individuals with this disorder have a longstanding pattern of
involvement in activities that purposefully exploit or manipulate others, or blatantly
disregard the legal rights of others. Malingerers also frequently exhibit signs of
another personality-related condition, called histrionic personality disorder.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 18

Individuals with this condition habitually and reflexively use excessive displays of
drama and emotion to gain attention from others.

Factitious disorder and malingering can both potentially bear a strong

resemblance to a mental disorder called conversion disorder, which also belongs
to the somatic symptom and related disorders category.

Dissociative Disorder

Dissociative disorder refers to one which loses the integration of

consciousness, identity, and memories of important personal events. This includes
four recognized varieties:
1. Psychogenic Amnesia. Also known as dissociative amnesia, it refers to the
temporary or permanent loss of a part or all of the memory caused by extreme
psychosocial stress. This stress is most often associated with catastrophic events. The
four sub-categories of psychogenic amnesia, are:

a. Localized Amnesia. It renders the afflicted person unable to recall the details
of a usually traumatic event, such as a violent incestuous rape. This is undoubtedly
the most common type of amnesia.

b. Selective Amnesia. This is similar to localized amnesia except that the memory
retained is very selective. A person can recall certain general traumatic situations,
but not the specific parts which make it so.

c. Generalized and Continuous Amnesia. This exists when a person either

forgets the details of his/her entire lifetime, or cannot recall the details prior to a
certain point in time, including the present.

2. Psychogenic Fugue. It is also known as dissociative fugue. It is simply the

addition to generalized amnesia of a flight from family, problem, or location. The
person may create an entirely new life fugue means flight.

3. Multiple Personality Disorder. Also known as dissociative identity

disorder (DID), it refers to the occurrence of two or more personalities within the
same individual, each of which during sometime in the person's life is able to take
control. It is mentally unhealthy when the personalities vie for control.

4. Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder. This is the continued presence

of feelings that the person is not himself/herself or that he/she cannot control
his/her own actions. This is labeled as disorder when it is recurrent and impairs
social and occupational function.

Impulse Control Disorder

Impulse control disorders (ICDs) are common psychiatric conditions in which

affected individuals typically report significant impairment in social and occupational
functioning, and may incur legal and financial difficulties as well. A simple definition
of an ICD is one where the individual cannot resist an impulse to behave in a certain
way or cannot stop repeated behavior, even when they know that the behavior must
stop.

Types of Impulse Control Disorders

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 19

1. Intermittent Explosive Disorder. It refers to person’s irresistible outburst of

anger or extreme temper tantrums.

2. Kleptomania. It refers to the urge of an individual to steal small items that

usually have very little value.

3. Pathological Gambling. It refers to person’s inability to stop gambling.

4. Trichotillomania. It is an impulse to twirl and pull hair or an urge to eat hair

that leads to hair loss.

5. Unspecified Impulse Control Disorder. It occurs when someone has

symptoms from various impulse-control disorders, but it is not able to be singled
down to one.

6. Compulsive Sexual Behavior. It refers to an excessive or uncontrolled sexual

behavior or thoughts that leads to marked distress and social, occupational, legal,
and/or financial consequences.

7. Pyromania. It is characterized by the following diagnostic criteria: deliberate and

purposeful fire setting on more than one occasion, tension or affective arousal before
the act, fascination with, interest in, curiosity about, or attraction to fire and its
situational contexts, and pleasure, gratification, or relief when setting fires or when
either witnessing or participating in their aftermath.

These disorders are characterized by difficulties in resisting urges to engage in

behaviors that are excessive and/or ultimately harmful to oneself or others.

Impulse Control Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings

Pathological gambling is associated with impaired functioning; reduced

quality of life; and high rates of bankruptcy, divorce, and incarceration. Financial and
marital: problems are common. Many pathological gamblers engage in illegal
behavior, such as stealing, embezzlement, and writing bad checks to fund their
gambling or to attempt to fix past gambling losses. Suicide attempts have been
reported in 17% of individuals in treatment for pathological gambling.

Although kleptomania typically has its onset in late adolescence or early

adulthood, the disorder has been reported in children as young as 4 years old and in
adults as old as 77 years. Intense guilt and shame are commonly reported by those
with kleptomania. Stolen items are typically hoarded, given away, returned to the
store, or thrown away. Many individuals with kleptomania (64% to 87%) have been
apprehended at some time as a result of their stealing behavior

Sleep Disorder

A sleep disorder is a condition that frequently impacts person’s ability to get

enough quality sleep. While it’s normal to occasionally experience difficulties
sleeping, it’s not normal to regularly have problems getting to sleep at night, to wake
up feeling exhausted, or to feel sleepy during the day. Symptoms can differ depending
on the severity and type of sleeping disorder. They may also vary when sleep
disorders are a result of another condition. However, general symptoms of sleep
disorders include:

a. difficulty falling or staying asleep,

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 20

b. daytime fatigue,
c. strong urge to take naps during the day,
d. irritability or anxiety,
e. lack of concentration, and
f. depressions.

Types of Sleep Disorder

1. Insomnia. It refers to the inability to fall asleep or to remain asleep. It can be

caused by jet lag, stress and anxiety, hormones, or digestive problems. It may also
be a symptom of another condition. Insomnia can be very problematic for one’s
overall health and quality of life, potentially causing:

a. depression,
b. difficulty concentrating,
c. irritability,
d. weight gain, and
e. impaired work or school performance.

Three Types Insomnia

a. Chronic. It is an insomnia occurs on a regular basis for at least one

month.

b. Intermittent. It is an insomnia that occurs periodically.

c. Transient. It is an insomnia that lasts for just a few nights at a time.

2. Sleep Apnea. It is characterized by pauses in breathing during sleep. This is a

serious medical condition that causes the body to take in less oxygen.

3. Parasomnia(s). It refers to sleep disorders that cause abnormal movements

and behaviors during sleep. It includes:

a. sleepwalking (somnambulism or noctambulism),

b. sleep talking (somniloquy),
c. groaning,
d. nightmares,
e. bedwetting, and
f. teeth grinding or jaw clenching.

4. Restless Leg Syndrome (RLS). It is an overwhelming need to move the legs.

This urge is sometimes accompanied by a tingling sensation in the legs. RLS is often
associated with certain health conditions, including Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Parkinson’s disease.

5. Narcolepsy. It is characterized by “sleep attacks” that occur during the day. This
means that one will suddenly feel extremely tired and fall asleep without warning.
The disorder can also cause sleep paralysis, which may make a person physically
unable to move right after waking up.

6. Rapid Eye Movement (REM). It is a sleep behavior disorder in which a person

physically acts out vivid, often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden,
often violent arm and leg movements during REM sleep. It is sometimes called as
Dream-enacting Behavior.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 21

Sleep Recommendations:

Age Hours of Sleep

Infant (4-11 months) 12-15 hours
Toddler (1-2 years old) 11-14 hours
Preschooler (3-5 years old) 10-13 hours
School-aged child (6-13 years old) 9-11 hours
Teen (14-17 years old) 8-10 hours
Young adult (18-25 years old) 7-9 hours
Adult (26-64 years old) 7-9 hours
Older adult (65+ years old) 7-8 hours

Sleep Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings

The question of whether sleep apnea can lead to homicide was recently raised
during a criminal trial when a man claimed that he fatally shot his wife during his
sleep as a result of his sleep apnea. While injurious behavior occurring during sleep is
well recognized, accidental homicide related to a sleep disorder is considered rare.
The most common sleep disorders that have been associated with sleep-related
injurious behavior include sleepwalking, REM sleep behavior disorder, and
confusional arousals. In contrast there is little information regarding the relationship
between sleep apnea and sleep-related violence.
Sleepwalking, confusional arousals and sleep terrors - Disorders of. Arousal
have been reported to be associated with violent behaviors against other individuals
for hundreds of years. Murders, attempted murders, assaults and sexual assaults
have been reported to occur during these disorders and have occasionally resulted in
criminal charges. Some defendants using sleepwalking defenses have been acquitted,
as sleepwalkers are not thought to have the required conscious awareness or criminal
intent to be judged guilty. The violent act itself is most often described as the release
of a primitive form of rage over which the sleepwalker has no control.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a group of disorders characterized by loss of contact with

reality, marked disturbances of thought and perception, and bizarre behavior. At
some phase delusions or hallucinations almost always occur.
Emil Kraepelin first identified the illness in 1896 when he distinguished it
from the mood disorders. He called it dementia praecox, which means a
premature deterioration of the brain. Emil's thoughts were later disputed by many
psychiatrists. One of these was Eugene Bleuler, an eminent Swiss psychiatrist,
who in 1911 gave the term schizophrenia. He developed the word by combining two
Greek words schizein meaning to split and phren meaning mind. This
emphasized a splitting apart of the patient's affective and cognitive functioning,
which are heavily affected by the disease. Also, schizophrenia came from the New
Latin words schizo, meaning split, and phrenia, meaning mind.

Categories of Schizophrenic Hallucination

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 22

1. Tactile (touch). People with Schizophrenia often have the sensation that there
are things (like bugs or insects) crawling across their skin.

2. Visual (sight). This kind of hallucination causes the person to see things that are
not really there.

3. Auditory (hearing). This is the most common type of hallucination. People with
auditory hallucinations hear voices and sounds that others cannot hear.

4. Olfactory (smell). The person experiencing an olfactory hallucination smells

thing (usually foul-smelling things) that others do not smell.

5. Command (hearing). It occurs when a voice commands the person to do

something, he/she would not ordinarily do.

Characteristics of Schizophrenia

1. Disturbance of Thought and Attention. People suffering schizophrenia often

cannot think logically and as the result of this they cannot write a story, because every
word they write down might make sense, but are meaningless in relation to each
other, and they cannot keep their attention to the writing. The principal disturbance
in the schizophrenic's thought processes is multiple delusions. This is divided into
two sub-categories:

a. Persecutory Delusion. The schizophrenic believes that he/she is being talked

about, spied upon, or his/her death being planned.

b. Delusion of Reference. The schizophrenic gives personal importance to

completely unrelated incidents, objects, or people.

2. Disturbances of Perception. During acute schizophrenic episodes, people say

that the world appears different to them, their bodies appear longer, colors seem
more intense and they cannot recognize themselves in a mirror.

3. Disturbances of Affect. Schizophrenic persons fail to show normal emotions. This

symptom is easiest described as an excessive lack of correlation between what an
individual is saying and what emotion they are expressing (e.g. a patient may smile
while talking over tragic events).

4. Withdrawal from Reality. During schizophrenic episodes, the individual becomes

absorbed in his inner thoughts and fantasies. The self-absorption may be so intense
that the individual may not know the month or day or the place where he is staying.

5. Delusions and Hallucinations. In most cases schizophrenic is accompanied by

delusions. Delusions, as presented earlier, are inflexible misleading beliefs. They
appear as a result of exaggerations or distortions of reasoning, as well as false
interpretations of things and events. The most common are beliefs that other persons
are trying to control his thoughts, he may become suspicious of friends (paranoid),
and this is the reason why Robert Kennedy was assassinated.

Kinds of Schizophrenia:

1. Paranoid Schizophrenia.

Manifestations are:

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 23

a. Is very suspicious of others.

b. Has great schemes of persecution at the root of the behavior.
c. Hallucinates and delusions are also the symptoms of this type.
d. Displays the psychotic symptoms.

2. Residual Schizophrenia.

Manifestations are:

a. A person being not motivated or interested in everyday life.

b. Advised when an individual has been through at least one episode of
schizophrenia (6 months) but then "recover."

3. Disorganized or Hebephrenic Schizophrenia.

Manifestations are:
a. Person is incoherent verbally and to his/her feeling.
b. Expressing emotions that are not appropriate to the situation.

4. Catatonic Schizophrenia.

Manifestations are:

a. Extremely withdrawn, negative, isolated, and has obvious psychomotor

disturbances.
b. The subject may be almost immobile or exhibit agitated purposely movement.
c. Symptoms can include catatonic stupor and waxy flexibility.

5. Undifferentiated Schizophrenia. People with this schizophrenia exhibit the

symptoms of more than one of the above-mentioned types of schizophrenia, but
without a clear predominance of a particular set of diagnostic characteristics. This
is used when the patient's symptoms clearly point to schizophrenia but are so
clouded that classification into the different types of schizophrenia is very
difficult.

Causes of Schizophrenia

1. Genetic Cause. This cause usually lies in a person’s having immediate relatives
with a history of schizophrenia or other psychiatric diseases (schizoaffective disorder,
bipolar disorder, and depression). Some researchers consider schizophrenia to be
highly heritable (estimates are as high as 70%).

2. Environmental/Social Cause. There is considerable evidence indicating that

stress may trigger episodes of schizophrenia psychosis. For example, emotionally
turbulent families and stressful life events have shown to be some of the risk factors
for the relapses or triggers of schizophrenia episodes.
The social drift hypothesis suggests that people affected by schizophrenia
may be less able to hold steady, demanding, or high-paying jobs. As a result, low
income and problems increases stress levels and leave such people susceptible to
lapsing into a schizophrenic episode.

3. Prenatal Cause. This cause is thought to initially come together in early

neurodevelopment to increase the risk of later developing schizophrenia such as
prenatal exposure to infections. One curious finding is that people diagnosed with

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 24

schizophrenia are more likely to have been born in winter or spring, (at least in the
northern hemisphere).

4. Substance Abuse Cause. In a recent study of people with schizophrenia and a

substance abuse disorder, over a ten-year period, "substantial proportions were
above cutoffs selected by dual diagnosis clients as indicators of recovery." ‘Example:
illegal drugs, tobacco and the like. However, Eugene Bleuler, one of the pioneers in
the diagnosis and study of schizophrenia, divided the disorder into two forms, they
are:

a. Reactive or Acute Schizophrenia. It is usually sudden and seems to be a

reaction to some life crisis. Reactive schizophrenia is a more treatable form of
the illness than process or chronic schizophrenia.

b. Process or Chronic Schizophrenia. It is also referred to as poor

premorbid schizophrenia; this type is characterized by lengthy periods of
its development with a gradual deterioration and exclusively negative
symptoms. It doesn't seem to be related to any major life change or negative
event. Usually this type of schizophrenia is associated with "loners" who are
rejected by society, tend not to develop social skills and don't excel out of high
school.

Activity

(Your activity will be sent to you in separate file, wait for the
instructions of your instructor.)

Lesson 3.

Sexual Disorder or Sexual Dysfunction

Sexual dysfunctions are disorders related to a particular phase of the sexual

response cycle. Sexual disorders include problems of sexual identity, sexual
performance, and sexual aim.

Symptoms of Sexual Dysfunction:

In Men:
a. Inability to achieve or maintain an erection suitable for intercourse (erectile
dysfunction),
b. Absent or delayed ejaculation despite adequate sexual stimulation (retarded
ejaculation).
c. Inability to control the timing of ejaculation (early or premature. ejaculation).

In Women:
a. Inability to achieve orgasm.
b. Inadequate vaginal lubrication before and during intercourse.
c. Inability to relax the vaginal muscles enough to allow intercourse.

In Men and Women:

a. Lack of interest in or desire for sex.
b. Inability to become aroused.
c. Pain with intercourse.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 25

What is the Human Sexual Response Cycle?

It refers to the sequence of physical and emotional changes that occur as a
person becomes sexually aroused and participates in sexually stimulating activities,
including intercourse and masturbation.
The Cycle has four phases: desire (libido), arousal (excitement), orgasm
and resolution. Both men and women experience these phases, although the timing
usually is different. The term was coined by William H. Masters and Virginia E.
Johnson in their 1966 book Human Sexual Response. The cycle is:

A. Excitement Phase. It is also known as the arousal phase or initial

excitement phase. It is the first stage of the cycle. It occurs as the result of any
erotic physical or mental stimulation, such as kissing, petting, or viewing erotic
images, that lead to sexual arousal. It is characterized by an erection in males and
a swelling of the clitoris and vaginal lubrication in females.

B. Plateau Phase. It is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm. It is the

second phase of the cycle, after the excitement phase with the following
manifestations such as: further increases in circulation and heart rate occur in
both sexes, sexual pleasure increases with increased stimulation, muscle tension
increases further, for those who never achieve orgasm; this is the peak of sexual
excitement. Both sexes may also begin to vocalize involuntarily at this stage.
Prolonged time in the plateau phase without progression to the orgasmic phase
may result in frustration if continued for too long.

C. Orgasmic Phase. It is the conclusion of the plateau phase and is experienced by

both sexes. It is accompanied by quick cycles of muscle contraction in the lower
pelvic muscles, which surround both the anus and the primary sexual organs;
women also experience uterine and vaginal contractions; orgasms are often
associated with other involuntary actions, including vocalizations and muscular
spasms in other areas of the body, and a generally euphoric sensation; in men,
orgasm is usually associated with ejaculation. Each ejection is associated with a
wave of sexual pleasure, especially in the penis and loins; the first and second
convulsions are usually the most intense in sensation, and produce the greatest
quantity of semen. Thereafter, each contraction is associated with a diminishing
volume of semen and a milder wave of pleasure.
Orgasms in females may also play a significant role in fertilization. The
muscular spasms are theorized to aid in the locomotion of sperm up the vaginal
walls into the uterus.
D. Resolution Phase (Refractory Period). It occurs after orgasm and allows
the muscles to relax, blood pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its
excited state. Men and women may or may not experience a refractory period,
and further stimulation may cause a return to the plateau stage. This allows the
possibility of multiple orgasms in both sexes. However, typically men enter this
refractory period and some may find continued stimulation to be painful after the
orgasmic phase. Women may not have a similar refractory period and may be
able to repeat the cycle almost immediately.

Major Categories of Sexual Disorder

Category I. Sexual Dysfunctions

Category II. Paraphilias
Category III. Gender Identity Disorders

Category I. Sexual Dysfunction.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 26

It refers to a persistent or recurrent problem that causes marked distress and

interpersonal difficulty and that may involve any or some combination of the
following: sexual arousal or the pleasure associated with sex, or orgasm. It is a
disturbance in any phase of the Human Sexual Response Cycle.

Types of Sexual Dysfunction

A. Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire (during Excitement Phase):

1. Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder. It is marked by lack or no sexual drive

or interest in sexual activity. It is characterized by a persistent, upsetting loss of
sexual desire.

2. Sexual Aversion Disorder. It is characterized by a desire to avoid genital

contact with a sexual partner. It refers to persistent feelings of fear, anxiety, or
disgust about engaging in sex.

B. Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal (during Plateau Phase):

1. Male Erectile Disorder. It refers to the inability to maintain or achieve an

erection (formerly called as impotence).

2. Female Sexual Arousal Disorder. It refers to none responsiveness to erotic

stimulation both physically and emotionally (formerly called as frigidity).

C. Dysfunctions of Orgasm (during Orgasmic Phase):

1. Premature Ejaculation. It is the unsatisfactory brief period between the

beginning or sexual stimulation and the occurrence of ejaculation.

2. Male Orgasmic Disorder. It refers to the inability to ejaculate during sexual

intercourse.

3. Female Orgasmic Disorder. It refers to the difficulty in achieving orgasm,

either manually or during sexual intercourse.

D. Sexual Pain Disorders:

1. Vaginismus. It refers to the involuntary muscle spasm at the entrance to the

vagina that prevents penetration and sexual intercourse.

2. Dyspareunia. It refers to painful coitus that may have either an organic or

psychological basis.

E. Hyper Sexuality:

1. Nymphomania or Furor Uterinus. It refers to a female psychological

disorder characterized by an overactive libido and an obsession with sex. Female with
this disorder is called as nymph or called as hot or fighter.

2. Satyriasis. It refers to male’s overactive obsession with sex, Male with this
disorder is called as satyr.

Category II. Paraphilias.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 27

The word paraphilia originated from the Greek para which means over and
philia which means friendship. It is a rare mental health disorder term recently
used to indicate sexual arousal in response to sexual objects or situations that are not
part of societal normative arousal/activity patterns, or which may interfere with the
capacity for reciprocal affectionate sexual activity. The disorder is characterized by a
6month period of recurrent, intense, sexually arousing fantasies or sexual urges
involving a specific act, depending on the paraphilia.

Common Forms of Paraphilia

1. Exhibitionism. It is also known as flashing; a behavior that involves the

exposure of private parts of person’s body to another person in a situation when they
would not: normally be exposed. It may also be called as apodysophilia or Lady
Godiva syndrome. Types of exposure are:

a. Flashing. It is the displaying of bare breasts and/or buttocks by a woman with an

up-and-down lifting of the shirt and/or bra or a person exposing and/or stroking his
or her genitals.

b. Mooning. It is the displaying of the bare buttocks while bending down by the
pulling-down of trousers and underwear. It often done for the sake of humor and/or
mockery than for sexual excitement.

c. Anasyrma. It is the lifting up of the skirt when not wearing underwear, to expose
genitals.

d. Martymachlia. It involves sexual attraction to having others watch the

execution of a sexual act.

2. Fetishism. It refers to experiencing sexual urges and behavior which are

associated with non-living objects such as an article of female clothing, like female
underwear. The fetish begins in adolescence and tends to be quite chronic into adult
life. Types of fetishism are:

a. Sexual Transvestic Fetishism or Transvestism or Cross Dressing. It

begins in adolescence, usually around the onset of puberty. Most practitioners are
male who are aroused by wearing, fondling, or seeing female clothing. Lingerie (bras,
panties, girdles, corsets, and slips), stockings, shoes or boots may all be the fetishistic
object.

b. Foot Fetishism. It is a pronounced fetishistic sexual interest in human feet. A

foot fetishist can be sexually aroused by viewing, handling, licking, tickling, sniffing
or kissing the feet and toes of another person, or by having another person doing the
same to his/her own feet.

c. Tickling Fetishism. It refers to gaining a specific sexual thrill from either

tickling a sex partner or being subjected to tickling themselves, usually to the point of
helpless laughter. This involves some form of restraint to prevent escape and/or
accidentally hurting the tickler.

d. Wet and Messy Fetish (WAM). It refers to getting aroused by substances

applied on the body like mud, shaving foam, custard pudding, chocolate sauce, wet
clothes or any of their combination.

Four Major Categories of WAM

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 28

1. Messy. It refers to the applying of largely opaque substances to the body not
usually used in this fashion such as food, shaving cream and mud. It also includes
wrestling in mud, oil or gelatin.

2. Wet. It refers to the act of being completely soaked in Clothing, usually involving
full clothing ensembles.

3. Quicksand. It refers to the act of sinking in quicksand. In drawn images, the

stage where female characters sink up to their chests and their breasts are up in
response.

4. Underwater. It is also called as aquaphilia; it involves swimming or posing

underwater. It includes underwater fashion (models posing underwater, often
while fully clothed), scuba, rubber (people in skintight rubber wetsuits), simulated
drowning, and underwater sex.

e. Pygmalionism. It refers to a sexual deviation whereby a person has sexual

desire for statues.

f. Incendiarism. It refers to a sexual deviation whereby a person derives sexual

pleasure from setting fire.

3. Frotteurism (Frottage). It is the act of obtaining sexual arousal and

gratification by rubbing one's genitals against others in public places or crowds or
sexual urges are related to the touching or rubbing of their body against a non-
consenting, unfamiliar woman.

4. Scatologia. It is also called as coprolalia; a deviant sexual practice in which

sexual pleasure is obtained through the compulsive use of obscene language. It may
also refer to the act of satisfying sexual desires through obscene telephone calls
(telephone scatologia). Related terms are copropraxia, performing obscene or
forbidden gestures, and coprographia, making obscene writings or drawings.

5. Necrophilia. It is also called as thanatophilia and necrolagnia; it is the

sexual attraction to corpses.

6. Zoophilia. It refers to the practice of sex between humans and animals; it is also
known as bestiality or bestosexual or zoosexuality. A person who practices
zoophilia is known as a zoophile.

7. Urophilia (Urolagnia). It refers to sexuoerotic arousal and facilitation or

attainment of orgasm is responsive to, and being urinated upon and/or
swallowing urine.

8. Mysophilia. It refers to the obtaining of sexual arousal and gratification by filth

or a filthy surrounding. It is getting horny from smelling, chewing or rubbing
against dirty underwear.

9. Hypoxyphilia. It refers to the desire to achieve an altered state of consciousness

as an enhancement to the experience of orgasm. In this disorder, the individual
may use a drug such as nitrous oxide to produce hypoxia, or a "high" due to a lack
of oxygen to the brain. Autoerotic asphyxiation is also associated with hypoxic
states, but it is classified as a form of sexual masochism.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 29

Category II. Gender Identity Disorder. or Transsexualism.

Also called as gender dysphoria, it refers to a disturbance of gender
identification in which the affected persons have an overwhelming desire to change
their anatomic sex or insists that they are of the opposite sex, with persistent
discomfort about their assigned sex or about filling its usual gender role. Individuals
may attempt to live as members of the opposite sex and may seek hormonal and
surgical treatment to bring their anatomy into conformity with their belief.

Categories of Sexual Abnormality

A. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Choice of Sexual Partner:

1. Heterosexual. It refers to a sexual desire towards the opposite sex.

2. Homosexual. It refers to a relationship or having a sexual desire towards

member(s) of his/her own gender. The term homosexual can be applied to either
a man or woman, but female homosexuals are usually called lesbians. The kinds
of homosexual are:

a. Overt. Persons who are conscious of their homosexual cravings, and who
make no attempts to disguise their intention. They make advances towards
members of their own gender.

b. Latent. Persons who may or may not be aware of the tendency in that
direction but are inclined to repress the urge to give way to their homosexual
yearning.

3. Infantosexual. It refers to a sexual desire towards an immature person such

as pedophilia.

4. Bestosexual. It refers to a sexual gratification towards animals. This is

similar to bestiality and zoophilia.

5. Autosexual or Self Gratification or Masturbation. It is a form of “self-

abuse” or “solitary vice” carried without the cooperation of another person or
the induction of a state of erection of the genital organs and the achievement of
orgasm by manual or mechanical stimulation. The types of masturbation are:

a. Conscious Type. The person deliberately resorts to some mechanical

means of producing sexual excitement with or without orgasm. In male,
masturbation is made through: manual manipulation to the point of emission,
and ejaculation produced by rubbing his sex organ against some part of the
female body without the use of the hand (frottage). In female, masturbation is
made by manual manipulation of clitoris, and introduction of penis-
substitute.

b. Unconscious Type. The release of sexual tension may come about via
the mechanism of nocturnal stimulation with or without emission, which may
also be as “masturbation equivalent”.

6.Gerontophilia. It refers to a sexual desire with elder person.

7. Necrophilia. It refers to a sexual perversion characterized by erotic desire or

actual sexual intercourse with a corpse.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 30

8. Incest. It refers to sexual relations between persons who, by reason of blood

relationship cannot legally marry.

B. Sexual Abnormalities as to Instinctual Strength of Sexual Urge:

1. Over Sex:

a. Satyriasis. It refers to an excessive sexual desire of men to intercourse.

b. Nymphomania. It refers to the strong sexual feeling of women.

2. Under Sex:

a. Sexual Anesthesia. It refers to the absence of sexual desire or arousal during

sexual act in women.

b. Dyspareunia. It refers to the painful sexual act in women.

c. Vaginismus. It refers to the painful spasm of the vagina during sex.

C. Sexual Abnormalities as to Mode of Sexual Expression or Sexual Satisfaction:

1. Oralism. It refers to the use of the mouth as a way of sexual gratification. It

includes any of the following:

a. Fellatio (Irrumation). The female agent receives the penis of a man

into her mouth and by friction with the lips and tongue coupled with the act
sucking the sexual organ.

b. Cunnilingus. The sexual gratification is attained by licking or sucking the

external female genitalia.

c. Anilism (Anilingus). The person derives excitement by licking the anus

of another person of either sex.

2. Sado-masochism (Algolagnia). It is a combination of sadism and

masochism. It refers to a painful or cruel act as a factor for sexual gratification. The example
of this is flagellation, a sexual deviation associated with the act of whipping or being
whipped.

a. Sadism (Active Algolagnia). It is by infliction of pain on another,

necessary or sometimes, the sole factor in sexual enjoyment.

b. Masochism (Passive Algolagnia). It is by attainment of pain or

humiliation as the main factor for sexual gratification.

3. Fetishism. It is a form of sexual perversion wherein the real or fantasized

presence of an object or bodily part is necessary for sexual stimulation and/or gratification.

D. Sexual Abnormalities as to the Part of the Body:

1. Sodomy. It refers to a sexual act through anus of another human being.

2. Uranism. It refers to the attainment of sexual gratification by fingering,

fondling with the breast, licking parts of the body, etc.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 31

3. Frottage (Frotteurism). It refers to sexual gratification by rubbing sex

organ against some parts of the body of another.

4. Partialism. It is a form of sexual deviation wherein a person has special

affinity to certain parts of the female body. Sexual libido may develop in the
breast, buttock, foot, legs, etc. of women.

E. Sexual Abnormalities as to Visual Stimulus:

1. Voyeurism. It is characterized by a compulsion to peep to see persons

undress or perform other personal activities. The offender is sometimes called
peeping tom.

2. Mixoscopia (Scoptophilia). It refers to the attainment of sexual

pleasure by watching couple undress or during their sex intimacies.

F. Sexual Abnormalities as to Number of Sex Partner:

1. Triolism. It is a form of sexual perversion in which three persons are

participating in the sexual orgies. The combination may consist of two men
and a woman or two women and a man.

2. Pluralism. It is a form of sexual deviation in which a group of person

participates in the sexual orgies. Two or more couples may perform sexual act
in a room and they may even agree to exchange partners for “variety sake”
during “sexual festival”.

G. Sexual Abnormalities as to Sexual Reversal:

1. Transvestism. Also called as sexo-esthetic inversion, psychical

hermaphroditism, or metamorphosis sexualis paranoiac. It is a form of
deviation wherein a male individual derives pleasure from wearing the female
apparel. This condition is found sometimes in females who desire to dress
themselves in male attire.

2. Transexualism. It refers to the dominant desire in some person to

identify themselves with the opposite sex as completely as possible to discard
forever their anatomical sex.

3. Intersexuality. It refers to a genetic defect wherein a person show

mixture, in varying degrees, of the characteristics of both sexes including
physical form, reproductive organs, and sexual behavior.
Also, intersexuality is the condition in which an individual has both
male and female anatomical characteristics to varying degrees or in which the
appearance of the external genitalia is ambiguous or differs from that
characteristic of the gonadal or genetic.

Classifications of Intersexuality

a. Gonadal Agenesis. It is a condition in which the sex organs (testes or

ovaries) have never developed.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 32

b. Gonadal Dysgenesis. It is a condition in which the external sexual

structures are present but at puberty the testes or the ovaries fail to develop.

c. True Hermaphroditism. It is a condition of bisexuality, having both

ovaries and testicles. The nuclear sex is usually female. The character may be
neutral or whichever is dominant.

d. Pseudohermaphrodite. It is a condition in which the sex organ is

anatomically of one sex but the sex character is that of the opposite sex.

Sexual Disorder and Criminality: Research Findings.

Sexual assault is a serious social problem, with high victimization rates among
children (10% of boys and 20% of girls), and adult women (10-20%). Many sexual
offenders also engage in nonsexual criminal activities, the same factors that predict
general recidivism among nonsexual criminals may also predict sexual recidivism
among sexual offenders. All sexual offending is, by definition, socially deviant, but
not all sexual offenders have deviant sexual interests or preferences. Some date
rapists, for example, may prefer consensual sexual activities but misperceive their
partners’ sexual interest (e.g.," "No' means 'yes""). In contrast, the sexual lives of
some boy object pedophiles may be completely focused on their preferred victim type.
Offenders with the most deviant sexual histories tend to show deviant or abnormal
sexual interests on phallometric assessments. Specifically, deviant sexual interests
are most prevalent among those who victimize strangers, use overt force, select boy
victims, or select victims much younger (or much older) than themselves.

Response of Criminal Justice System

In order to determine whether a mentally disordered offender should be sent

to a psychiatric hospital or to prison, he is examined to assess if he meets the law’s
rationality standard in the context in question. This requires him to proof cither that
he did not know the nature and quality of the act he was doing, or that he did not
know that what he was doing was wrong. Offenders who satisfy these criteria are
neither criminally responsible nor competent to stand trial because they are not
rational.

What happens to those mentally disordered offenders who,

having been declared mentally fit to face charges, end up in prison?

According to some studies, longer periods of incarceration may lead to more

mental health symptoms. If they are left untreated, the offender may display an
increasing disruptive, noncompliant, and aggressive behavior in reaction to the
stressful life in prison. This misbehavior can result in solitary confinement, which has
been found to exacerbate symptoms of mental disorder. Furthermore, it prevents
them from participating in programs that would earn them goodtime credits, thus
limiting their options for early release. Despite the availability of mental health
services in prison, many inmates remain reluctant to access them for several reasons:

a. self-preservation concerns, which include issues of confidentiality and

negative perceptions from other inmates (seen as weak or a snitch);

b. procedural concerns, that is, a lack of knowing how, when, and why to
access services and anticipated length of services;

c. self-reliance, which refers to a reliance on themselves or close others for

help; and

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 33

d. professional service provider concerns, which relate to questions of staff

qualifications and dissatisfaction with previous mental health services.

In the case of inmates with suicidal tendencies, studies have found that they may
intentionally hide their mental state to avoid restrictions on allowable possessions, close
monitoring of their behavior, worse housing status, and perceptions of weakness from other
inmates.
The most effective criminal justice response to mental disorder includes
comprehensive rehabilitative programs that adhere to the risk-need-responsivity principles.
Rehabilitative services are more effective when they match offender’s level of risk for
criminal recidivism. The need principle dictates that these services must target the specific
risks associated with criminal recidivism (for example peer associations, substance use, and
work or school functioning).
Finally, the principle of responsivity asserts that rehabilitative services should match
offender’s needs and learning styles. Programs that include all three principles address the
holistic needs of mentally disordered people, rather than just focusing on mental health
symptoms and treatment. Studies have demonstrated that they reduce criminal recidivism in
30%, whereas sanctions alone (incarceration without rehabilitative services) and
inappropriate rehabilitative services (services that only target the underlying g mental
disorders) increase it.

Activity

(Your activity will be sent to you in separate file, wait for the
instructions of your instructor.)

CHAPTER III

VICTIMOLOGY

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF VICTIMOLOGY

Historically, the Latin term ‘victima’ was used to describe individuals or animals
whose lives were destined to be sacrificed to please a deity. It did not necessarily imply pain
or suffering, only a sacrificial role. “Victimology” arose in Europe after World War II,
primarily to seek to understand the criminal-victim relationship. Early victimology theory
posited that victim attitudes and conduct are among the causes of criminal behavior. In the
nineteenth century, the word victim became connected with the notion of harm or loss in
general (Spalek 2006). In the modern criminal justice system, the word victim has come to
describe any person who has experienced injury, loss, or hardship due to the illegal action of
another individual, group, or organization (Karmen 2004).
As Tokiwa University (Japan) Professor of Criminology and Victimology John
Dussich noted, “As a graduate student in 1962, I had the privilege of being a student of
Stephen Schafer who was a victimologist and criminologist from Hungary, one of the early
victimologists. He first spoke about victimology in his class on criminological theory. It was
the first time that he ever gave a lecture in this country and we became friends after that the
interest in victimology correlated with increasing concern about crime In America in the late
1960s.
It is perhaps no coincidence that the precursor to Dr. Schafer’s book was a study he
conducted for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The crime wave of the
time led to the formation of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the
Administration of Justice in 1966, which conducted the first national victimization surveys
that, in turn, showed that victimization rates were far higher than shown in law enforcement

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 34

figures — and that many nonreporting victims acted out of distrust of the justice system. This
captured the attention of researchers who began to examine the Impact of crime on victims,
as well as victim disillusionment with the system.

The interest in victimology correlated with increasing concern about crime in

America in the late 1960s. It is perhaps no coincidence that the precursor to Dr. Schafer’s
book was a study he conducted for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
The crime wave of the time led to the formation of the President's Commission on Law
Enforcement and the Administration of Justice in 1966, which conducted the first national
victimization surveys that, in turn, showed that victimization rates were far higher than
shown in law enforcement figures — and that many nonreporting victims acted out of
distrust of the justice system. This captured the attention of researchers who began to
examine the impact of crime on victims, as well as victim disillusionment with the system.
“In my view it is no accident that the explosion of interest in victims and
victimization surveys developed simultaneously,” Michael J. Hindelang wrote in
“Victimization Surveying, Theory and Research” published in 1982. “Each has provided some
stimulus for the other and each has the potential for providing benefits to the other.” As will
be discussed, the prosecutor-based victim/witness revolution in particular was a direct
consequence of victimological research. The importation of victimology to the United States
was due largely to the work of the scholar Stephen Schafer, whose book The Victim and His
Criminal: a Study in Functional Responsibility became mandatory reading for anyone
interested in the study of crime victims and their behaviors.

According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), between the 1970's and
1980's, just after the civil rights movement, there was increased awareness about victims. In
1972, the FBI formed the Behavioral Science Unit (BSU) to study the relationships between
the offenders, the victims, and group dynamics in society. Police officers would gather at the
FBI headquarters in Quantico, Virginia for trainings.
During these trainings, the police officers began to realize they were seeing different patterns
between victims and offenders. The BSU studied these patterns and relationships between
victims and offenders. Along with the BSU, several independent victim support
organizations, such as Mothers against Drunk Drivers (MADD) and Parents of Murdered
Children (POMC), formed to study different crimes that had happened to their loved ones.
These groups worked together to help to better define the relationships between victims and
offenders that are used in current theories of victimology.

“In my view It is no accident that the explosion of interest in victims and

victimization surveys developed simultaneously,” Michael J. Hindelang wrote in
“Victimization Surveying, Theory and Research” published in 1982. “Each has provided some
stimulus for the other and each has the potential for providing benefits to the other.”

As will be discussed, the prosecutor-based victim/witness revolution in particular was a

direct consequence of victimological research.

WHAT IS VICTIMOLOGY?

Victimology is the study of the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator.
Likewise, it is the “Scientific study of physical, emotional, and financial harm people suffer
because of illegal activities. It is the study of the victim, including the offender and society.
Furthermore, it is a social-structural way of viewing crime and the law and the criminal and
the victim.
Victimology is the study of victimization, including the relationships between victims
and offenders, the interactions between victims and the criminal justice system—that is, the
police and courts, and corrections officials—and the connections between victims and other
social groups and institutions, such as the media, businesses, and social movements.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 35

Victimology is, however, not restricted to the study of victims of crime alone but may include
other forms of human rights violation
Victimology is, however, not restricted to the study of victims of crime alone but may
include other forms of human rights violation. one that is acted on and usually adversely
affected by a force or agent <the schools are victims of the social system>: as a (1): one that is
injured, destroyed, or sacrificed under any of various conditions <a victim of cancer> <a
victim of the auto crash> <a murder victim> (2): one that is subjected to oppression,
hardship, or mistreatment <a frequent victim of political attacks> b: one that is tricked or
duped <a con man’s victim>

To understand this concept, first, we must understand what the terms victim and perpetrator
mean. The victim Is a person who has been harmed by a perpetrator. A victim Is a person
who suffers direct or threatened physical, emotional or financial harm as a result of an act by
someone else, which Is a crime. A victim of misplaced confidence; a victim of a swindler; and
a victim of an optical illusion; a person or animal sacrificed or regarded as sacrificed: war
victims living creature sacrificed in religious rites. A living being sacrificed to a deity or in the
performance of a religious rite.
A victim is a person who has been hurt or taken advantage of, which most of us try to avoid.
Some people hit others over the head with this word. Some seem to like being victimized;
some almost compete over who is the biggest victim, a person who suffers from a destructive
or injurious action or agency a victim of an automobile accident who experience loss, injury,
or hardship for any reason. The perpetrator, also known as the offender, is an individual
who has committed the crime against the victim. Additionally, he is an aggressor, assailant,
criminal, evil doer, felon, lawbreaker, malefactor, malfeasant, one implicated in the
commission of a crime, one who breaks the law, one who commits a crime, peccans, sinner,
transgressor, violator, wrongdoer. Law enforcement agencies use the study of victimology
and the theories of victimology to determine why the victim was targeted by the offender.

Imagine you are on your way to a friend’s house, and you see an altercation taking
place between two men on the street. As you are watching the news later that day, you find
out that one of the men involved in the fight you witnessed has serious injuries. The police
are looking for witnesses to the crime. You call the police department listed in the newscast
and explain what you saw on your way to your friend's house. The police tell you that the
victim was robbed by his neighbor and collect any information you might have. This is the
first step in victimology.

Subsequently, some general facts have been gathered about victimization.

• Victimization is more likely at night (6:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.).

• Personal larceny is more common during the day, with more serious crime occurring
at night.
• Crime occurs more in open public areas, although rapes and simple assaults tend to
occur in homes.
• Crime is most frequent in central city areas.
• Western urban areas have the highest crime rates, while the Northeast rural areas
have the lowest.
• The National Crime Survey indicates that 25% of U.S. households have at least one
individual who was victimized in some way during the past year.
• Personal theft is very common. About 99% of Americans will be the victim of
personal theft at some time in their lives, and 87% will be a theft victim three or more
times.
• Men are twice as likely as women to be victims of robbery and assault. The violent
victimization rate for females has been fairly stable, but there has been a 20%
increase for males in the last 15 years.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 36

• Victim risk diminishes rapidly after age 25. Contrary to popular belief, grandparents
are safer than their grandchildren.
• Unmarried/never married people are more likely to be victims than the married or
widowed.
• The poor are more likely to be victims of crime. They are far more likely to be victims
of violent crime, while the middle class are more likely to be victims of property
crime.
• African Americans are victimized at the highest rates. Crime tends to be intra-racial
(criminals and victims of the same race) rather than interracial (criminal and victim
of different races). About 75% of crime is intra-racial.
• Strangers commit about 60% of violent crimes. However, females are more likely to
know their assailants.
• In some studies, over half of offenders’ report being under the influence of alcohol
and/or other drugs when they committed the offense resulting in incarceration.
• The characteristics of those most likely to be victimized might be summarized as:
young, black, urban, poor and male.

THEORIES OF VICTIMIZATION

Victimization is the outcome of deliberate action taken by a person or institution to exploit,

oppress, or harm another, or to destroy or illegally obtain another's property or possessions.
The Latin word victima means “sacrificial animal,” but the term victim has evolved to
include a variety of targets, including oneself, another individual, a household, a business,
the state, or the environment. The act committed by the offender is usually a violation of a
criminal or civil statute but does not necessarily have to violate a law. Harm can include
psychological/emotional damage, physical or sexual injury, or economic loss.

Victimology is the scientific study of victims. Victimologists focus on a range of victim-

related issues, including estimating the extent of different types of victimization, explaining
why victimization occurs to whom or what, the effects and consequences of victimization,
and examining victims’ rights within the legal system. Different domains of victimization are
also of interest. Victimology is characterized as an interdisciplinary field—academics,
practitioners, and advocates worldwide from the fields of criminology, economics, forensic
sciences, law, political science, public health, psychology, social work, sociology, nursing, and
medicine focus on victims’ plight.

The noun “victimization” in this report has two meanings, “an act that exploits or
victimizes someone” and “adversity resulting from being made a victim” (Victimization, N.d).
Despite these two descriptions of the same word, both illustrate the problem of victimization,
especially in number as high as the U.S experiences each year. As a method of countering the
problem of crime, and of dealing with the numerous victims left in their wake, criminologists
turn to the study of victims and their relationship to the criminal act. While caring and
understanding the pain and anguish of the victim and their circle of social influence is of
essential, is providing treatment and counseling; criminologists now view the role the victim
in the criminal process as imperative to understanding the crime itself. Studying and
researching victimology helps in gaining a better understanding of the victim, as well as the
criminal, and how the crime may have been precipitated.

For the purpose of understanding and researching victimology, four theories

have been developed:

Victim Precipitation Theory

The Lifestyle Theory
Deviant Place Theory
Routine Activities Theory

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 37

VICTIMS CATEGORIES

Freudian psychology involving the death wish, the drive for punishment or other
subconscious or instinctual motivations, could be alleged to be operating in the propensity
toward victimization. If victim proneness exists in a criminal case, then it could be asserted
that the victim contributed to his own victimization. Yet, as Von Hentig indicated, victims
may be contributory agents to a crime without warranting the label of victim proneness. The
owner's keys left in his car, newspapers and mail left piled on the vacationing family’s stoop,
other forms of negligence in security of possessions, may contribute to crime. However, the
victim's contribution may go a step beyond negligence to provocation. The woman who
entices men to the point of assault was mentioned by von Hentig in The Criminal and His
Victim. Patterns in Criminal Homicide referred to a quarter of the 588 homicides as being
“victim-precipitated” cases in which the victim was the one to begin the deadly quarrel by
resort to a physical weapon.

It may be a semantic stretch of the more restricted notion of victimization to suggest

that the criminal is also a victim. Nonetheless, those who commit crime are personality
products of bio-social determinism. They are victims of their heredity, environment, of the
genetic thrust into life and of the social system that has them captive to their culture.
Moreover, as indicated in the previous section that referred to persons becoming criminal
after victimized, those who first commit crime may classification.

For better understanding, it is divided into:

• Primary victims
• Secondary victims
• Related victims able to apply for financial assistance
• Types of Victimization
• Types of Domestic Violence
• Ways to Stop Domestic Violence in Your Community
• Signs and what you can do about

There are 3 victim categories:

1. Primary Victims - a primary victim is a person who Is injured or dies as a direct

result of an act of violence committed against them as a direct result of.

• Special primary victim - a special primary victim is a primary victim of an

act of violence who:

➢ was under 18 years of age when the violence was committed.

➢ has an impaired capacity.
➢ Is the victim of violence involving a sexual offense
➢ was harmed or injured by someone in a position of power, Influence Or trust over the
victim at the time.
➢ being threatened or intimidated by either the person who committed the violence or
someone else.

2. Secondary Victims - a “secondary victim” is a person who suffers nervous shock

without himself being exposed to danger.
An example of this is a spectator at a car race, who witnesses a terrible crash caused
by negligence on the part 0f the car manufacturers and develops a nervous illness as a
result of his experience. It is in these cases where the courts have been particularly
reluctant to award damages for nervous shock. In several decisions, the courts have

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 38

identified several strict requirements for the recognition of a duty of care not to cause
nervous shock, as well as causation and remoteness:

• The claimant must perceive a “shocking event” with his own unaided senses,
as an eye-witness to the event, or hearing the event in person, or viewing its
“immediate aftermath”. This requires close physical proximity to the event,
and would usually exclude events witnessed by television or informed of by a
third party.

• The shock must be a “sudden” and not a “gradual” assault on the claimant’s
nervous system. So, a claimant who develops a depression from living with a
relative debilitated by the accident will not be able to recover damages.

• If the nervous shock is caused by witnessing the death or injury or another

person the claimant must show a “sufficiently proximate” relationship to that
person, usually described as a “close tie of love and affection”. Such ties are
presumed to exist only between parents and children, as well as spouses and
fiancés. In other relations, including siblings, ties of love and affection must
be proved.

• It must be reasonably foreseeable that a person of “normal fortitude” in the

claimant’s position would suffer psychiatric damage. The closer the tie
between the claimant and the victim, the more likely it is that he would
succeed in this element. However, once it is shown that some psychiatric
damage was foreseeable, it does not matter that the claimant was particularly
susceptible to psychiatric illness - the defendant must “take his victim as he
finds him” and pay for all the consequences of nervous shock (see “Eggshell
skull” rule). A mere bystander can therefore hardly Count on compensation
for psychiatric shock, unless he had witnessed something so terrible that
anybody could be expected to suffer psychiatric injury as a result. However, it
seems that such a case is purely theoretic (see McFarlane v. EE Caledonia
Ltd, where the plaintiff witnessed an explosion of a rig where he and his
colleagues worked, but received no compensation).

Parent secondary victim

A parent secondary victim is a parent who is injured as a result of an act of violence
against their child.

Witness secondary victim

A witness secondary victim is a person who is injured as a direct result of witnessing
an act of violence against another person. They may be a witness to either a more or less
serious act of violence. A more serious act of violence may involve murder, manslaughter or
dangerous driving causing death. Other offences are classed as less serious acts of violence.

3. Related Victims - is a close family member or dependant of a primary victim who

has died as a direct result of an act of violence against them.

A close family member of a primary victim must have had a genuine personal
relationship with the primary victim when they died. A close family member of the
primary victim may be a:

• the spouse of the victim;

• a parent, guardian or step-parent of the victim;
• a child or step-child of the victim or some other child of whom the victim is the
guardian; or

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 39

• a brother, sister, step-brother or step-sister of the victim.

• person who, under Aboriginal or Island custom, is regarded as a person mentioned
above.

A related victim is a person who, at the time of the violent crime:

• was a close family member of a deceased primary victim;

• was a dependant of a deceased primary victim; or
• had an intimate personal relationship with a deceased primary victim.

TYPES OF VICTIMIZATION

1. Sexual Misconduct is an umbrella term that includes any non-consensual sexual

activity that is committed by force or fear or mental or physical incapacitation,
including through the use of alcohol or drugs. Sexual misconduct can vary in Its
severity and consists of a range of behavior, including rape, statutory rape (sexual
contact with a person under 18 years old), sexual touching, sexual exploitation, sexual
harassment, and conduct suggestive of attempting to commit any of the
aforementioned acts.

Sexual abuse is a common form of domestic violence. It includes not only

sexual assault and rape, but also harassment, such as unwelcome touching and other
demeaning behaviors. Any sexual behavior that is unwanted or interferes with the other
person’s right to say “no” to sexual advances. Any sexual behaviors that make a person feel
uncomfortable. Any sexual behavior that is manipulative or coercive

Many victims do not realize how broadly sexual abuse is interpreted. For example, if
you have ever been coerced into not using contraception (the pill, a condom, an IUD, etc.) or
having an abortion, then you may have actually been sexually abused. This form of abuse is
known as reproductive coercion.

Domestic violence cases are most frequently brought for physical or sexual abuse, so
if you think you have been sexually abused, you may have a good claim for domestic violence.

How It Works

• Unwanted kissing to touching

• Unwanted rough or violent sexual activity
• Forcing or manipulating someone to go further sexually than he or she wants to
• Insisting (physically or verbally) that you have sex, even when you have said no
• Using coercion, guilt and manipulation to have sex
• Taking advantage of you while you are intoxicated (drink or high) and not able to say
no
• Forced sex
• Not using or not letting you use birth control for pregnancy and STD protection
(condoms, birth control pills)

Early Warning Signs

• Explosive temper
• Going into a rage when disappointed or frustrated
• History of violence
• Severe mood swings
• Teasing, tripping, or pushing

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 40

• Threatening to injure
• Intimidating physical behavior

Engaging in any sexual activity, clear consent must be given.

2. Rape - Rape is the sexual penetration (however slight) of the victim's vagina, mouth,
or rectum without consent. Rape involves penetration with (a) the use of force/fear or
the threat of force/fear; or (b) with a person who is otherwise incapable of giving
consent, including situations where the individual is under the influence of alcohol or
drugs and this condition was or should have reasonably been known to the accused.
This is especially true in cases when flirtation may be present, yet there is no consent
to sexual intercourse.

3. Sexual Touching - also known as sexual battery the act of making unwanted and
sexually offensive contact (clothed or unclothed) with an intimate body part of
another person or action, which uses immediate apprehension that sexual touch will
occur. Intimate body parts include sexual organs, the anus, the groin, breasts or
buttocks any person. Sexual touching includes situations in which the accused
engages in the contacts described with a person who is incapable of giving consent.

4. Sexual Exploitation - is the taking advantage of a non-consenting person or

situation for personal benefit or gratification or for the benefit of anyone other than
the alleged victim; and the behavior does not constitute rape, sexual touching or
sexual harassment. Sexual exploitation includes, but is not limited to:

• Photographing or making audio or video recordings of sexual activity without

consent;
• Dissemination of Images or recordings without consent of the participant(s);
• Allowing others to observe sexual activity without the knowledge or consent of the
partner;
• Voyeurism (peeping tom);
• Knowingly transmitting a sexually transmitted infection or HIV to another student;
• Prostituting another person;
• Giving alcohol or other drugs to another student with the intention of rending him or
her incapable of giving consent.

5. Sexual Harassment - is any unwelcome sexual conduct or behavior that creates an

intimidating, hostile or offensive working or educational environment.

When someone calls you insulting sexual names, talks about you in a sexual way that
makes you feel uncomfortable (like commenting on your body), or spreads sexual rumors
about you, this is known as sexual harassment. This could happen in person, over the
phone, or online.

6. Stalking and Harassment - a lot of people think stalking is something that just
happens to celebrities, but the reality is that it can happen to anyone.

Stalking can be defined as persistent and unwanted attention that makes you feel pestered
and harassed. Stalking and harassment includes behavior that happens two or more times,
directed at or towards you by another person, which causes you to feel alarmed or distressed
or to fear that violence might be used against you.

What makes the problem particularly hard to cope with Is that it can go on for a long period
of time, making you feel constantly anxious and afraid. Sometimes the problem can build up

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 41

slowly and it can take a while for you to realize that you are caught up in an ongoing
campaign of abuse.

The problem is not always ‘physical’ - you may suffer psychologically as well. Social media
and the internet can be used for stalking and harassment and ‘cyber-stalking’ or online
threats can be just as intimidating.

7. Physical Assault/Battery - Physical assault or battery is prohibited. It is to touch

or strike a person against his or her will or to threaten violence against that person. If
someone intentionally grabs or touches you in a sexual way that you do not like, or
you are forced to kiss someone or do something else sexual against your will, this is
classed as sexual assault. This includes sexual touching of any part of someone's
body, and it makes no difference whether you are clothed or not.

Some survivors of sexual assault and rape take many years to acknowledge that they have
been a victim and find it hard to take steps to help, but It is never too late. We can find the
best person to support you, depending on what you decide you want to do. If you want to
report the crime to the police, this is still a possibility, even if you got support at the time,
you can still get more support now, as there may be things that happen which still scare you
or worry you.

8. Dating/Relationship/Domestic Violence - is prohibited. This type of violence

may
be emotional, verbal, physical and/or sexual abuse by an intimate partner, family members
or parties in a dating relationship.

9. Human Sex Trafficking Sex trafficking in which a commercial or act is induced by

force fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act has not
attained 18 years of age; or the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or
obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or
coercion, for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, personage, debt
bondage, or slavery.

TYPES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Domestic abuse describes negative behaviors that one person exhibits over another
within families or relationships. These patterns of behavior can include threats, put-downs,
isolation, violence and control. Sometimes domestic abuse can be called domestic violence.

Domestic abuse can take different forms, including:

• Physical abuse: pushing, hitting, punching, kicking, choking and using weapons.
• Sexual abuse: forcing or pressuring someone to have sex (rape), unwanted sexual
activity, touching, groping someone or making them watch pornography.
• Financial abuse: taking money, controlling finances, not letting someone work.
• Emotional abuse / coercive control: repeatedly making someone feel bad or scared,
stalking, blackmailing, constantly checking up on someone, playing mind games.
Coercive control is now a criminal offense under the Serious Crime
• Digital / online abuse: using technology to further isolate, humiliate or control
someone.
• Honor-based violence and forced marriage

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 42

Physical Abuse

Physical abuse is the most recognizable form of domestic violence. It involves the use of force
against the victim, causing injury (e.g. punch and kick, stabbing, shooting, choking, slapping,
“forcing to use drugs, etc.). Remember that the injury doesn’t need to be a major one.
Consider, for example, that your abuser slaps you a few times, causing only minor injuries
that do not require a visit to the hospital. Is that domestic violence? Yes. The slapping would
still be considered domestic violence.

Early Warning Signs

• Explosive temper
• Going into a rage when disappointed or frustrated
• History of violence
• Severe mood swings
• Teasing, tripping, or pushing
• Threatening to injure
• Intimidating physical behavior (getting in your face)

Emotional Abuse

Emotional abuse is saying or doing something to the other person that causes the person to
be afraid, have lower self-esteem, or cause psychological or emotional distress. Manipulating
or controlling the person's feelings or behaviors. Behavior that causes harm with words or
actions.

Likewise, it involves the destruction of the victim's self-worth, and is brought about
by persistent insult, humiliation, or criticism. Emotional abuse can be a difficult type of
domestic violence for many people to understand, since, on the surface, it appears to be quite
common in unhealthy relationships. As a victim, you should know that in most states,
emotional abuse is not enough on its own to bring a domestic violence action unless the
abuse is so persistent and so significant that the relationship can be labeled extremely
coercive. Most commonly, evidence of emotional abuse is combined with other abuse
(physical, financial, sexual, or psychological) to bring a domestic violence action.

How It Works

• Insults, Put-downs, Name-calling

• Embarrassing or humiliating you in front of your friends or family
• Threats, intimidation
• Telling the person what to do (how to dress, act, behave)
• Telling a person's secrets; spreading rumors
• Jealousy, possessiveness
• Isolating a person from friends, family
• Destroying gifts, clothing, letters
• Damaging a car, home, or other prized possessions
• Hurting or threatening to hurt pets or loved ones
• Following, tracking, calling often to see where you are
• Having to be with you all the time

Early Warning Signs

• Extreme jealousy or possessiveness

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 43

• Teasing that includes insults

• Pouting when you spend time with your friends
• Threatening to leave you in an unsafe location
• Trying to control what you do
• Not letting you hang out with your friends
• Calling or texting you frequently to find out where you are, who you are with, and
what you’re doing

Financial Abuse

financial abuse Is perhaps the least obvious. Financial abuse may take on many
forms, such as a husband preventing his wife from obtaining an education or a job outside
the home. Financial abuse is extremely common, particularly when families have pooled
their money into joint accounts (with one partner controlling) and there is little or no family
support system to help. Financial abuse is simply another form of control, even though it is
usually less obvious than physical or sexual abuse.

Often, the victim is completely dependent on his or her partner for "With no access to
money except through the abusive partner, the “The victim is completely at the abusive
partner’s mercy. The abusive partner " Withhold money for food, clothing, and more.

Financial abuse is a form of mistreatment and fraud in which someone forcibly

controls another person's money or other assets. It can involve for instance, stealing cash,
not allowing a victim to take part in any financial decisions or preventing a victim from
having a job. The issue tends to occur most often in domestic relationships, such as between
a husband and wife or an elderly parent and an adult child. People do not always recognize
the problem, because an abuser purposely might select an isolated, vulnerable victim who is
unlikely to realize what’s happening or who will feel too ashamed to report it.

Cases Involving the Elderly

Elder financial abuse Involves someone targeting an older adult, often a parent or other close
relative, in the hope of being allowed access to his or her financial information. He might act
as though he is simply helping manage the senior's finances, but instead, he takes the money
for himself. This might be in the form of convincing an elderly person to sign legal financial
documents or getting the victim to change the mailing address on bills and other records.

People who attempt to control and take money from the elderly have a variety of motives.
Some might see individuals who are disabled or lonely as easy targets, because these people
might be more likely to accept help and allow others to access their records and accounts.
Adult children might feel they are entitled to their parents’ wealth, especially if they are set to
receive inheritances. Others select targets based on the desire for revenge for a poor
relationship.

Marital Manipulation

Financial abuse also can occur in marriages as a means to have control over a partner in
order to make him feel hopeless enough to never leave. One partner might not allow the
other to have access to any of the household money, or he might give only a small allowance.
He might even confiscate the victim’s own paycheck or other means of personal funds. In
some cases, a person might force a spouse to quit a job, or he might cause disruptions in the
workplace to get the victim fired. Another potential instance is when one partner purposely
accumulates large amounts of debt using joint checking or credit accounts.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 44

Abuse of Children

Some people choose to financially hurt kids rather than an elderly individual or spouse. The
majority of parents are legally able to handle money issues for their minor children, so these
cases frequently go reported. The motivation, similar to cases in marriages, is usually to the
child from eventually leaving. The parent might willfully avoid teaching the child how to
manage his funds, or he might take money the child other relatives have set aside for things
like college, having no to pay it back. He might lie about the stealing, saying he’s investing on
the minor's behalf.

Another common Issue is to take care of money-related issues but purposely not discuss
them with the child first. The parent usually says is just trying to make things easier or be
nice, but by beating the child financial punch, he is essentially controlling what a child
acquires does. When the child tries to assert more independence, the abuser takes him feel
guilty, saying that he is unappreciative or ungrateful not only the financial “help,” but for
everything else provided, too.

Warning Signs

A person might be experiencing financial manipulation if he appears withdrawn or

depressed, or if his physical appearance and hygiene seems to be suffering. He might not
make decisions about money with confidence on his own. Discrepancies or unusual
transactions on bank records, sudden changes in feelings for a particular person, increased
use of alcohol or other substances and the controlling individual often being around are all
additional warning signs.

Prevention

One of the simplest ways to prevent financial mistreatment is to stay involved in a circle of
friends or social groups so that a network ls available for help. People also can insist on
opening their own mail and having access to all financial records. Modern technology
reduces risk through options like direct deposit and automatic bill payments. Applying a rule
of three is also a good idea — this means that, any time a person needs to discuss money; at
least two other people participate in the conversation. An individual even can use strategies
like digitally recording financial meetings so there is a record of what happened.

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF VICTIMIZATION

Criminal victimization is a frightening and unsettling experience for many people. It

Is unpredictable, largely unpreventable and often unexpected. Unlike normal life
experiences, victimization is not sought out and never welcomed. It is debilitating and
demoralizing. Its effects can be often long-term and difficult to overcome. Victims may be
confused, fearful, frustrated and angry. They want to know why this happened, and why it
happened to them. Victims often have no knowledge of who or where to turn in the
aftermath of crime. They feel insecure and do not know who to trust or rely on for support,
understanding, and help. Not only do they suffer physically, emotionally, psychologically and
financially from their victimization, they are also often burdened by the complexity of the
criminal justice system.

Crime affects everyone differently. Victimization often causes trauma and depending
upon the level of trauma that a person has already experienced in their lifetime, crime can be
devastating. In general, victimization often Impacts people on an emotional, physical,
financial, psychological, and social level.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 45

It is almost impossible to predict how an individual will respond to crime.

Psychological injuries created by crime are often the most difficult to cope with and have
long-lasting effects. As crime is usually experienced as more serious than an accident or
misfortune, it is difficult to come to terms with the fact that loss and injury have been caused
by the deliberate act of another human being. It is important to remember that victims do
not choose to be it sexual assault victims do not choose to be raped; parents do not raise
their children to be murdered; and women do not get married to be abused. Becoming a
victim of crime is an unpleasant and unwanted life experience at best. The impact of criminal
victimization is serious, throwing victims into a state of shock, fear, anxiety and anger. The
emotional, physical, psychological, and financial ramifications of crime can be devastating to
victims. Coping with and recovering from victimization are complex processes. Sadly, some
victims may never be able to do so.

For better understanding, it is divided into:

• Causes and Consequences of Violence against Women

• Risk Factors for Victimization
• Theories of Violent Offending
• Consequences
• Social norms and practices relating to violence

THE TRAUMA OF VICTIMIZATION

The trauma of victimization is a direct reaction to the aftermath of crime. Crime victims
suffer a tremendous amount of physical and psychological trauma. The primary injuries
victims suffer can be grouped into three distinct categories: physical, financial and
emotional. When victims do not receive the appropriate support and intervention in the
aftermath of the crime, they suffer “secondary” injuries.

The physical injury suffered by victims may be as apparent as cuts, bruises, or broken
arms and legs. However, it is not uncommon for victims to be fatigued, unable to sleep, or
have increased or decreased appetites. Many victims believe that the stress caused by
victimization endangers them to physical problems later in life. Victims and survivors suffer
financially when their money or jewelry is taken, when their property is damaged, when their
medical insurances do not cover all expenses, and when they must pay funeral costs. The
primary emotional Injuries of victimization cause both immediate and long-term reactions to
victims, their loved ones and, sometimes, their friends.

Dr. Morton Bard, co-author of The Crime Victim’s Book, has described a victim's reaction to
crime as the crisis reaction. Victims will react differently depending upon the level of
personal violation they experience and their state of equilibrium at the time of victimization.
Victims of non-violent crimes -such as theft -may experience less of personal violation than
victims of violent crimes, however, that is not always the case.
Homicide is the ultimate violation for a crime victim, and leaves behind the victim's
survivors to experience the personal violation. All people have their own “normal” state of
equilibrium. This normal state is influenced by everyday stressors such as illness, moving,
changes in employment, and family issues. When any one of these changes occurs,
equilibrium will be altered, but should eventually return to normal. When people experience
common stressors and are then victimized, they are susceptible to more extreme crisis
reactions. There are certain common underlying reactions that a victim will undergo either
in the immediate hours or days after the crime. Frequent responses to a criminal
victimization include, but are not limited to: shock; numbness; denial; disbelief, anger; and,
finally, recovery.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 46

For better understanding, it is divided into:

• The Emotional Impact of Victimization

• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• Effects of Victimization
• How a violent crime can affect you
• Relationship Between Substance Abuse and Victimization.

The Emotional Impact of Victimization

Shock, disbelief and denial — Initially, victims may find it difficult to believe they
have become a victim of crime. They may even pretend that it did not happen at all. These
reactions can last for a few moments or they may be present for months and even years. It is
not uncommon for victims to assume a ‘childlike’ state and may even need to be cared for by
others for some time. It is also common for victims to feel as though the crime occurred
when they were in a dreamlike state. Once the initial shock of the crime has worn off, victims
may experience other emotions such as anger, fear, frustration, confusion, guilt, shame, and
grief.

Anger or rage — Victims may be angry with God, the offender, service providers, family
members, friends, the criminal-justice system, or even themselves. Many victims experience
strong desires for revenge or getting even. Hate may even felt by victims. These strong
emotions are often disapproved of by the rest of society, which can leave the victim feeling
like an outcast. It is certainly justified for victims to feel anger toward the person or people
who harmed them.

Fear or Terror — It is common for victims to feel terror or fear following a crime that
involved a threat to one’s safety or life, or to someone else a victim cares about. Fear can
cause a person to have panic attacks if they are ever reminded of the crime. Fear can last for
quite some time following the commission of a crime and under certain circumstances, it can
become debilitating. Fear or terror that becomes overwhelming is unhealthy and victims
should consult their family physician about it as soon as possible.

Frustration — Many victims are frustrated by the feelings of helplessness or powerlessness

that surface when the crime takes place. This can be especially true if victims were unable to
fend off an offender, call for help or run away. After the crime, victims may continue to feel
frustration if they cannot access the support and information that is necessary to their
healing.

Confusion — Victims of crime may become confused if they are unsure of what actually
happened, as crimes often occur quickly and are chaotic. Victims might also become
confused while searching for answers to questions likes “why did this happen to me?” It may
be impossible to find out why someone else intended to hurt them.

Guilt or self-blame — blaming one is common. Many victims believe they were “in the
wrong place at the wrong time.” If the victim does not have someone to blame, they will often
blame themselves. Guilt is also common when no offender is found. Later on, when
reflecting upon the crime, victims might feel guilty for not doing more to prevent what
happened. lastly, some victims will experience ‘survivor guilt’ — they feel guilty that they
survived while someone else was injured or even killed. If a loved one murdered, surviving
family and friends may even blame the victim. Too often, society blames victims as well.

Shame and humiliation — Sadly, some victims blame themselves, particularly victims of
sexual abuse/assault or domestic violence. In crimes involving sexual acts, offenders often
degrade the victim by making them do humiliating things. Victims of rape, for example, have
long-lasting feelings of “being dirty”, and those feelings cannot be “washed away.” Some

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 47

victims even feel self-hatred because they believe that they can no longer be loved by those
who are close to them.

Grief or Sorrow — Intense sadness Is often the most powerful long-term reaction to crime.
It is common for victims to become depressed after a crime occurs,

Shock and Numbness - Shock and numbness are usually considered a part of the initial
stage of the crisis reaction. Victims are faced with a situation beyond their control, and some
may almost immediately go into shock and become disoriented for a while.

Victims may experience what is referred to as the “fight or flight” Syndrome. The “fight or
flight” syndrome is a basic automatic physiological response that individuals have no control
over. Because many victims do not understand this response, and their lack of control over it,
they do not understand why they fled instead of fought, and vice versa. A woman who lakes a
self-defense course may blame herself when confronted with an attacker because she is
unable to put into practice what she has learned. A man may be criticized, or not believed, if
he did not fight back when confronted. To question a victim’s response to a criminal incident
is to inflict a second injury on that crime victim and can cause emotional harm,

In many instances, physical and emotional paralyses occur whereby the victim is
unable to make rational decisions such as reporting the incident to the police or obtaining
medical attention. The individual loses control, feels vulnerable, lonely, and confused; the
sense of self becomes invalidated.

Denial, Disbelief and Anger

In this phase, victims’ moods will fluctuate. As Steven Berglas states in his article “Why Did
This Happen to Me?”, victims almost always think, “This could not have happened to me!” or
“Why did this happen to me?” Many will replay the disturbing event by dreaming, having
nightmares or even fantasies about killing or causing bodily harm to the offender. Survivors
or homicide victims may even express anger at their loved one, believing that if the victim
had done something differently, he or she would not have been killed. During this period,
victims must contend with a variety of stressful emotions, such as fear, despair, self-pity, and
even guilt and shame for their anger and hostility.

The Physical Impact of Victimization At the time of the crime, or upon discovering
that a crime has occurred, victims are likely to experience a number of physical reactions.
These may include an increase in the adrenalin in the body, increased heart rate,
hyperventilation, shaking, tears, numbness, a feeling of being frozen or experiencing events
in slow motion, dryness of the mouth, enhancement of particular senses such as smell, and a
‘fight or flight” response. It is also common for people to lose control over their bowel
movements. Some of these physical reactions may occur immediately and others may occur
after the danger has passed. Physical reactions to crime can be so powerful that they reoccur
quite some time after the crime, for example with the victim’s memory of the events. Physical
injuries that result from crime may be classified as: minor (bumps, scratches), moderate
(bruises, broken bones), and severe (stabbing, gunshot wounds). Some physical injuries will
be visible, while others will not. It may not be possible to see all physical injuries such as
internal organ injuries or a brain injury, or those internal injuries caused by sexual assault,
also, physical Injuries arising from victimization may not always be immediately apparent.
This may be particularly true in cases of domestic violence where the injuries occur on parts
of the body that are normally clothed. It Is important not to assume that a victim is
uninjured simply because there are no visible signs. After the crime, victims may suffer a
range of physical effects including insomnia, appetite disturbance, lethargy, headaches,
muscle tension, nausea, and decreased libido. It Is common for these reactions to persist for
some time after the crime has occurred,

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 48

Some victims may experience long-term side effects as a result of the crime committed
against them. Other victims may experience ongoing health-related problems such as
headaches, stomachaches, and emotional outbursts. Even after the physical wounds have
healed, some victims may experience pain or discomfort for a period of time or even for the
rest of their lives. In extreme cases, victims may suffer disfigurement or permanent disability
as a result of the crime. Research evidence exists to prove that such an outcome has a
negative effect on long-term psychological recovery of the victim since the physical scars or
disability serve as a constant reminder of the crime. A victim's culture, gender, and
occupation may also influence their reaction to permanent scarring or disability. The
reaction of others to the victim's physical injuries may also be difficult to accept or become
accustomed to. Some victims may never be able to return to work as a result of the crime.
Victims who are unable to return to work or lead a “normal” lifestyle following victimization
are constantly reminded of the pain and suffering they have endured at the hands of another
person.

This can cause a great deal of mental anguish, not to mention social isolation and
dependency upon social assistance or crimes compensation awards. Victims who have
suffered physical injuries as a result of an assault or the negligence of another person may
experience Strong feelings of fear, anger and bitterness. This sort of victimization is a life
altering experience that may leave victims questioning their personal safety for many years
to come. The financial impact of victimization victims who may have money stolen, or
possessions stolen or damaged have been financially injured. In many cases, stolen money
and prized possessions are never recovered, Understandably, this is very distressing to
victims who may feel guilt, anger, and frustration If they are unable to recover a family
heirloom. Although the financial impact of crime is less documented than the physical,
emotion or social impacts, victims may certainly incur costs in the following ways:

Repairing property or replacing possessions.

• Higher Insurance premiums as a result of victimization.

• Installing security measures.
• Accessing health services.
• Medical expenses.
• Participating In the criminal justice system, for example traveling to court, child care
and attending the trial.
• Obtaining professional counseling to come to terms with the emotional impact.
• Taking time off work or from other income generating activities.
• Funeral or burial expenses.

In some cases, such as stalking, victims may feel a need to move, a process likely to incur
financial costs. Also, property value may diminish as a result of a violent crime occurring in
the house. In the long-term, crime can adversely impact the victim’s employment. The victim
may find It impossible to return to work, or their work performance may be adversely
affected, resulting in demotion, loss of pay, and possibly dismissal. This is particularly likely
where the crime occurred at work, as it may be difficult for the victim to avoid people or
situations which led to the initial victimization. Marital and other relationships are also likely
to be affected by crime and this may have a significant effect on the family’s financial
position. Research shows that the shock waves from victimization touch not only the victim
but also the victim's immediate family and next of kin, neighbors, and acquaintances.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was first applied to military veterans who experienced
psychological trauma while serving in combat. Researchers are now applying this syndrome

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 49

to crime victims. Being a victim of crime does not necessarily mean that an individual will
develop PTSD. If victims receive appropriate crisis intervention, the chances of developing
PTSD are reduced. Some recognizable symptoms of PTSD are:

• Sleeping disorders/continued nightmares;

• Constant flashbacks/intrusion of thoughts;
• Extreme tension and anxiety;
• Irritability/outbursts of anger;
• Non-responsiveness or lack of involvement with the external world;
• Prolonged feelings of detachment or estrangement of others; and
• Memory trouble.

Secondary Injuries

Victims not only have to struggle with primary injuries in the aftermath of the crime,
but they must also battle with the “secondary” injuries. Secondary injuries are injuries that
occur when there is a lack of proper support. These injuries can be caused by friends, family
and most often by the professionals’ victims encounter as a result of the crime. Law
enforcement officers, prosecutors, judges, social service workers, the media, coroners, clergy,
and even mental health professionals can cause secondary injuries. Those individuals may
lack the ability or training to provide the necessary comfort and assistance to the victim.
Often, those individuals blame the victim for the crime. Failing to recognize the importance
of the crime or to show sympathy can be damaging to the victim’s self-worth and recovery
process.

How can crime affect you?

Effects of Victimization

There is no single way that people react to or recover from an act of sexual violence. A
survivor's experience depends on the specifics of their situation, personal history, support
system, and other resources. Survivors may suffer from a broader psychological syndrome
known as PTSD Post Traumatic Stress Disorder — which can occur after any traumatic
event. It is important to remember that no reaction a survivor has can ever be wrong.
Regardless of what happened, when it happened, or who you are, you have the right to feel
any way you want and react in any way you want without fear or violence. You deserve to be
believed, validated, and Supported In every step of your recovery.

A lot of people feel angry, upset or afraid after experiencing crime, but people will
react in different ways. Sometimes people feel quite normal for a while and then things may
suddenly start to fall apart. Others might have physical symptoms, such as lack of sleep or
feeling ill. Everyone is different - the main thing is to understand that any changes in how
you feel could be a result of the traumatic experience you have been through.

Some people are surprised at just how emotional they feel after a crime. These strong
emotions can make you feel even more unsettled and confused. People around you, such as
family and friends, are also likely to be affected. They might experience similar emotions to
yours, as well as concern for you. But at the same time, some people find that others around
them expect them to just ‘get over it.’

This is not helpful if what you really want to do is talk about how you feel.

Although it is impossible to say how a survivor may react to an assault, there are some
characteristics that are common to survivors of all types of trauma:

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 50

• Re-experiencing the traumatic event: It is common for survivors to experience

their assault again and again, often through nightmares, flashbacks, or uncontrollable
thoughts.

• Avoiding “triggers” or reminders: Survivors often try to minimize their contact

with anything that reminds them of their assault. This can include modifying
behavior to avoid certain people, places, events, activities, smells, foods, sounds, or
any other trigger. It can also extend to avoidance of dating, intimacy, touch, or
affection, and can begin to have a serious impact on the survivor's quality of life.

• Extreme Vigilance: It is also common for survivors to exert massive amounts of

time and energy monitoring their surroundings and looking for any sign of danger.
This may include problems sleeping, difficulty concentrating, anger, irritation, heavy
startle reflexes, or inability to feel relaxed or to enjoy a situation.

Survivors of sexual violence may also experience a profound loss of self-esteem, faith, or
trust. They may feel lonely, helpless, frustrated, confused, isolated, fearful, and upset. They
may have difficulties at work or school, be forced to move, change their class schedule, or
interact with a legal system that may not meet their needs for justice. These struggles are real
and unfair, but they can be overcome.

How you react to a crime will also depend on:

• the type of crime

• whether you know the person who committed the crime
• the support you get (or do not get) from your family, friends, the police and other
people around you
• things that have happened to you in the past (because if you've had to deal with
difficult events before you may have found ways of coping).

The effects of crime can also last for a long time, and it does not depend on how ‘serious’
the crime was. Some people cope really well with the most horrific crimes while others can be
very distressed by a minor incident. While the short-term effects of crime can be severe,
most people don't suffer any long-term harm. Occasionally, people do develop long term
problems, such as depression or anxiety-related illnesses, and a few people have a severe,
long-lasting reaction after a crime, known as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
However, you have been affected, we can give you information and support to help you
recover. Find out more about how crime can impact on your health.

One of the things that can make a crime really hard to cope with & knowing that it was
done deliberately by another person. Unlike an accident or illness, people who commit a
crime intend to cause some sort of harm. If you are the victim, this can make you feel very
powerless ad vulnerable. This can be even more difficult to deal with if the crime is repeated
or ongoing, which is often the case with domestic violence or fecal harassment. It is also a big
issue for hate crimes when you know, as the victim, that you’ve been singled out because of
who or what you are.

After victimization what happens if there are no charges laid?

The criminal justice process begins when an offense is reported, yet the suspect may
not necessarily be charged with a criminal offense. The police may question a suspect, but
that does not mean that formal charges will be brought against him or her. If the police and
the Crown Attorney do not believe that enough evidence exists to have the accused found
guilty beyond a reasonable doubt in a court of law, they may not lay an information (lay
charges). If charges are not laid in your case, it does not mean that the police and Crown

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 51

Attorney do not believe you or that a crime did not take place. It may mean that there is not
enough evidence to prove the charge in court. Victims understandably become very
frustrated with the criminal justice system when charges are not brought against the person
who caused harm to them or their family. A victim may interpret the response of the system
as a letdown and become bitter, angry and disillusioned with the entire criminal justice
process. This response is not unexpected, as people believe that social institutions exist to
protect them and address their needs if and when they are called upon. There is often a sense
that someone “got away with it” and that “there was no justice.”

In some cases, plea-bargaining occurs when the Crown and the defense come to an
agreement wherein the accused pleads guilty. The guilty plea usually comes in exchange for a
benefit such as reducing the charge against the accused or where the two sides agree upon a
sentence. Plea-bargaining is often used when either the Crown or the defense’s case is weak.
It is used to save both time and money, as the court system could not handle the volume of
cases that come before it without the plea-bargaining system. Unfortunately, some victims
think this process diminishes the crime and harm done to them.

SYMPTOMS OF VICTIMIZATION

Symptoms of victimization may include negative physical, psychological, or

behavioral consequences that are direct or indirect responses to victimization experiences.
Symptoms in these categories sometimes overlap, are closely related, or cause each other.
For example, a behavioral symptom such as an increase in aggressiveness or irritability may
be part of a particular psychological outcome such as posttraumatic stress disorder. Much of
the research on symptoms of victimization is cross-sectional (researchers only collected data
at one point in time). From a research perspective this means that the symptoms are
associated with victimization, but the causal relationship is not always established and
alternative explanations have not been ruled out. Some of the symptoms described also may
put individuals at risk for victimization. For example, there may be a two-way relationship
between victimization and certain internalizing symptoms such as depression or withdrawal,
such that victimization increases these symptoms, and individuals exhibiting these
symptoms may be targeted for victimization more often than others.

Psychological

The experience of being victimized may cause an individual to feel vulnerable or helpless, as
well as changing their view of the world and/or their self-perception; the psychological
distress this causes may manifest in a number of ways. Diagnosable psychological disorders
that are associated with victimization experiences include depression, anxiety, and post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Psychological symptoms that are disruptive to a person's
life may be present in some form even if they do not meet diagnostic criteria for a specific
disorder. A variety of symptoms such as withdrawal, avoidance, and nightmares, may be part
of one of these diagnosable disorders or may occur in milder or more isolated form;
diagnoses of particular disorders require that these symptoms have a particular degree of
severity or frequency, or that an individual exhibits a certain number of them in order to be
formally diagnosed.

Depression

Depression has been found to be associated with many forms of victimization, including
sexual victimization, violent crime, property crime, peer victimization, and domestic.
Indicators of depression include irritable or sad mood for prolonged periods of time, lack of
interest in most activities, significant changes in weight/appetite, activity, and sleep
patterns, loss of energy and concentration, excessive feelings of guilt or worthlessness, and
suicidality. The loss of energy, interest, and concentration associated with depression may

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 52

impact individuals who have experienced victimization academically or professionally.

Depression can impact many other areas of a person’s life as well, including interpersonal
relationships and physical health. Depression in response to victimization may be lethal, as it
can result in suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. Examples of this include a ten-fold
increase found in suicide attempts among rape victims compared to the general population,
and significant correlations between being victimized in school and suicidal ideation.

Anxiety

A connection between victimization and anxiety has been established for both children and
adults. The particular types of anxiety studied in relation to victimization vary; some
research references anxiety as a general term while other research references more specific
types such as social anxiety. The term anxiety covers a range of difficulties and several
specific diagnoses, including panic attacks, phobias, and generalized anxiety disorder. Panic
attacks are relatively short, intense bursts of fear that may or may not have a trigger (a cause
in the immediate environment that happens right before they occur). They are sometimes a
part of other anxiety disorders. Phobias may be specific to objects, situations, people, or
places. They can result in avoidance behaviors or, if avoidance is not possible, extreme
anxiety or panic attacks. Generalized anxiety Is characterized by long-term, uncontrolled,
intense worrying in addition to other symptoms such as irritability, sleep problems, or
restlessness. Anxiety has been shown to disrupt many aspects of people's lives as well, e.g.
academic functioning, and to predict worse health outcomes later in life.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Is a specific anxiety disorder in response to a

traumatic event in a person’s life. It is often discussed in the context of mental health of
combat veterans, but also occurs in individuals who have been traumatized in other ways,
such as victimization. PTSD involves long-term intense fear, re-experiencing the traumatic
event (e.g. nightmares), avoidance of reminders of the event, and being highly reactive (e.g.
easily enraged or startled). It may include feeling detached from other people, guilt, and
difficulty sleeping. Individuals with PTSD may experience a number of symptoms similar to
those experienced in both anxiety and depression.

Additional Symptoms of Victimization

Additional symptoms of victimization may take on physical or behavioral forms. These may
be direct, individual symptoms of victimization, or they may result from the psychological
outcomes described above.

Physical
The most direct and obvious physical symptoms of victimization are injuries as a
result of an aggressive physical action such as assault or sexual victimization. Other physical
symptoms that are not a result of Injury may be indirectly caused by victimization through
psychological or emotional responses. Physical symptoms with a psychological or emotional
basis are called psychosomatic symptoms. Common psychosomatic ‘symptoms associated
with victimization include headaches, stomachaches and experiencing a higher frequency of
illnesses such as colds and sore throats. Though psychosomatic symptoms are referred to as
having psychological causes they have a biological basis as well; stress and other
psychological symptoms trigger nervous system responses such as the release of various
chemicals and hormones which then affect biological functioning. “

Behavioral
Individuals who have been victimized may also exhibit behavioral symptoms after the
experience. Some individuals who have been victimized show externalizing (outwardly

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 53

directed) behaviors. For example, an individual who has not previously acted aggressively
toward others may begin to do so as after being victimized, such as when a child who has
been bullied begins to bully others. Aggressive behaviors may be associated with PTSD
(described above). Externalizing behaviors associated with victimization include
hyperactivity, hyper vigilance, and attention problems that may resemble ADHD. Others
may exhibit internalizing (inwardly directed) behavioral symptoms. Many internalizing
symptoms tend to be more psychological in nature (depression and anxiety are sometimes
referred to as internalization), but particular behaviors are indicative of internalization as
well. Internalizing behaviors that have been documented in victimized individuals include
withdrawing from social contact and avoidance of people or situations.

Substance use
Drug and alcohol use associated with victimization is sometimes explained as a form
of self-medication, or an attempt to alleviate other symptoms resulting from victimization
through substance use. Supporting this, alcohol use has been empirically connected to
particular symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Sexual abuse in particular has been
identified as one significant precursor to serious alcohol use among women, although it is
not as well-established as a causal link and may be mediated by PTSD or other psychological
symptoms. Connections have been established between victimization and the use of other
drugs as well. Drug use in adolescence and peer victimization based on sexual orientation are
correlated, Research has drawn connections between substance use and childhood physical
abuse In the general population. Drug use has also been connected to both physical and
sexual victimization among high risk, incarcerated youth.

Types
Specific types of victimization have been strongly linked to particular symptoms or
outcomes. These symptoms are not exclusively associated with these forms of victimization
but have been studied in association with them, possibly because of their relevance to the
specific victimization experiences.

Sexual
Some individuals who have experienced victimization may have difficulty
establishing and maintaining relationships. This is not a subset symptom that is exclusive to
sexual victimization, but the link between sexual victimization and intimacy problems has
been particularly well established in research. These difficulties may include sexual
dysfunction, anxiety about sexual relationships, and dating aggression. Those who
experience sexual victimization may have these difficulties long-term, as in the case of
victimized children who continue to have difficulty with intimacy during adolescence and
adulthood. Some research suggests that the severity of these intimacy problems is related
directly to the severity victimization, while other research suggests that self-blame and
shame about sexual victimization mediates (causes) the relationship between victimization
and outcomes.

Childhood bullying
One symptom that has been associated particularly with school-based peer
victimization is poor academic functioning. This symptom is for exclusive to peer
victimization, but is contextually relevant due to the sting in which such victimization takes
place. Studies have shown poor academic functioning to be a result of peer victimization in
elementary, middle, and high school in multiple countries. Though academic functioning has
commonly been studied in relation to childhood bullying that takes place in schools. It is
likely associated with other forms of victimization as well, as both depression and anxiety
affect attention and focus.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 54

Childhood physical abuse

Researchers have drawn connections between childhood physical abuse and
tendencies toward violent or aggressive behaviors both during childhood and later in life.
This aligns logically with increases in aggression and reactivity described above. The
increased risk for engaging in aggressive behavior may be an indirect symptom, mediated
by-changes in the way that individuals process social information. Increased risk does not
mean that everyone who was physically victimized during childhood will continue the cycle
of violence with their own children or engage in aggressive behaviors to a point that it is
highly detrimental or requires legal action; estimated numbers of individuals who do
continue this pattern vary based on the type of aggressive behavior being studied. For
example, 16-21% of abused and/or neglected children in one particular study were arrested
for violent offenses by around the age of 30.

Moderating factors

In psychology, a moderator is a factor that changes the outcome of a particular situation.

With regards to victimization, these can take the form of environmental or contextual
characteristics, other people’s responses after victimization has occurred, or a victimized
person’s internal responses to or views on what they have experienced.

Attributions
Attributions about a situation or person refer to where an individual place the blame
for an event. An individual may have a different response to being victimized and exhibit
different symptoms if they interpret the victimization as being their own fault, the fault of
the perpetrator of the victimization, or the fault of some other external factor. Attributions
also vary by how stable or controllable someone believes a situation to be. Character logical
self-blame for victimization (believing that something is one’s own fault, that it Is a stable
characteristic about themselves, and that it is unchangeable or out of their control) has been
shown to make victims feel particularly helpless and to have a negative effect on
psychological outcomes. While self-blaming attributions have potentially harmful
moderating effects on the symptoms of victimization for those who are already prone to self-
blame, it is worth noting that self-blame may itself be a result of victimization for some
individuals as noted above).

Interaction with the Criminal Justice System

Perhaps the most agonizing experience for victims involves dealing with the criminal
justice system if and when an offender is apprehended. At this level, the crime is considered
to have been committed against the state, and victims become witnesses to the crimes. This
procedure is very difficult for the crime victim to understand and come to terms with,
because in the victim’s mind, he or she is the one who has suffered emotionally, physically,
psychologically and financially. At this stage of the process, a victim can sometimes feel that
he or she is losing complete control because he or she is not directly involved in the
prosecution or sentencing of the offender.

However, participation in the criminal justice system can aid victims in rebuilding
their lives. If victims are kept well-informed about the criminal proceedings and feel that
they have a voice in the process, they will feel that they are a part of a team effort. This added
effort enables victims to understand the judicial process and helps to return to them a sense
of control to their lives and circumstances.

Tips for Coping

These are some ideas that may help you cope with the trauma or loss:

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 55

• Find someone to talk with about how you feel and what you are going through. Keep
the phone number of a good friend nearby to call when you feel overwhelmed or
panicked.
• Allow yourself to feel pain. It will not last forever.
• Spend time with others, but make time to be alone.
• Take care of your mind and body. Rest, sleep, and eat regular, healthy meals.
• Re-establish a normal routine as soon as possible, but do not over-do.
• Make daily decisions, which will help to bring back a feeling of control over your life.
Exercise, though not excessively and alternate with periods of relaxation.
• Undertake daily tasks with care. Accidents are more likely to happen after severe
stress.
• Recall the things that helped you cope during trying times and loss in the past and
think about the things that give you hope. Turn to them on bad days.

Types of victim services

What are crime victim services?

Crime victim services are program that have been established to assist a victim through the
criminal justice system. There are essentially four types of programs in Canada to provide
services to victims.

Police-Based Victim Services

Several communities have established police-based victim service units/programs available.

Trained personnel generally provide these services and the programs are affiliated with the
local police department. Services are confidential and provide immediate crisis intervention
to victims and their families for a specified period following a crime. Police based services
also provide emotional support, practical assistance, general information about the criminal
justice system and referrals. These services are often limited to a specific time period
following the crime (for example, two weeks). Crown/court-based services

Most communities with courthouses have Crown or court-based services such as

Victim/Witness Assistance Programs. Such programs are designed to help enhance the
understanding and participation of victims and witnesses in the criminal justice system. The
program may provide victims and witnesses with courtroom orientation, information
regarding the criminal justice system, information specific to their case, such as bail,
probation conditions, etc., court accompaniment and referrals to community agencies for
counseling and other support services.

Community-based services include sexual assault centres, distress centres, victim

advocacy groups and safe homes. The fourth type of service involves a system-based
approach and provides a broad range of services from one location. Most provinces use
either police-based, Crown/ Court-based or community-based approaches (or a combination
thereof for service delivery. A few of the smaller provinces use the system-based approach.

Recovering from Victimization

Putting the pieces of one's life together following a crime can be a complicated task. It is
often an emotional process filled with ups and downs. Most victims, a new sense of
equilibrium can eventually be reached, but this process can be time consuming and difficult.
For some victims, support groups and/or counseling may be necessary

The healing process Is often slow and can be complicated by family, friends and
service providers who may not show understanding. Asking why the victim has not “gotten
over it yet” or when he/she Is going to “put it behind her and get on with the rest of her life,”

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 56

are some examples of insensitive remarks that are often made to victims in the aftermath of
crime.

It is possible for the recovery process to involve the following long-term crisis
reactions:

• Health problems related to the stress of the victimization (i.e., headaches, high blood
pressure);
• Eating problems (not having an appetite, eating too much, feeling nauseated);
• Sleeping problems (insomnia, nightmares);
• Relationship problems (being cranky and irritable, not being able to trust others).

These reactions can last for years following a crime. They are all normal responses for people
who have survived a traumatic event.

Memories of the crime can trigger the long-term crisis reactions. When memories are
re - awakened, it can be as painful as the original crime, and at the same time, be confusing
for the victims. Reminder events will vary with different victims but may include:

• Seeing the offender again

• Sensing (seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, tasting) something similar to what the
victim sensed during the crime
• Media coverage of the crime or similar crimes
• Anniversaries of the crime
• Holidays or significant life events going through the criminal justice process.
• Going through civil proceedings.

The intensity and frequency of these crisis reactions usually pose over time. Patience and
time are important factors in the heating puss. A victim’s Cognitive state and the familial and
social supports available to them can also greatly influence them recovery. There are many
different types of victim services in Canada, offered by governments, police services, courts,
volunteers, non-governmental organizations and more. This type of victim service delivery is
independent from police, courts and Crown Attorneys. System-based victim services assist
the victim throughout the victim’s contact with the criminal justice system,

This may Include, but Is not limited to:

• providing information, support and referrals;

• short-term counseling;
• court preparation and accompaniment;
• Victim Impact Statements preparation; and
• Liaising with police, courts, Crown and Corrections.

Police-based victim services are usually provided following a victim’s first contact with
the police. While these victim service agencies may be located in police detachments, they
are not always police employees. In many cases, police may refer the victim to victim services
or advice victim services to contact the victim. Many police-based victim services have a
coordinator and trained volunteers. Police-based victim services may provide Information,
support, assistance, referral, and court orientation to victims of crime.

Court-based victim services provide support for people who he become involved in the
criminal justice process as either victims or witnesses. Court-based victim services provide
information, assistance and referrals to victims and witnesses with the goal of trying to make
the court process less intimidating.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 57

Services may Include:

• court orientation, preparation and accompaniment to court;

• updates on the progress of the case;
• coordinating meetings with the Crown; and
• assessing the ability of a child victim/witness to testify.

Some court-based victim services focus on specific clientele i.e. children or victims of
domestic violence. Community-based victim services provide direct services to victims and
receive funding either in whole or in part by the provincial and/or federal government
responsible for criminal justice matters. Some community-based victim services agencies
serve a specific clientele such as:

• victims of family and sexual violence;

• ethno-specific and diverse communities and,
• child victims.
•
Services offered may include:

• emotional support;
• practical assistance;
• information;
• court orientation and,
• referrals.

Many police-based and community-based victim services utilize the services of volunteers to
assist with their programs. Volunteers can assist in many different ways including direct
contact with clients to aid. Other ways may Include:

• providing administrative help and,

• Fundraising or serving as board members.

Most organizations that use the services of volunteers provide training in victim assistance to
the volunteers, Governmental organizations dedicated to victims may also be able to provide
direct and practical assistance. These organizations can operate at national, provincial or
municipal levels. As the services and types of organizations vary widely, contact those groups
In your community to find out more about what services they offer. The development of new
programs and legislation has resulted from the study of victims. Such programs have
included:

• Victim compensation programs, in which the state pays some of the financial costs of
the victim, particularly with respect 0 violent crime.

• Court services, which provide information and assistance victims.

• Crisis intervention and counseling programs for victims, particularly in the case of
rape.

• Self-protection programs that teach people how to avoid victimization (target

hardening) and how to mobilize as a community to prevent victimization (such as
neighborhood watch).

Working for Positive Change

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 58

Many victims have chosen to speak out and help others who may become victims of
crime by advocating for changes to laws, joining support groups as Counselors or story
tellers or working within the victim services sector. Doing so has allowed many victims to
feel as though they are contributing to society following their victimization. For many
victims, destructive, unwanted victimization has given rise to highly motivated efforts to
make our communities safer and more secure.

Conclusion It is important to remember that victims do not choose to be victimized. Sexual

assault victims do not choose to be raped; parents do not raise their children to be murdered;
and women do not get married to be abused. Becoming a victim of crime is an unpleasant
and unwanted life experience at best. The impact of criminal victimization is serious,
throwing victims into a state of shock, fear, anxiety and anger. The emotional, physical,
psychological and financial ramifications of crime can be devastating to victims. Coping with
and recovering from victimization we complex processes. Sadly, some victims may never be
able to do so.

Activity

(Your activity will be sent to you in separate file, wait for the
instructions of your instructor.)

References

Tancangco, D.L., Ph.D., Victimology; Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc., Philippine

Copyright, 2018; Unit 302, 3rd Flr., DM Building #32 Visayas Ave., Cor. Congressional Ave.,
Project 6, QC
Adra, M.J. Q., MSCrim. et. al., Human Behavior and Victimology; Mindshaper
Publishing House, Philippine Copyright 2020; Zaragoza, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Revisa, W.A., Ph.D., and Dr. Pioquinto, P. V. Human Behavior and Victimology;
Wiseman Book Trading Inc. Manila, Philippines

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 59

Congratulations for completing this module!

Privacy Notice for this Module

We collect your name, program, year and section, contact number, email address, Facebook
and messenger account when you submit your printed module for purposes of coordination.

All personal information collected will be stored in a secure location and only staff will have
access to them.

Student’s Information

Name:
Program:
Year and Section:
Contact No.:
E-mail address:
Facebook Account:
Messenger Account:

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 60

Vision 2020
WPU: the leading knowledge center for sustainable
development of West Philippines and beyond.

Mission
WPU commits to develop quality human resource and green
technologies for a dynamic economy and sustainable
development through relevant instruction,
research and extension services.

Core Values (3CT)

Culture of Excellence
Commitment
Creativity
Teamwork

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)