COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ME480 – P1
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING

Webinar on:

FANTONIAL, CHRISTIAN JAMES C.

GERAGO, PAUL CHRISTIAN P.
GONZAGA, IVAN HARLLY KEN D.
GUDITO, DESSA N.
LABAJO, KENT M.

Group 5
 QUAD COPTER

Drone
- any kind of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) controlled remotely or controlled by onboard
computers.
- have a wide variety of uses, including military, commercial, and civilian applications. For
military uses, drones can be utilized to deliver attacks and conduct surveillance.
Additionally, there has been an increase of drone flying in the agriculture industry to track
livestock and crop growth.

Drone Design Types

Based on the number of Propellers

1. Single Propeller Drone

- provides enough lift force to keep the drone hovering in
the air. All it can do is go vertical and come down. The
drone’s body will keep rotating opposite to the propeller
which is a consequence of newton's third law of motion.

Motor stator - supplies the necessary torque to the rotor.

2. Two Propeller Drone

A rotorcraft propelled by two rotors. Manipulating this kind
of drone to fly at high speeds and take sharp quick turns
requires a higher degree of control accuracy and stability.

The fewer the number of propellers, the less energy the

drone will consume.

3. Three Propeller Drone

- are very rarely used. The main issue with these types of
drones are the motor's reaction torque and gyroscopic
precision. These issues create unnecessary complications
in the design and algorithms.

4. Quadcopter
- controlled with four rotors. Each of these rotor consists of
a motor and a propeller. The quadcopter drones are the
most stable with the ability to move at high speeds and
take sharp turns swiftly. They are used in almost every
industry. There are two types of quadcopters:
(a) H-shape
(b) X-shape

Basic Parts of a Quadcopter:

• Propellers – They spin according to the manual controls of the pilot. The intensity of the
spin correlates to the intensity of the quadcopter’s movement.
• Motors – rotates the propeller. Motor design is important. More efficient motors save
battery life and give the owner more flying time which is what every pilot wants.
 • Camera – Many quadcopters either come with a camera or allow the pilot to attach a
camera to them. This is how pilots practice aerial videography and photography.
• Transmitter/Remote Control – The hand-held device that allows you to maneuver the
quadcopter and adjust its settings.

Maneuvers of a Quadcopter:

• Bank turn – a consistent circular turn in either the clockwise or counterclock-

wise direction.
• Hovering – Staying in the same position while airborne. Done by controlling the throttle.
The operator has to just make sure that the weight of the drone is exactly balanced by the
thrust produced by the propellers
• Figure 8 – Flying in a “figure 8” pattern.

Flight Modes:

• Manual – Similar to flying a helicopter. Once you tilt the quadcopter (roll) it will not auto-
level itself back to its original position. Even if you let go of the stick and it returns to the
middle, the quadcopter will stay tilted.
• Attitude (Auto-level) – Once the sticks are centered, the copter will level itself out.
• GPS Hold – Returns the quadcopter’s position once the sticks have been centered. The
same as attitude mode (auto-level) but using a GPS.

Quadcopter Controls:

Simple sketch of roll, pitch, yaw, and throttle on a transmitter (left image)
and quadcopter (right image).

• Pitch
Done by pushing the right stick forwards or backwards. Tilts the quadcopter, which
maneuvers the quadcopter forwards or backwards.
To achieve forward motion, the front propeller speed is slowed down while the rear
propellers speed up this will cause the pitch motion. The unbalanced horizontal force
makes the drone move forward.
 • Roll
Done by pushing the right stick to the left or right. Literally rolls the quadcopter, which
maneuvers the quadcopter left or right. This movement is carried out by creating
imbalanced lift force in the left and right pairs of propellers.

• Yaw
This allows the drone to make circles and patterns. This motion is achieved by reducing
the speed of one diagonal pair of propellers. Since the reaction torque is proportional
to the propeller speed, eventually a net reaction torque will occur and the drone can
achieve the yaw motion.

This can be done by pushing the left stick to the left or to the right. It rotates the quadcopter
left or right, points the front of the copter different directions, and helps with changing
directions while flying.

• Throttle
Throttle gives the propellers on your quadcopter enough power to get airborne. When
flying, the throttle is engaged constantly. To increase, push the left stick forwards. To
decrease, pull the left stick backwards. This adjusts the altitude, or height, of the
quadcopter

Flight Controller:
Parts of a transmitter
• Trim – Buttons on the remote control that help you adjust roll, pitch, yaw, and throttle if
they are off balance.
 • Aileron – Same as the right stick. However, it relates directly to controlling roll (left and
right movement).
• Elevator – Same as the right stick. However, it relates directly to controlling pitch (forwards
and backwards movement).

Quadcopter Control System:

Drone Sensors
- uses micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) technology

1. Ultrasound sensor - used to measure vertical distances. It sends out a high-

frequency sound pulse and measures how long it takes that pulse to bounce off the
floor and return back to the sensor. From the measured time, distance between the
floor and the drone can be calculated at least up to about 13 feet in altitude.
2. Camera - takes images at 60 frames per second using an image processing technique
called optical flow. This determines how objects are moving between one frame and
the next. From this apparent motion, the mini drone can estimate horizontal motion
and speed.
3. Pressure Sensor - indirectly measures altitude. It uses change in pressure to
estimate how the altitude of the mini drone is changing.
4. Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) – through the IMU and acceleration due to gravity,
the drone’s altitude relative to gravity can be estimated, as well as how fast the drone
is rotating. It contains three sensors:
(a) 3-axis accelerometer – measures linear acceleration
(b) 3-axis gyroscope sensor – measures angular rate
(c) magnetometer – measures Earth’s magnetic field

Ultrasound and pressure sensors are used to determine altitude, while the IMU and the
camera to determine rotational and translational motion.

Actuator
There are four motors in a quadcopter – each with their
own propeller. The motors are laid out in an X configuration
as opposed to a plus configuration. The only difference
between these two is which motors you send commands to
when pitching and rolling the drone.

Drones use BLDC (Brushless DC) motors which are out runner types. Propeller blades are
attached to the cover of the motor. Each cross section of the blade produces a lift force when air
flows over the blade. Due to the airfoil principle, the blade is designed such a way that the lift
force produced along the length will be in the same direction on both parts of the blades allowing
us to represent the total lift force produced by the drone blade.
 Motor configuration: spin direction

Opposing motors spin in the same direction as each other

but opposite direction as the other pair. This is necessary to
make sure that thrust, roll, pitch, and yaw can be commanded
independently of each other.

Overview of the Control Problem

Question: How can the right inputs be injected into the system to achieve the right result?
Can we figure out a way to manipulate these four motors in a very precise way so that the
drone can rotate and maneuver around in three-dimensional space?

Plant - drone (quadcopter)

Four actuators - inject forces and torques into the system
Set of sensors - used to directly or indirectly estimate the state of our mini drone
System states - angular position, rates, altitude, and horizontal velocity

The drone is an under actuated system.

There are only four actuators, but there
are six degrees of freedom:
- three translational directions:
o up and down (y)
o left and right forward (x)
o forward and backwards (z)
- three rotational directions
o roll (ϴz)
o pitch (ϴx)
o yaw (ϴ y)
This is the simple motor mixing algorithm that can
convert between the intuitive roll, pitch, yaw, and thrust
and the less intuitive motor and speeds.
 4D PRINTING

4D Printing = 3D Printing + Time

4D printing is the process through which a 3D printed object transforms itself into another
structure over the influence of external energy input as temperature, light or other environmental
stimuli.
Where the shape, property, or functionality of a 3D printed structure can change as a function of
time. It is time dependent, printer-independent, and predictable.

HOW DOES 4D PRINTING WORK?

4D printing technology uses commercial 3D
printers, such as Polyjet 3D printers. The input
is a “smart material”, that can be either a
hydrogel or a shape memory polymer. Thanks
to their thermomechanical properties and
other material properties, smart materials are
given the attributes of shape change. While
3D printing contains the instructions to print
layers of material successively, 4D printing
adds a precise geometric code to the process
based on the angles and dimensions of the
desired shape. It gives the shape memory and
instructions on how to move or adapt under
certain environmental conditions.

BUILDING BLOCKS OF 4D PRINTING

• 3D Printing Facility
• Stimulus
• Stimulus Responsive Material
• Interaction Mechanism
• Mathematical Modeling
3D PRINTING FACILITY - Must have the capability to print multi-material structures.
MULTI-MATERIAL 3D PRINTING

SYSTEM STIMULUS
Can be:

• Water
• Heat
• Heat + Light
• Water + Heat
• Chemical Response
STIMULUS RESPONSIVE MATERIAL
 INTERACTION MECHANISM

MATHEMATICAL MODELING

• The prediction of the shape-fitting as a function of time

• The prevention of collisions between components of the structure during self-assembly
operations.
• Reduction of the number of trial-and-error experiments.
• Models based on desired shape, material structure, material properties, and stimulus
properties.

MAJOR CAPABILITIES OF 4D PRINTING

• Self-Assembly
• Multi-Functionality
• Self-Repair
Potential Applications of 4D Printing
• Smart key-lock connectors • 4D printed trachea thermo-
responsive tracheal stent

• pH-responsive flow regulating

smart valve • 4D-printed, thermo-responsive
stent

• 4D-printed shape memory gripper

• Self-repair piping system

One potential application of 4D Printing in the real world would be pipes of a plumbing
system that dynamically change their diameter in response to the flow rate and water
demand. Pipes that could possibly heal themselves automatically if they crack or break,
due to their ability to change in response to the environment’s change.
• Self-assembly furniture
Since 3D printing furniture is limited by the size of the printer, 4D printing could allow to
just print a flat board that will curl up into a chair by just adding water or light to it.
• XL 4D printing in extreme conditions
4D Printing would be even more useful in big scale projects. For example, in extreme
environments, such as space, it can have very promising applications. In space, currently,
the 3D printing process of the building causes some issues related to cost, efficiency, and
energy consumption. So, instead of using 3D printed materials, 4D printed materials could
be used to take advantage of their transformable shape. They could provide the solution
to build bridges, shelters or any kind of installations, as they would build up themselves or
repair themselves in case of weather damage.
References:
4D Printing: A technology coming from the future. Sculpteo. (n.d.).
https://www.sculpteo.com/en/3d-learning-hub/best-articles-about-3d-printing/4d-printing-
technology/.
How to Fly a Drone: A Beginner's Guide to Multirotor Systems. UAV Coach. (2021, June 24).
https://uavcoach.com/how-to-fly-a-quadcopter-guide/#guide-1.
YouTube. (2018). Drone Simulation and Control, Part 1: Setting Up the Control Problem.
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hGcGPUqB67Q&t=18s.
YouTube. (2018). Webinar #5: "What is 4D Printing?". YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v9oonQh4YHE&t=64s.
YouTube. (2020). Drones | The complete flight dynamics. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C0KBu2ihp-s&t=28s.
YouTube. (2020). What is 4D printing technology and applications of 4D printing | Ai Basics |.
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CLjUHrx7amc.
YouTube. (2021). Drones | How do they work? YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N_XneaFmOmU&t=300s.
 Tidal Energy

• Oceans make up around 70 percent of the Earth’s surface

• tides are the direct result of the moon’s gravitational pull – and the sun’s.
• combined with Earth’s rotation, this pull causes the water altitudes near the coasts
to fluctuate up to 30-40 ft.
• people have been exploiting the tides to run grain mills for over 1,000 years,
especially on the shores of Europe

Tidal Energy
• a type of hydropower that transforms the movement of the tides into electricity or
other practical forms of power
• tidal energy is a predictable form of renewable energy, which gives regular cycles
of power generation
• tidal plants can only be installed along coastlines

Tides
• are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by gravitational forces exerted by the
Moon and Sun and the rotation of Earth

Tidal Technologies
1. Tidal Barrages
• most efficient tidal energy sources
• a dam-like structure used to capture the
energy from masses of water moving in and
out of a bay or river due to tidal forces
2. Tidal Fences
• a type of tidal power system that has
vertical axis turbines mounted in a fence or
row placed on the sea bed, similar to tidal
turbines
• unlike submerged tidal turbines which are
individually positioned around the oceans floor, tidal fences are composed
of individual vertical-axis turbines that are mounted together within a single
fence like structure, (hence its name
 • the purpose of a tidal fence, also known as a “caisson”, is to harness the
kinetic energy of the underwater tides

3. Tidal Turbines
• tidal turbines are similar to wind turbines in
that they have blades that turn a rotor to
power a generator
• they can be placed on the sea floor where
there is strong tidal flow
• tidal turbines are more expensive to build
than wind turbines but can capture more
energy with the same size blades

Forms of Tidal Energy:

1. Tidal Range
• the difference in height between the high tide and the following low tide
• tidal range is not constant but changes depending on the locations of the
Moon and Sun
• the most extreme tidal range occurs during spring tides, when the
gravitational forces of both the Moon and Sun are aligned (syzygy),
reinforcing each other in the same direction (new moon) or in opposite
directions (full moon)
2. Tidal Stream
• refers to the flow of water caused by the ebb of the tide, and it reveals itself
in the form of tidal current
• a tidal stream or tidal current, changes its speed, direction and horizontal
movement regularly according to the forces of the tide controlling it
• unlike water currents which are a continuous, unidirectional and form a
steady horizontal movement of water flowing down a river or stream
Advantages of Tidal Energy
• Predictable energy output – tides are predictable and constant, thanks to
gravitational forces. Only needing to assess the low or high tide, makes it easier
for engineers to design efficient systems.
• As technology advances for tidal, it will get increasingly cheaper and efficient.
• Protects coastal flooding due to the stability of the rock armour under different
design conditions. Tidal lagoons can withstand 1 in 500 storm surges and waves
a year.
• Equipment and facilities of tidal power can last a lot longer and be more cost-
competitive than other renewable technologies. With an asset life of 120 years,
developments are made for future increases in sea-level.

Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

• High tidal power plant construction costs
• Negative influence on marine life forms
• Location limits
• The variable intensity of sea waves

Facts about Tidal Energy

• Tidal energy is one of the oldest types of energy known to man (harnessed since
circa 787 A.D.)
• Undersea currents power tidal turbines and barrages for the production of energy.
• This form of energy is influenced by location, and speed and volume of the
currents. Therefore, a limited places in the world can produce it.
• Tidal turbines may have a negative effect on wildlife habitats. Unfortunately, they
lead to the displacement and alteration of ecosystems.
 • The speed of the tides is unencumbered; man has no control over it, which can
sometimes be inconvenient.
• The generation of electricity via tidal energy causes on side products such as
pollutants or greenhouse gases.
• A seashore must meet specific criteria to host a tidal power station. One of those
criteria is having a tidal range of over 7 meters. Also, tidal power can be controlled
for no longer than 10 hours each day.
• The expansion of tidal power is rather slow because the cost of building a tidal
power station is very high (upwards of $1.3 million per MW).

About Tidal Energy

• During the 20th century, engineers developed ways to use tidal movement to
generate electricity in areas where there is a significant tidal range—the difference
in area between high tide and low tide.
• All methods use special generators to convert tidal energy into electricity.
• Tidal energy production is still in its infancy.
• There are very few commercial-sized tidal power plants operating in the world
• The first commercial-sized tidal power plant was located in La Rance, France. The
largest facility is the Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station in South Korea
 Tribology
• Coined by Dr. H. Peter Jost in his Jost Report which noted a potential savings of
over £515 million per year for industry by better application of tribological principles
and principles, published in 1966.
• Tribus means “to rub” or “rubbing”

Tribology
• is the science and engineering of interacting surfaces in relative motion
• includes the study and application of the principles of friction, lubrication and wear
• a branch of mechanical engineering and material science

Tribology from the Centuries

Early civilization developed quite the sophisticated devices such as potters wheels, door,
hinges and wheel carriages. The carvings on the tomb at Saqqara shows an Egyptian
tribologist bending down to lubricate the sled that carries a statue of Ti (c. 2400 BB).
Military engineers rose to prominence in the days of the Roman empire by devising both
war machinery and methods of fortification, using tribological principles. Warships (c. 50
AD) recovered from Lake Nemi near Rome, contain bronze balls and rollers used to
support rotating platforms.

Friction
• Is the force that hinders or resist the relative motion of the two contacting bodies.
• It originates from complex molecular and mechanical interactions between the
contacting surfaces.
• It causes wear and generates heat which can lead to premature failure of the
functioning implants.

Types of Friction
1. Static Friction
• defined as the frictional force that acts between the surfaces when they are
at rest with respect to each other
• the magnitude of the static force is equal in the opposite direction when a
small amount of force is applied. When the force increases, at some point
maximum static friction is reached
• Examples: skiing against the snow, creating heat by rubbing both the hands
together, table lamp resting on the table
2. Sliding Friction
• defined as the resistance that is created between any two objects when they
are sliding against each other
• Examples: sliding of the block across the floor, two cards sliding against
each other in a deck
 3. Rolling Friction
• defined as the force which resists the motion of a ball or wheel and is the
weakest types of friction
• Examples: rolling of the log on the ground, wheels of the moving vehicles
4. Fluid Friction
• defined as the friction that exists between the layers of the fluid when they
are moving relative to each other
• Examples: the flow of ink in pens, swimming

Friction between two solids is independent of the materials and dependent upon:
1. The size of the contact zone
2. Surface roughness, asperities
3. Load or pressure on surfaces

Metal Surfaces
• All metal surfaces, irrespective of their finish, contain ridges, peaks, and valleys.
They stick out of the surfaces forming peaks and valleys at microscopic level.
These peaks are called asperities.
• When two metal surfaces come in contact, solid friction, sometimes called static or
adhesive friction, ensues and the surfaces undergo adhesion and cold welding.
• When surfaces start to move, kinematic friction comes into play. Kinematic friction
results from plowing of the asperities of the one surface across the other surfaces.

Wear
• Is a process of removal of material from one or both of two solid surfaces in solid
state contact, occurring when these two solid surfaces are in sliding or rolling
motion together (Bhushan and Gupta 1991).
 • Is the progressive damage, involving material loss, which occurs on the surface of
a component as result of its motion relative to the adjacent working parts (John
Williams).

Types of Wear Process

Abrasive Wear
Types of Abrasive Wear
1. Gauging abrasion - large particles and high compression loads

2. High stress or grinding abrasion - smaller particle and high compression loads

3. Low stress or scratching abrasion - no compression load and scratching abrasion

while material is sliding

Erosive Wear
• The impingement of solid particles or small drops of liquid or gas on the solid
surface case wear what is known as erosion of materials and components.
Types of erosion
• Solid Particle Erosion - surface wear by impingement of solid particles
• Liquid drop erosion - surface wear by impingement of liquid drops
• Cavitation erosion - surface wear in a flowing liquid by the generation and
implosive collapse of gas bubbles

Frictional wear/ Adhesive wear

• Two bodies sliding over or pressed into each other which promote the material
transfer from one to another.

Surface fatigue
• Two surfaces contacting to each other under pure rolling, or rolling with a small
amount of sliding in contact.

Contact fatigue
• As one element rolls many times over the other element.

Delamination wear - a wear process where a material loss from the surface by forces of
another surface acting on it in a sliding motion in the form of thin sheets

Mechanism of delamination wear

• Plastic deformation of the surface.
• Cracks are nucleated below the surface.
• Crack propagation from these nucleated cracks and joining with neighboring one
• After separation from the surface, laminates form wear debris.
Fluid-film Lubrication
• Thin film of lubricant separates bearing surfaces
• Load on bearing surfaces supported by pressure developed in fluid-film

Lubrication characteristics determined by lubricant’s properties:

• Rheological properties
• Viscosity and elasticity
• Film geometry
• Shape of gap between surfaces
• Speed of relative motion of two surfaces

Hydrodynamic Lubrication
• Occurs when 2 nonparallel rigid bearing surfaces lubricated by a fluid-film that
moves tangentially with respect to each other.
• Lifting pressure generated in wedge by fluid viscosity as the bearing motion drags
fluid into gap

Squeeze-film Lubrication
• Occurs when weight bearing surfaces move perpendicularly toward each other
• Wedge of converging fluid formed
• Pressure in fluid-film result viscous resistance of fluid that acts to impede its
escape from the gap
• Sufficient to carry high loads for short durations
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME480-P1
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING

CYBORGS &
SPACE
ROBOTICS PRESENTED BY: GROUP 4

LEADER: DEL PILAR, EDRIAN CLIFF D.

CABALLERO, JAMES RYAN M.
CADIENA, JHONMARC S.
CAMPOS, JOSEPH VICTOR M.
CARTILLA, FRENCH DIETHER O.

INSTRUCTORS: ENGR. EDWIN R. TORILLO|ENGR. MARLITO V. PATUNOB

Prepared by Group 4 of section P1 for the course ME480 – OJT (On-The-Job Training)

CYBORGS

What are they and what are their origin?

A cyborg, also known as cybernetic organism, is a being with both organic and
biomechatronic body parts. Wherein,
Cybernetics
− the science of communications and automatic control systems in both
machines and living things
Organism
− an individual animal, plant, or single-celled life form.

The idea of the cyborg was born in 1960 in the thick of the US-Soviet Space Race.
NASA consultants were trying to solve the problem of keeping humans alive in the hostile
conditions of outer space. Nathan Kline and Manfred Clynes published a paper called
'Cyborgs and Space' where they proposed that rather than trying to construct earth-like
environments for humans to live in, we should try altering the humans themselves.

“Altering man’s bodily functions to meet the requirements of extraterrestrial

environments would be more logical than providing an earthly environment for him
in space . . . Artifact-organism systems which would extend man’s unconscious,
self-regulatory controls are one possibility… If man in space, in addition to flying
his vehicle, must continuously be checking on things and making adjustments
merely in order to keep himself alive, he becomes a slave to the machine. The
purpose of the Cyborg, as well as his own homeostatic systems, is to provide an
organizational system in which such robot-like problems are taken care of
automatically and unconsciously, leaving man free to explore, to create, to think,
and to feel.”
– Cyborgs and space by Manfred E. Clynes and Nathan S. Kline, 1960

A cybernetic organism or “cyborg” in IT is defined as an organism with both

biological and technological components. In some definitions, a cyborg is described as a
hypothetical or fictional creation. However, in a technical sense, humans can be seen as
cyborgs in various types of situations, including the use of artificial implants.

Part of the diverse use of the word “cyborg” revolves around how humans see their
interactions with technology. A person could be considered a cyborg when they are
outfitted with implants such as artificial heart valves, cochlear implants or insulin pumps.

6/28/2021
Prepared by Group 4 of section P1 for the course ME480 – OJT (On-The-Job Training)

A person could even be called a cyborg when they are using specific wearable
technologies like Google Glass, or even using laptops or mobile devices to do work.

However, a different definition of a cyborg involves fictional pictures of human

individuals with enhanced virtual-reality vision, robotic implants on limbs and torso, and
other more significant body IT components. The popular definition of cyborg changes as
a range of science-fiction-type ideas become realities.

Robot vs Cyborg: What’s the difference?

1. A robot is an automated machine while a cyborg is a combination of an organism

with a machine.
2. Robots aren’t alive while cyborgs are.
3. Robots can be simple or very complex while cyborgs are typically very complex.

Concepts and Principles of Cyborgs

The engineering concepts and operating principles involved in cyborgs will depend
on the machine that is augmented or is replacing a human body part. In general, the basic
principle of a cyborg is the implantation of bio-electronic devices to amplify human
thought, memory, vision, and muscle power. To get a better grasp on how different
cyborgs operate, we look at different examples of them.

Professor Warwick

A British university professor has been fitted with cyborg technology enabling his
nervous system to be linked to a computer. He is Professor Kevin Warwick, probably, the
world’s first cyborg. Readings will be taken from the implant in his arm. These readings
will be of electrical impulses coursing through his nerves. These signals, which are
generated by encoding movements like wiggling fingers and feelings like shock and pain,
will be transmitted to a computer and recorded.

In this video, Professor Warwick gives a brief introduction to the merging of

robotics and man, its possible future applications, the fear associated with advancing
technology, and his personal experience being a cyborg in his 2002 experiment.
Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLq7edATaFo

6/28/2021
Prepared by Group 4 of section P1 for the course ME480 – OJT (On-The-Job Training)

A number of experiments have been carried out using the signals detected by the
array, most notably Professor Warwick was able to control an electric wheelchair and an
intelligent artificial hand using this neural interface.

Bionic Arms

Bionic arms have also been developed that have improved the functions of
prosthesis. The Chalmers University of Technology’s has made great strides to provide
advance prosthetic arms that are able to grip according to the user’s commands through
osseointegration – the process involves creating direct contact between living bone and
the surface of a synthetic (often titanium‐based) implant. The university’s associate
professor, Max Ortiz Catalan, is one of many in the team who has led this endeavor to
provide this advance prosthesis to the unfortunate in Sweden. For more information
regarding this, we encourage you to watch this video.
Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JuWUImUAzz8

With the advancements of 3D printing, the creation of bionic arms has been made
relatively cheaper and faster. We see in this following video a preview of Open Bionic’s
Hero Arm. It is more dexterous than the abovementioned Chalmer’s University of
Technology prosthesis, which was only able to adjust grip.
Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=luHmXHEpF7w

Cyborg Production, Manufacturing and Testing

In current prosthetic applications, the C-Leg system developed by Otto Bock

HealthCare is used to replace a human leg that has been amputated because of injury or
illness. The use of sensors in the artificial C-Leg aids in walking significantly by attempting
to replicate the user's natural gait, as it would be prior to amputation. Prostheses like the
C-Leg and the more advanced iLimb are considered by some to be the first real steps
towards the next generation of real-world cyborg applications.

C-Leg

The Ottobock C-Leg is the original microprocessor knee. Since its launch in 1997,
the C-Leg has set the standard for every other knee available, and is the world's most
studied prosthetic device. research proves that with C-Leg, you will experience less falls.
Because of the increased safety, your confidence in the knee will give you the freedom
to no longer think about how or where you walk.

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Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F0bpXmzCw7A

Production of the parts of the C-Leg includes:

1. Proximal pyramid adapter

2. LED (blue) as indicator for the
Bluetooth connection
3. Battery and cover caps
4. Optional flexion stop (8°)
5. Hydraulic unit
6. Charging receptacle cover
7. Charging receptacle
8. Pylon stop
9. Distal tube clamp screws

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Production And Manufacturing

• The high quality of the C-Leg is based on the interaction of various highlight
sophisticated technologies, precise craftsmanship and many individual
manufacturing testing steps that are performed manually
• The C-Leg consists of more than 500 individual components
• The manufacturing process of this product defined by a multitude of tests
performed with all the components in order to offer the users the highest level of
safety in accordance with the state-of-the-art
• The main electronics contain the central control for the C-leg and this component
is manufactured in the state of the art at the Ottobock electronic manufacturing
facility in Vienna.
• The various testing and adjustments steps demand extreme concentration and skill
on the part of the workers.
• Minute components are processed and assemble under the microscope.
• To fill the hydraulic system of the knee joint with air free oil, Ottobock has designed
a special vacuum filling device. This technology guarantees that bound air is
removed from the oil.
• The hydraulic system manufactured are absolutely unrivaled even in the high-tech
segments of other industries.
• Another quality criterion for manufacturing the C-Leg is the traceability of all its
components.
• Each product bears a unique serial number that ensures that all components can
be identified

Testing
• The testing steps are recorded permanently in detailed production documentation.
• C-Leg is used worldwide and functions under all climatic conditions anywhere in
the world.
• Real climatic conditions from topical and polar are simulated for every C-Leg in the
climate cabinet, in which every joint is exposed to a 15-hour temperature humidity
cycle test.
• During this time, the product is exposed to a temperature range from -15 OC to +65
OC and the humidity level of up to 85%.
• Any functional deviation that occurs are recorded electronically and then corrected
by a specialist.
• The individual C-Leg are tested in a Gait simulator for final testing.

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• In the final test, every C-Leg takes at least 1000 steps with a test load of 130kg,
this test produces typical screw imprint on the adjustment core.
• Maximum availability and security for several years are guaranteed by the C-Leg’s
service concept, which Ottobock offers to C-Leg users worldwide
• Production are concluded by reading out test record generated by the test in the
Gait Simulator, thereby any fine tuning for the user that may still be required can
be carried out using software specially developed by Ottobock.
• In the Gait Lab, various situations can be simulated and the system can be
adjusted to the individual user immediately.

Features
• This product features microprocessor control of the stance and swing phase.
• The microprocessor uses the measurements of an integrated sensor system as a
basis to control a hydraulic unit that influences the damping behavior of the
product.
• These sensor data are updated and evaluated 100 times per second. As a result,
the behavior of the product is adapted to the current motion situation (gait phase)
dynamically and in real time.

Thanks to the microprocessor-controlled stance and swing phase, the system can
be individually adapted to person needs.

Types

Cyborg has been divided into two types:

a. Convenient cyborg
− This type is used as per the human conveniences for their fancy needed.
Here human can alter their body parts according to their wish by provision
of exoskeleton.
b. Conditional cyborg
− This aims at the replacement of any designed or injured body parts with
bionic implants that revert back to the normal functional life of human being.

In medicine, there are two important and different types of cyborgs: the restorative
and the enhanced.

Restorative technologies "restore lost function, organs, and limbs. The key aspect
of restorative cyborgization is the repair of broken or missing processes to revert to a

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healthy or average level of function. There is no enhancement to the original faculties and
processes that were lost.

Enhanced cyborg "follows a principle, and it is the principle of optimal performance:

maximizing output (the information or modifications obtained) and minimizing input (the
energy expended in the process)". Thus, the enhanced cyborg intends to exceed normal
processes or even gain new functions that were not originally present.

Models

1. Neil Harbisson with an antenna implanted into his head. Harbisson is actually an
artist born with achromatopsia or extreme colorblindness meaning he could only
see in black-and-white. At first, he received his specialized electronic eye, his
“eyeborg” to be able to render perceived colors as sounds on the musical scale.
He is capable of experiencing colors beyond the scope of normal human
perception: Amy Winehouse is red and pink, while ringtones are green. Harbisson
has been living as a cyborg for more than 10 years already.

2. Dr. Kevin Warwick. He has been known as “Captain Cyborg” and teaches at the
University of Reading as a cybernetics professor. Warwick has experimented with
different electronic implants since 1998 such as installing a microchip in his arm
which lets him operate lights, heaters or computers remotely. As dedicated as he
is, Warwick also gave an implant to his wife, so that when someone grasped her
hand the man was able to experience the same sensation in his. It is jaw-dropping
and awkwardly scary at the same time. He is the founder of Project Cyborg using
himself as the guinea pig on a mission to become the world’s most complete
cyborg.

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3. Jesse Sullivan. Sullivan worked as an electrical linesman when in May 2001, he

suffered a life-threatening accident: he was electrocuted so severely that both of
his arms needed to be amputated. This, however, led to him to become the world’s
first “Bionic Man”. The Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago offered him to replace his
arms with robotic prosthetics, which opportunity he gladly took. He was fitted with
a bionic limb connected through a nerve-muscle grafting. He has control over his
limb with his mind: when he thinks about lifting an arm, for example, certain
muscles in his chest contract instead of muscles in his original arm, and the
prosthetic replacement interprets this contraction as an instruction to move in a
certain way. Moreover, he can also feel temperature as well as how much pressure
his grip applies.

4. Nigel Ackland. He worked as a precious metals smelter until his accident at his
workplace involving an industrial blender. This led to a severe crush injury of his
right forearm. He underwent six months of operations and infections before
deciding to have a below elbow amputation. Over the years, he tried several
prosthetic types, but finally, he received a bebionic3 hand. With its help, he can
independently move to grip even delicate objects. He controls the arm through
muscle movements in his remaining forearm. The range of movement is truly
extraordinary. He can independently move each of his five fingers to grip delicate
objects, or even pour a liquid into a glass.

5. Jerry Jalava. The Finnish programmer had a terrible motorcycle accident when he
lost his left ring finger. It was just a week after he bought his new motorbike that

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he accidentally hit a deer. Right after it happened, he lit a cigarette when he

realized that he misses the upper half of his finger. Then he decided against a
traditional prosthesis and rather went for something “useful”: a 2GB USB port was
embedded into his prosthetic. It doesn’t upload any information directly into his
brain though. He is the perfect example of how you don’t need to be a robotics
mastermind to become a cyborg.

6. Cameron Clapp. Until his life-changing accident, Cameron lived the life of the
“California teens”: he loved to surf, skateboard and hang with friends. He was 15
when he wandered over to some railroad tracks near their house and passed out
after drinking with his brother moved by the 9/11 tragedy what happened around
that time. When a train passed, he, unfortunately, lost both of his legs plus an arm.
He got fitted with a couple of prosthetic legs controlled by his brain with the help of
a microprocessor. Since then, he has become an athlete and an amputee activist.

7. Professor Steve Mann. The Canadian tech-crazy professor designed a headset

that is outfitted with a number of small computers and through it, he can record
and play video and audio. He was one of the, if not the first, cyborgs in the world.
Mann definitely experimented first with wearable computing in high school in the
70s. At MIT he literally bristled with equipment, wearing 80 pounds of computing
equipment to class. Mann was allegedly also the victim of the world’s “first
cybernetic hate crime” in 2012: he was at a McDonald’s restaurant in Paris with
his family when three different McDonald’s employees attempted to forcibly
remove his “Digital Eye Glass” from his head.

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8. Claudia Mitchell. Mitchell is the first woman to have a bionic arm and just as in the
majority of the listed cases, her transformation into a cyborg life was also due to
an accident. Although she spent four years in the Marine Corps she did not lose
her arm during military service but in a motorcycle accident. She lost her left arm
completely. She told several newspapers that she used to peel bananas using
both feet and one hand before she received her bionic arm. The robotic limb comes
from the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago just as in the case of Jesse Sullivan
and was developed for $3 million. She cried when she first peeled a banana one-
handed.

9. Stelios Arcadio. He is also known as Stelarc. He is a performance artist who

believes that the human body is obsolete. To prove this, he has had an artificially-
created ear surgically attached to his left arm. In another show, he hooked up
electrodes to his body to allow people to control his muscles through the Web. He
has his particular views how humans should look at technology and the symbiosis
of the two.

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cwt1l0r4C-A

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Local and International Advancements

Local

Hybrid Assistive Limb (HAL)

The first cyborg-type robot which provides support and improves the bodily
functions of the wearer. It is used in the medical field to teach the patients' brains how to
move their legs in accordance with their intention to carry out the movement.

Cyberdyne CEO and founder Yoshiyuki Sankai told the Philippine Information
Agency that HAL is a motorized wearable mobile exoskeleton designed for the lower body
that helps mobility in users who are disabled or have limited muscle ability.

International

MaxBionic
MaxBionic is a startup in the field of biomechatronics which provides a bionic
prosthesis of MeHands. It is the first Russian-made 3D printed bionic prosthesis. This
type of prostheses using electromyographic (EMG) sensors which read out the electric
potential of muscles is controlled. This signal is processed by the controller then
commands are transferred to engines, and engines, in turn, expose fingers in necessary
provision. The main feature of this prosthesis — a flexible material and advanced
microchip both using data entry through the application, and using a "smart" algorithm
which calculates actions of the patient and either removes, or adds functionality.

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Neuralink
Neuralink works by recording and decoding electrical signals from the brain using
more than 3,000 electrodes implanted in regions of the user’s motor cortex that coordinate
hand and arm movements. Neuralink aims to implant wireless brain computer chips to
help cure neurological conditions like Alzheimer's, dementia and spinal cord injuries and
fuse humankind with artificial intelligence. The device the company is developing consists
of a tiny probe containing more than 3,000 electrodes attached to flexible threads thinner
than a human hair, which can monitor the activity of 1,000 brain neurons.

Electrodermis
Electrodermis works as an artificial skin to the user that detects its actions and
motions of the body part where the device is placed. It is a fabrication system that
simplifies the creation of wearable electronics that are comfortable, elastic, and fully
untethered. It offers a complementary approach to wearable electronics-one that places
value on the notion of impermanence.

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=TyWohWpozp0

Prosthetic limb technology has progressed at an

incredible speed and 3d printing has made Bionic
body parts relatively accessible as well but the real
evolution in cyborgization was the new technology
discovered last year by researchers at MIT it allows
you to feel the robotic body part like a real one not just giving feedback but also feeling
the position of the prosthesis in space the neuro embodied design project is led by

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Professor Hugh Herr at MIT who himself has lost both his legs made prosthetics legs
using neural interface and was developed abbreviated to AMI which connects the nerves
in the residual limb to the external bionic prosthesis and allows you to feel it as a full body
part it is this feeling of unity with its means of rehabilitation the boundary that turns a man
into a cyborg.

Advanced prosthesis is not new, for example James

young having lost his hand developed together with
the Japanese company Konami a bionic arm from his
favorite computer game Metal Gear Solid. The hand
includes its own drone, the lighting of which James
can change accordingly to his mood, laser flashlight, USB port for charging the phone,
sports watches and most importantly the hand itself which
responds to messages sent by his muscles.

Drummer Jason Barnes also lost his hand but did not
part with his muscular career his prosthesis has two
built-in drumsticks. One of which is controlled by a
sensor that reads the electromyogram from the
muscle and the other is controlled by artificial
intelligence and improvised adjusting to the first stick
the beat rate allowing James to be the fastest drummer in the world at 20 beats per
second. Jason also has a single stick prosthesis and a bionic hand that allows him to
learn to play the piano.

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Rob Spence is a director with the cybernetic eye that

records everything he sees to realize the idea we had
to place a wireless camera in the cavity with a 9 by 38
millimeter parameters as a result former employee of
MIT and SpaceX engineer, he was able to literally
squeeze in eight square millimeters not only the camera itself but also the battery with a
signal transmitter to an external device as well as a board for image processing.

In 2003, Neil Harbison was implanted with a sensor

in his head that allows him to hear color by
determining the frequency of the color in front of him
translating it into sound and transmitting sound
through bone conduction to his brain Harbison says
that this connection between color and sound soon
became a perception allowing him to dream about color

References

• http://www.differencebetween.net/technology/difference-between-cyborg-and-
robot/
• https://maggieappleton.com/cyborg-history
• https://www.techopedia.com/definition/15651/cyborg
• https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/cyber/surf/022697surf-
cyborg.html
• http://www.123seminarsonly.com/EC/Cyborgs.html
• http://www.123seminarsonly.com/Seminar-Reports/002/24607988-A-Study-in-
Cyborgs.pdf
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyborg
• https://www.ottobock.com.au/prosthetics/lower-limb/lower-limb-overview/c-leg/
• https://pjn.sbvjournals.com/doi/PJN/pdf/10.5005/jp-journals-10084-12133
• https://www.slideshare.net/akhilrocker143/570-11293382

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SPACE ROBOTICS

 Robot is a system with a mechanical body, using computer as its brain.

Integrating the sensors and actuators built into the mechanical body, the motions
are realised with the computer software to execute the desired task.
 Robots are more flexible in terms of ability to perform new tasks or to carry out
complex sequence of motion than other categories of automated manufacturing
equipment.
 Development of machines for the space environment.
 Usually controlled by humans.

History

1970 - Lunokhod 1
A year after NASA’s Neil Armstrong took
the first steps on the Moon, the USSR sent
up the first successful robotic lunar rover –
Lunokhod 1. From November 1970 until the
summer of the following year, Lunokhod 1
travelled more than 10km across the lunar
surface, operated remotely from the Soviet
Union. Lunokhod 1 ran on solar power
during the day and a polonium thermal heater at night to survive the -150°C temperatures.
It sent back data about the lunar soil and some of the first close-up views of the Moon’s
craters.

1971 - Apollo 15 Moon Buggy

NASA’s first lunar rover, or moon buggy,
didn’t land until Lunokhod 1 had finished its
transmissions, in July 1971. Launched as
part of the manned Apollo 15 mission, the
Apollo 15 moon buggy became the first
vehicle to be driven on the Moon. The
beauty of the drivable rover was that it could
help astronauts explore beyond their
landing site, meaning they could gather
much more exotic samples. Technologically, it formed the basis of every rover that has

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been built and launched since. In this picture, taken by Commander Dave Scott, Module
Pilot Jim Irwin is pictured with the rover with Mount Hadley in the background.

1996 - Sojourner
Sojourner was the original robotic rover to
land on Mars. Named after Sojourner Truth,
the African-American activist, the rover
explored an area of the Red Planet around
its landing site called Ares Vallis.
This area was flat, making it safe for the
rover to land, and was thought to have been
the site of an ancient flood. From its landing
on 4 July 1997 until its final transmission on
two months later, Sojourner sent back 550 images of Mars as well as revealing fascinating
insights about the type of soil, winds and weather.

2003 - Opportunity
Opportunity landed in the Meridiani Planum region of Mars in January, 2004, 20 days
after its sibling Spirit rover landed in Gusev
Crater on the other side of the planet. Spirit
logged almost 8 km before its mission
ended in May 2011, while Opportunity
racked up a record-breaking 45km. During
its travels, it collected more than 217,000
images. A staggering 15 years after its
mission had been expected to end, the
Mars Opportunity Rover made its final transmission to NASA HQ on 10 June 2018.

1996 - Robonaut
The Robonaut project has been conducting research into
robotics technology by sending a humanoid to “live”
alongside the Station’s current crew. Robonauts are
dexterous humanoid robots built at NASA’s Johnson
Space Center in Houston, Texas. The original model was
recently upgraded with two “legs”, more capable
processors and sensors and the so-called Robonaut 2
has been tasked with working through the checkout

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exercises needed to keep the ISS in orbit. These tasks include those that are simple,
repetitive or dangerous.

2008 - Dextre
A little closer to home is Dextre – a two-
armed “telemanipulator” space robot built
by the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) to
help out on the International Space Station
(ISS). It completed its first scheduled task in
February 2011 and has been assisting the
onboard astronauts with maintenance of the
station.
In particular, Dextre tackles the tough, routine jobs that need to be done both inside and
outside the station and is pictured here on the outside of the ISS replacing one of the
exterior cameras.

2009 - Athlete
Athlete has been built and is being tested
by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Its
name stands for All-Terrain Hex-Legged
Extra-Terrestrial Explorer and it’s a robotic
vehicle capable of rolling over and walking
through the kinds of terrains seen on the
Moon, Mars and beyond. It is designed to
help robotic and manned missions,
transport and deposit payloads. This first
version can dock with refueling stations, for example, and future versions will be able to
connect to even more spacecraft.

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2012 - Curiosity
Curiosity landed on Mars on 6 August, 2012 and was
initially commissioned for two years. Just six months after
landing, NASA extended this mission “indefinitely”.
It was built to assess Mars’ "habitability” and it carries the
largest, most advanced suite of scientific instruments
ever sent to the martian surface. These instruments can
take rock samples, analyse their formation and structure
and send the data back to Earth.

2020 - Perseverance
The Perseverance looks similar to Curiosity
yet comes with a more capable wheel
design as well as a drill that will be used for
coring samples from Martian rocks and soil.
This robot is about 10 feet long, nine feet
wide and seven feet tall. Onboard it sports
all manner of tech including 23 different
cameras for navigating Mars and surveying its environment.

Concepts and Principles of Space Robotics

Space robots are considered to be more capable devices that can facilitate
manipulation, assembling, or servicing functions in orbit as assistants to astronauts, or to
extend the areas and abilities of exploration on remote planets as surrogates for human
explorers.

We can send robots to explore space without having to worry so much about their
safety. Of course, we want these carefully built robots to last. We need them to stick
around long enough to investigate and send us information about their destinations. But
even if a robotic mission fails, the humans involved with the mission stay safe.

Sending a robot to space is also much cheaper than sending a human. Robots
don’t need to eat or sleep or go to the bathroom. They can survive in space for many
years and can be left out there, which means, no need for a return trip!

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Plus, robots can do lots of things that humans can’t. Some can withstand harsh
conditions, like extreme temperatures or high levels of radiation. Robots can also be built
to do things that would be too risky or impossible for astronauts.

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V3gIWyjEtEg&t=192s

Robots helping humans explore the space

There are three different classes of robots that is used in space, mainly the:
1. Explore bots (Exploration bots) – are designed to go places and do things
that humans can’t
2. Helper bots (Robot assistant) – which assists astronauts to make their job
easier
3. Automated Systems – often operated with little-to-know human input and
by therefore by definition robotic.

Exploration Bots

The most well know and iconic explore bots are NASA’s Martian Rovers. We’ve
sent 5 of these things to the red planet over the past couple of decades. The first one was
Sojourner, a rover that landed on Mars in 1997. Sojourner weights about 23 pounds, has
a top speed of 0.02 miles per hour, equipped with solar panel. It only lasted for about 85
days from the point it touched down and travel just 100 meters before running out or
energy.

Shortly after that, NASA launched a bigger and better mission with not one but two
rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, both of which landed on Mars on 2004. These rovers
touched down at separate location on Mars but they actually shared a common mission,
finding evidence that water might have been present on Mars some point in time. Within
months of reaching the planet dome, the rover succeeded in their mission and prove that
Mars indeed used to have water in its surface.

After a few years after Spirit and Opportunity, NASA send up a yet another rover,
Curiosity. Curiosity was far bigger than all the rovers before, and that was because it
carried far more scientific instruments. Its goal was to determined was Mars had all the
ingredient necessary to host life. Last but not the least, the Perseverance, the biggest,
heaviest and most advance rover that will be sent to Mars.

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Robot assistant

The next subset of Space Robot is Helper bots which assist astronauts and help
them do their jobs better. This comes in a variety of different shapes, sizes and
configurations. Canadarm2 is a giant robotic arm that is attached to the International
Space Station (ISS) and helps astronauts handle payloads that are too dangerous for
humans to deal with. It weighs 4000 pounds, and it has 10 different joints that allow it to
move nearly endless number of positions and it can even self-relocate and reposition
itself anywhere on the ISS. Not all helper bots aren’t all massive in mechanical, take
Cimon2, this little guy is essentially just a flowing head that drifts off around the interior of
the ISS. Cimon2 is an acronym stands for Crew Interactive Mobile Companion. It is a
flying brain. It is a spherical free-flying robot powered by AI and it uses its touch screen
and voice command to communicate with astronauts. It is trained specifically for
astronauts; it understands specific language based on the things that it will be asked to
do on the ISS.

Automated Systems

The great example if this is the Mars Path Finder, a robotic spacecraft that
delivered the Sojourner to the surface of the Mars back in the 1997. Because Path Finder
was operating around Mars and Mars is so far away from earth, there is so much
communication delay to make operation of viable option, so even to radio waves travel at
speed of light, it still takes over 3 minutes for them to reach Earth and another 3 for them
to go back. And that exactly why NASA designed a spacecraft operate autonomously on
almost all of its navigations and landing own by itself.

Space Robotics Production and Manufacturing

Curiosity Rover on Mars

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Curiosity, also called Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), U.S. robotic vehicle,
designed to explore the surface of Mars, which determined that Mars was once capable
of supporting life. The rover was launched by an Atlas V rocket from Cape Canaveral,
Florida, on November 26, 2011, and landed in Gale crater on Mars on August 6, 2012.

One thing that makes Curiosity stand out is its sheer size: Curiosity is about the
size of a small SUV. It is 9 feet 10 inches long by 9 feet 1 inch wide (3 m by 2.8 m) and
about 7 feet high (2.1 m). It weighs 2,000 lbs. (900 kilograms). Curiosity's wheels have a
20-inch (50.8 cm) diameter. By contrast, the Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and
Opportunity, are 1.6 meters [5.2 feet] long and weigh 174 kg [384 pounds].

According to NASA, Curiosity has four main science goals in support of the
agency's Mars exploration program:
1. Determine whether life ever arose on Mars
2. Characterize the climate of Mars
3. Characterize the geology of Mars
4. Prepare for human exploration.

In support of the science, Curiosity has a suite of instruments on board to better

examine the environment. This includes:
• Cameras that can take pictures of the landscape or of minerals close-up: Mast
Camera (Mastcam), Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) and Mars Descent Imager
(MARDI).
• Spectrometers to better characterize the composition of minerals on the Martian
surface: Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS), Chemistry & Camera
(ChemCam), Chemistry & Mineralogy X-Ray Diffraction/X-Ray Fluorescence
Instrument (CheMin), and Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) Instrument Suite.
• Radiation detectors to get a sense of how much radiation bathes the surface, which
helps scientists understand if humans can explore there – and if microbes could
survive there. These are Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) and Dynamic
Albedo of Neutrons (DAN).
• Environmental sensors to look at the current weather. This is the Rover
Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS).
• An atmospheric sensor that was primarily used during landing, called Mars
Science Laboratory Entry Descent and Landing Instrument (MEDLI).

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k4qAfMJNcCQ

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Types or Models of Space Robots

Remotely operated vehicles (ROV) and remote manipulator system (RMS) are the
two major types of space robots.

ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicles)

A typical ROV can be a rover moving over the terrain upon landing, a lander
operated from a stationary point and is in contact with an extra-terrestrial plain or an
unmanned spacecraft. Besides being used by space researchers for terrain exploration
in space, ROVs are used by bomb squads to detect potentially hazardous materials, in
nuclear facilities and subsea.

Examples:
Space Probes - Unmanned Spacecraft

Rovers - Space exploration vehicle

Robonauts – perform space walk and other human-like tasks

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RMS (Remote Manipulator System)

RMS is the most common robotic device used in industry and manufacturing. It is
more like a robotic arm that recreates various movements of the human arm including up-
and-down, side-to-side and 360-degree circular motion. It can be either computer-
operated or manually controlled.

Example:
Teleoperators - uses human intelligence and mechanical manipulation

So far, RMS has performed various functions on NASA space missions, by acting
as a positioning and anchoring device, remote assembly device and grappler.

Local and International Advancements or Accomplishments

Local Advancements or Accomplishments

Fresh from a double victory at the For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and
Technology (FIRST) Lego League (FLL) World Championship held in USA last April 2019,
the Philippine Robotics National Team bagged another gold medal at the recent FLL
European Open International Turkey 2019 last May 22 -26, 2019 in Izmir, Turkey.

The theme, “Into Orbit”, challenged students to find solutions to physical and social
problems associated with long-duration space flight.

6/28/2021
Prepared by Group 4 of section P1 for the course ME480 – OJT (On-The-Job Training)

The team won for Project Mu.S.C.A., an innovative, effective and systemized way
of helping astronauts solve musculoskeletal problems they face during their stay in orbit.
The suit gives a solution to different physical problems such as bone loss and loss of
muscle mass in microgravity environment of space. Project Mu.S.C.A is a self-adjusting
suit that can monitor the astronauts’ pulse rate, exercise their legs and arms, help them
maintain proper posture in space, massage their arms and legs, help attain the right
temperature for their body and protect astronauts from radiation.

6/28/2021
Prepared by Group 4 of section P1 for the course ME480 – OJT (On-The-Job Training)

International Advancements or Accomplishments

Dextre

The Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM), also known as Dextre,

performs routine maintenance on the ISS. Equipped with lights, video equipment, a tool
platform, and four tool holders, Dextre’s dual-arm design and precise handling capabilities
reduces the need for spacewalks.

Dextre was originally designed to be operated by astronauts from inside the

International Space Station (ISS). The Canadian Space Agency revised Dextre's software
and worked with NASA to come up with a series of tests (called On-Orbit Checkout
Requirements) that would ensure that Dextre could be safely operated from the ground.
Today, Dextre is programmed by Canadian robotics planners at the Canadian Space
Agency's headquarters in Saint-Hubert, Quebec, who prepare all the robotic handyman's
activities and the software he needs to get the job done. Dextre is operated by robotics
controllers both at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston and from the Canadian
Space Agency's headquarters in Saint-Hubert.

In the computer-generated video by the Canadian Space Agency, we are able to

observe one of the many operations of Dextre on the ISS.

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7iJUtfTjUVo

6/28/2021
Prepared by Group 4 of section P1 for the course ME480 – OJT (On-The-Job Training)

Perseverance Rover

The Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover – launched July 30, 2020 and landed
February 18, 2021 – will search for signs of ancient microbial life, which will advance
NASA's quest to explore the past habitability of Mars. The rover has a drill to collect core
samples of Martian rock and soil, then store them in sealed tubes for pickup by a future
mission that would ferry them back to Earth for detailed analysis. Perseverance will also
test technologies to help pave the way for future human exploration of Mars.

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qqsMjy8Rx0&t=8s

The Perseverance rover carries two technology demonstrations to Mars:

1. MOXIE
− The Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment is better known
as MOXIE.
− The MOXIE instrument, located inside the body of the rover, will test
technology that converts carbon dioxide in the Martian atmosphere into
oxygen. Using local resources found on the planet will be important for
future human missions to Mars.

6/28/2021
Prepared by Group 4 of section P1 for the course ME480 – OJT (On-The-Job Training)

2. Ingenuity Mars Helicopter

− Stowed beneath the rover is the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter: a small,
autonomous rotorcraft designed to test — for the first time — powered flight
in the thin Martian atmosphere.

6/28/2021
Prepared by Group 4 of section P1 for the course ME480 – OJT (On-The-Job Training)

Zhurong Rover

Zhurong, which means God of Fire, was carried to Mars on the Tianwen-1 orbiter,
which arrived above the planet in February (May 14) as one of China’s ongoing space
exploration missions.

The robot looks a lot like Nasa's Spirit and Opportunity vehicles from the 2000s. It
weighs some 240kg and is powered by fold-out solar panels.

A tall mast carries cameras to take pictures and aid navigation; five additional
instruments will investigate the mineralogy of local rocks and the general nature of the
environment, including the weather.

Like the American rovers, Zhurong has a laser tool to zap rocks to assess their
chemistry and a radar to look for sub-surface water-ice.

In this video, the differences between the Perseverance and Zhurong rovers are
presented.

Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ePgJAqhXgY

References
• https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-540-30301-5_46
• https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/space-
robots/en/#:~:text=Sending%20a%20robot%20to%20space,things%20that%20h
umans%20can't.

6/28/2021
Prepared by Group 4 of section P1 for the course ME480 – OJT (On-The-Job Training)

• https://www.space.com/17963-mars-curiosity.html
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Curiosity-United-States-robotic-vehicle
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k4qAfMJNcCQ
• https://www.slideshare.net/vanniyavanniya/space-roboticssv
• https://www.nasa.gov/centers/jpl/education/spaceprobe-20100225.html
• https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-540-30301-5_46
• https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/special-purpose-
dextrous-manipulator/
• https://sei.dost.gov.ph/index.php/news-archive/265-philippine-robotics-national-
team-bags-gold-award-in-turkey
• https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/mission/technology/
• https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/mission/overview/
• https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-57122914

6/28/2021
ME480 GROUP 10 - P1

INJECTION MOLDING

What do toys, car seats, and bottle caps have in common?

They're all made with a manufacturing process called injection molding. This process
works by injecting polymers like plastic into a pre-made mold. Injection molding allows
parts to be produced quickly, efficiently, and at low costs.

History

1872 - It all started when John and Isaiah Hyatt patented a device for heating and
injecting celluloid into molds with a plunger. This method was then used to produce items
such as hair combs, buttons, and collar stays.

1909 - Leo Hendrik Baekeland discovered phenol-formaldehyde plastic otherwise

known as Bakelite. Bakelite is a thermosetting resin that was well-suited to injection
molding. Bakelite was found to be better suited for this process than celluloid. Bakelite
has useful insulating properties that made it ideal for electrical applications.

1930s - Marked the beginning of the use of thermoplastic materials which are still in
use today.

Polystyrene - Commonly used in CD cases.

Polyvinyl Chloride - Commonly used in PVC pipes.
Polyolefins - Commonly used in shrink wrap.
Polymethyl Methacrylate - Commonly used for aquarium barriers.

This laid the foundation of plastics used in manufacturing as we know it today. Soon,
more items would be made of plastic than ever before. Eleven years later, World War II
created a huge demand for cheap mass-produced materials and injection molding was
the perfect solution.

1946 - American inventor James Watson Hendry built the first extrusion-screw injection
machine which gave much better control over injection speed and quality. This method
overcame a major shortcoming of plunger style machines, the uneven heating of the
plastic material. Now, items can be created more quickly, efficiently, and cheaply than
ever before.

1956 - Another American W.H. Willert received a patent for a reciprocating-screw

plasticator. This reciprocating screw mechanism sat inside the plasticator machine and
heated mixed plastic and allowed material to be moved to the right places. This method
increased mixing efficiency by reducing cycle time.

1970s - James Watson Hendry developed the first gas-assisted injection molding
process which allowed for the production of more complex designs like those with hollow
insides. It also allowed for greater precision while reducing surface blemishes, sync
marks, and internal stresses. The improved design flexibility also meant better strength
and finish as well as reduced production time, cost, weight, and waste.

1972 - Industrial robotics and injection molding were combined for the first time. Using
robots to perform secondary operations while the injection molding machine is working,
led to greater increased efficiency and output. At this time, mold design and process
refinement were still expensive and required a lot of trial and error in the physical testing
of new mold configurations and process settings.

1978 - Moldflow simulation software was released. Engineers and designers were able
to leverage the software to monitor injection pressure and temperature to optimize
production, eliminating problems before they became expensive.

1985 - Milacron introduces the first all-electric molding machine which helped reduce
energy costs and reduce the environmental concerns of hydraulically powered injection
molding machines.

1990s - Moldflow had released Moldflow Advisor which opened up the technology for
people who weren't dedicated plastic engineers. This software also made the process
cheaper and easier to use and open it up to an entire non expert audience.

2008 - When Autodesk acquired Moldflow in 2008, the process was paired with CAD
and CAD translators. The software's focus shifted to a strong emphasis on ease of use
and the user experience. With this booming popularity and the increased global demand
for products, we began to see the integration injection molding into other, more
customizable applications. By the late-2000s improved automation capabilities helped
significantly cut down on labor and costs. And as the world became more eco conscious,
the industry saw a shift to using recycled, renewable, and reclaimed plastic.

2010 - Moldflow created the first cloud-computing offering, providing computational

power for optimization and design of experiments.

Today, injection molding is used by engineers and designers to create almost everything
you see around you, from tables and chairs to food containers and mop heads.

As we progress, injection molding will tie further into the cloud, making the technology
more accessible and collaborative. With injection molding cementing its capabilities into
new integrations the opportunities to create or endless. The future of manufacturing is
clearly being molded for a new era of innovation.

Injection Molding

- is a common method for mass production and is often preferred over other
processes, given its capability to economically make complex parts to tight
tolerances. Before any parts can be molded, however, a suitable injection mold
must be designed, manufactured, and commissioned.

- is sometimes referred to as a “net shape” manufacturing process because the

molded parts emerge from the molding process in their final form with no or minimal
post-processing required to further shape the product.

Two types of injection molding processes:

1. Plunger type injection – uses an injection plunger to compress and transfer the
material, which is heated and melted using a heating cylinder and a torpedo, then
injected into the mold cavity.

2. Screw plunger type injection - force molten plastic or rubber material into a mold
cavity; this solidifies into a shape that has conformed to the contour of the mold.
Mold Functions

 The primary function of the mold is to contain the polymer melt within the mold
cavity so that the mold cavity can be completely filled to form a plastic component
whose shape replicates the mold cavity.

 A second primary function of the mold is to efficiently transfer heat from the hot
polymer melt to the coolant flowing through the mold, such that injection molded
products may be produced as uniformly and rapidly as possible.

 A third primary function of the mold is to eject the part from the mold in an efficient
and consistent manner without imparting excessive stress to the moldings.

How much does injection molding really cost?

Out of all the costs for injection molding, tooling makes up the majority. Tooling makes or
breaks the plastic injection molding process because proper tooling is key to having a
successful production run. Tooling pricing depends on the complexity of the part, the
length of the production cycle, and thermoplastic resin material choice.

Components of Injection Molding Machine

Mold cavity - is the “heart” of the mold where the polymer is injected and solidified to
produce the molded part(s) with each molding cycle.

Injection unit - heat the plastics material to a uniform and homogeneous melt and to
inject it into the mold under controlled conditions of pressure and flow rate. Given the low
thermal conductivity, high specific heat, and high melt viscosity of fluoropolymers, these
are exacting tasks.

Clamp unit - are used to keep the mold shut against the forces developed when injection
pressure pushes plastic into the closed mold. Therefore, the amount of clamp force must
be at least equal to the amount of injection force. The machine sizes are determined by
the clamping tonnage forces.

Mold base - material in into which mold is created.

Guide pins - aligns both halves of mold.

Sprue - opening that allow plastics to be injected into mold.

Runners - path cut into mold that travels from sprue to cavity.

Gates - used to control flow of plastics from runners into mold.

Vents (risers) - allow air to escape mold.

Water Channels - used to control temperature of mold.

Nozzle - end of barrel - transfer molten plastics material into mold.

Plunger - transfers raw material from barrel into nozzle.

Injection molding is the most common method for mass manufacturing plastic products.
Examples include chairs, toys, cases for consumer electronics, disposable cutlery, and
Lego bricks.

Injection molding was invented to solve a problem for billiards. In the nineteenth century
billiard balls were composed of ivory harvested from the tusks of African elephants. This
devastated the elephant population, so a billiards manufacturer offered a $10,000 prize
for a replacement for ivory. And this spurred John Wesley Hyatt to develop one of the first
plastics “celluloid” to create billiard balls. He patented an apparatus for molding products
from celluloid. This apparatus was the birth of plastic injection molding.

In principle, injection molding is simple: melt plastic, inject it into a mold, let it cool and,
then, out pops a plastic product. In reality, injection molding is an intricate and complex
process.

An injection molding machine has three main parts: injection unit, mold, and clamp.

Plastic pellets in the hopper feed into the barrel of the injection unit. Inside the barrel, a
screw transports the pellets forward. Heater bands wrapped around the barrel warm up
the plastic pellets. As the pellets are moved forward by the screw, they gradually melt,
and are entirely molten by the time they reach the front of the barrel.

Once enough molten plastic is in front of the screw it rams forward like the plunger of a
syringe. In a matter of seconds, the screw injects the molten plastic into the empty part of
the mold called the cavity image. The plastic solidifies in under a minute, the mold opens
and the part is ejected. The mold then closes, and the process repeats.

All injection molded objects start with these plastic pellets, which are a few millimeters
in diameter. They can be mixed with small amounts of a pigment, called “colorant,” or with
up to 15% recycled material, then fed into the injection molding machine.

Before the mid-20th century, injection molding machines used only external heating of
the barrel to melt the plastic before a plunger injected the molten material. But because
plastic conducts heat poorly, the temperature was uneven in the barrel: either the middle
was too cool and not fully melted, or the outer regions were too hot and degraded the
plastic. The solution was the reciprocating screw. Often regarded as the “most
important contribution that revolutionized the plastics industry in the twentieth century.”
In the earlier plunger-style machines plastic filled completely the cylindrical barrel, but the
plastic was not at a uniform temperature. The reciprocating screw overcomes this in
three ways:

First, in modern units, the plastic fills only the space around the shaft of the screw.
This eliminates the cooler central region leaving a thinner, evenly heated layer of
plastic.

Second, the screw has “flights” that wrap around the shaft. As the screw rotates,
the flights transport the raw material forward through the barrel. The flights also
serve to mix the plastic. The screw action agitates the melting pellets within the
flights to create a uniform mixture.

Third, the screw action itself heats the plastic throughout. The shaft’s diameter
increases along the screw so that the distance between the wall and the shaft
decreases. The flights, then, squeeze out air as they move the plastic forward and
they shear the pellets and press them against the barrel’s wall. This shearing
creates friction and so heats the plastic throughout.

This screw-induced shear supplies a majority of the heat needed to melt the plastic
between 60 and 90 percent with the rest from the heater bands. The molten plastic flows
past the front of the screw through indentations or “flutes.” When there’s enough plastic
to fill the mold at the front of the screw, it rams forward like a plunger injecting the plastic
into the mold.

The plastic cannot flow backwards because when the screw pushes forward, a “check
ring” is shoved against a “thrust ring” to block that backwards movement of the molten
plastic. This forces the plastic into the mold. Initially the cavity image is filled with air. As
the molten plastic is injected it forces air out of the mold, which escapes through vents.

These vents are channels ground into the landing surface of the mold. They are very
shallow, between 5 and 40 microns deep. The plastic, which has the consistency of warm
honey, is too viscous to flow through the narrow vents.

To speed the plastic’s solidification, coolant, typically water, flows through channels
inside the mold just beneath the surface of the interior. After the injected part solidifies,
the mold opens. As the mold opens the volume increases without introducing air, which
creates tremendous suction that holds the mold together.

So at first the mold slowly opens several millimeters to allow air to rush in and break the
vacuum, and then, the mold quickly opens the rest of the way so the part can be removed.

These precision machines steel molds can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars.
Removing the part from the mold can be difficult. When the plastic cools, it shrinks and
so become stuck tightly on the core half of the mold. Molds have built-in ejector pins that
push the part off the mold. The ends of the pins sit flush with the core half of the mold,
but are not perfectly aligned, sometimes they protrude or are indented slightly. So, if you
look closely you will see circular ejector pin “witness” marks on molded products.

When the part drops from the mold, an operator has to remove the sprue - that section
of plastic that connected the injection unit to the mold. Sprues are manually twisted or cut
off the part. Sprues are attached to objects only in molds that make a single part at a time
like a chair.

Smaller objects are made in multiples in a single mold. In these, the sprue connects not
to the part itself, but to a network of distribution tunnels called “runners”. The runners fan
out from the sprue and connect to each cavity in the mold via a small - typically rectangular
- entrance called the gate. You can see the gate on plastic cutlery. The parts for model
planes typically come still attached to their runners.

Molds always have at least two parts. And where the parts of the mold meet is called the
parting line. When mold halves close they are never perfectly aligned, nor do they have
sharp corners. This creates a noticeable parting line on the molded object.

Another very important aspect of mold design is the draft angle. If a part has walls that
are exactly 90 degrees, it will be very difficult to eject because its inner walls will scrape
the core half of the mold. Also, the vacuum will be difficult to break because air cannot
readily enter. However, if the walls are slightly tapered, even just one or two degrees, it
becomes much easier for the part to be removed because once the part moves slightly,
the walls are no longer in contact with the core half and air can rush in.

One impressive example of injection molding is the Lego brick. You can see the injection
point in the middle of a stud. But this is not from a gate or a sprue. The Lego molds use
“hot runners”. Hot runners are a heated distribution network. This keeps plastic inside
the runners molten, while the plastic in the mold solidifies. This leaves no gates or sprues
to be removed: the molded bricks are ejected ready to use.

The downside is that this setup is more expensive than a traditional cold runner system.
On the bottom edges of the brick you can see ejector pin witness marks. And what’s most
clever is where Lego designs their draft angle. The outside of a Lego brick must be
square. So, if you cut a Lego brick in half, you can see that these inner supports are
thicker at the top than at the bottom. There is a draft angle of about one and a half
degrees. This helps the ejector pins push the brick off the mold. The core half and the
cavity half of Lego molds are designed so that the parting line is at the bottom edge of
the brick which hides the parting line.

So, to return to where this all started. John Wesley Hyatt and his injection molded billiard
ball did not win the $10,000 prize. His celluloid billiard balls didn’t bounce quite right but
he did pioneer injection molding, a thriving, continually evolving manufacturing process
which creates many billions of products every year.

Injection Molding Steps

Injection molding is used to create most of the plastic products we see around us every
day. But before we arrive at the finished product, plastic production oftentimes starts with
a rough product sketch and a 3d design.

Step 1: Concept & Design

An injection molding company helps you transform a preliminary idea into a design
that's fully suitable for injection molding. Early optimization is essential in order to
guarantee reliable high quality products. Sub-optimal mold flow can lead to defects
such as burns and sink marks. Once the design is finished it will materialize into
one or multiple product molds.

Step 2: Tooling

The entire product shape is carved inside this mold allowing liquid plastic to take
the desired shape. The cost and quality of your mold is dependent upon the
amount of product units you want to manufacture. The most expensive molds can
hold up to million numbers of product shots. After the mold has been built and
tested, the actual mass production can take off.
Step 3: Mass Production

The mold is placed into an injection molding machine filled with tiny plastic
granules. The machine injects the plastic into the mold cavity at high pressure. The
plastic quickly solidifies after which the mold is open to reveal the finished product.
All in only a matter of seconds.

Step 4: Assembly & Finish

If the product is relatively complex, 2k molds can be used. 2k molds are molds
holding multiple components. Afterwards, the different parts will be assembled by
hand, machine, or even inside the mold itself. Injection molding can be used to
combine different materials into a single product such as combining plastic with
rubber, glass, wood, or metal. This makes injection molding the method of choice
for many product ideas, even when it places extraordinary demands on function or
aesthetics. In order to finish the product with the desired look, it can be coded,
printed, and treated in many other ways to alter the product's look and feel. Finally
the product is packaged, shipped, and distributed all the way into the hands of the
end user.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Definition

 An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine in which the combustion

of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an
integral part of the working fluid flow circuit.
 The internal combustion engines (briefly written as I.C. Engine) are those
engines in which the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder.

Types of Engines

1. External Combustion Engine

2. Internal Combustion Engine

External combustion engines – If the combustion of fuel place outside the engine
cylinder, it is an external combustion engine. Ex: Steam turbine, Gas Turbine, Steam
Turbine etc.

Internal combustion engines – If the combustion fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder, it is an internal combustion engine. Ex: Petrol engine, Diesel Engine

History

The Commercialization of the Internal Combustion Engine

 Some of the first internal combustion engines were experimented with in the first
decade of the 19th century, so there is no single flashpoint that you can point at
and say, “that is when the internal combustion engine was invented.” For
instance, the first commercially-successful unit was a coal gas-powered
machine that bore more than a passing resemblance to the horizontal, double-
acting, external combustion steam engines of the day. This design was patented
in 1860 by Belgian engineer Jean J. Lenoir. It was first used in automobiles in
1863, but the internal combustion engines of today bear little resemblance to this
pioneer.

Jean J. Lenoir (12 January 1822 – 4 August 1900)

The Otto Cycle Appears

 The first modern internal combustion engine was created in 1876 by Nicolaus
Otto. Otto’s engine utilized the same type of four stroke design that had been
 patented earlier by French engineer Alphonse Beau de Rochas, but Otto’s
design was more practical. He developed two engines (the Otto silent engine and
the Otto-Langen engine), and modern four-stroke engines continue to utilize the
otto cycle.

Nicolaus August Otto (10 June 1832– 26 January 1891)

Further Developments of the Internal Combustion Engine

 Later in the 19th century, much of the groundwork was laid for the modern
internal combustion engine. For instance, British engineer Edward Butler
invented components like the jet spray carburetor, spark plug, ignition coil, and
magneto in 1884, and the supercharger was patented by German engineer
Gottlieb Daimler in 1885. Karl Benz, another German engineer, developed the
two-stroke gasoline engine (1879) and the boxer engine (1896). The Atkinson
cycle, which is used in some modern gasoline/electric hybrids, was also
developed in the 19th century by James Atkinson, and the diesel engine was
patented by Rudolph Diesel in 1893.
 Modern gasoline and diesel engines operate on the same basic principles as
these early pioneers in the field, although there have been a number of
incremental improvements over the years. Today’s internal combustion engines
are more fuel efficient due to innovations like fuel injection and computer
controls, and they create less pollution due to emission control systems.

Types of Internal Combustion Engines

Following is the list of type of IC Engines (Classified according to different method):

1. Working Cycle Employed

 Two-stroke Engine - A two-stroke engine is a
type of internal combustion engine that
completes a power cycle with two strokes of
the piston during only one crankshaft
revolution.

Two-Stroke Engine Cycle

1. Down Stroke
2. Up Stroke
 Four-stroke Engine - A four-stroke
engine is an internal combustion
engine that utilizes four distinct piston
 strokes (intake, compression, power, and exhaust) to complete one operating
cycle. A complete operation in a four-stroke engine requires two revolutions
(7200) of the crankshaft.

Four-Stroke Engine Cycle

1. Suction/Intake Stroke
2. Compression Stroke
3. Power/Combustion Stroke
4. Exhaust Stroke

 Six-stroke Engine - The term six-stroke engine has been applied to several
alternative internal combustion engine designs that attempt to improve on
traditional two-stroke and four-stroke engines. Claimed advantages may include
increased fuel efficiency, reduced mechanical complexity and/or reduced
emissions.

Six-Stroke Engine Cycle

1. Intake stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Power stroke
4. Exhaust stroke
5. Air intake
6. Air exhaust

2. Fuel Used

 Gasoline - Made from crude oil—which is, essentially, unrefined petroleum—

along with other forms of petroleum, gasoline is the fuel our vehicles need to get
us from Point A to Point B. Used in spark-ignition engines.
 Diesel - Like gasoline, diesel is also fuel, but instead of powering up
conventional cars, it is typically used in trucks and boats. Diesel engines utilize
compressed air for their ignition, unlike the spark ignitions of a standard
automotive.

3. Nature of Thermodynamics Cycle Used

 Otto Cycle
An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the functioning
of a typical spark ignition piston engine. It is the thermodynamic cycle most
commonly found in automobile engines.
 Diesel Cycle
The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion
engine. In it, fuel is ignited by heat generated during the compression of air in the
combustion chamber, into which fuel is then injected.
 Dual Cycle
The dual combustion cycle (also known as the limited pressure or mixed cycle) is
a thermal cycle that is a combination of the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle. Heat
is added partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure, the
 advantage of which is that more time is available for the fuel to completely
combust.

4. Methods Of Cooling

 Air Cooling
Air Cooling is the simplest method to cool down the engine. When the
combustion of fuel takes place inside the cylinder of an internal combustion
engine, a very high temperature is developed. It is therefore, necessary to extract
some of the heat from cylinder to atmosphere.
 Water Cooling
Water Cooling is the proven method of engine cooling. To pass some of the heat
generated due to combustion in the cylinder of an internal combustion engine,
air-cooling or water-cooling methods are used in automobile engineering. In
water cooling method, the advantage of superior convective and conductive
properties of water is used. Water is circulated continuously through the cylinder
with an annular space known as Water Jacket.

5. Method of Ignition

 Spark-Ignition Engine
Usually a petrol engine, where the combustion process of the air-fuel mixture is
ignited by a spark from a spark plug.
 Compression-Ignition Engine
Generally, the Diesel Engines, where the combustion process is caused by the
elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to the mechanical
compression.
Both the 2 stroke engines and the 4 stroke engines can work with the spark
ignition and the compression ignition system.

6. Arrangement of the Engine Cylinder

Horizontally opposed engine Vertical Engine

Radial Engine V-type Engine

Main Parts of Internal Combustion (IC) Engine

Cylinder Block

 Intake of fuel, compression and burning of fuel takes place in cylinder block.
 It is made up of High-Grade Cast Iron and usually cast in one place.
 To Cool the cylinder block a Water Jacket or fin is used.
Cylinder Head

 Both the intake and exhaust ports are closed by the two valves known as inlet
and exhaust valve.
 The inlet valve, exhaust valve, spark plug, injector etc. are bolted on the cylinder
head.
Crank Case

 It serves as the lubricating system too and sometime it is called oil sump.
 All the oil for lubrication is placed on it.
Piston

 It is cylindrical-shaped mass that reciprocate back and forth in the cylinder

transmitting force to the crankshaft.
 It is a prime mover in the engine.
 Its main function is to give tight seal to the cylinder through bore and slide freely
inside the cylinder.
 The top of the piston is called CROWN and the sides are called SKIRT.
 It is made up of cast iron or aluminum alloy.
 Aluminum alloy piston are light. Used for light engine.
Piston Rings

 Metal ring that fixed into a circumferential groove around the piston.
 Piston rings are made of cast iron of fine grain and high elastic material which is
not affected by the working heat.
 Sometimes it is made by alloy spring steel.
 It makes a seal between piston and cylinder walls.
 It is also used for lubrication purpose.
 A small two stroke engine has two piston rings to provide good sealing but a four-
stroke engine has an extra ring which is known as oil ring.
Connecting Rod

 There are two ends of connecting rod one is known as big end and other as
small end. Big end is connected to the crankshaft and the small end is connected
to the piston by use of piston pin.
 It transmits the reciprocatory motion of piston to rotary crank.
Crankshaft

 The crankshaft of an internal combustion engine receives the efforts or thrust

supplied by the piston to the connecting rod.
 The function of crankshaft is to transform reciprocating motion in to a rotary
motion.
  The shape and size of crankshaft depends on the number and arrangement of
cylinders.
 The crankshaft mounts in bearing so it can rotate freely.
 Made up of 37CI5 Alloy Steel
 Manufacturing Method: Casting
Flywheel

 It is a rotating mass used as an energy storing device.

 Its main function is to rotate the shaft during preparatory stroke.
 It also makes crankshaft rotation more uniform.
 Made up of Cast Iron
 Manufacturing Method: Casting
Spark Plug

 Its main function is to conduct the high potential from the ignition system into the
combustion chamber.
 It provides the proper gap across which spark is produced by applying high
voltage, to ignite the mixture in the ignition chamber.
 It is used in Petrol Engine.
 Gap of spark plug lies between 0.6 to 1.8 mm
Carburetor

 Its main function is to atomize and meter the liquid fuel and mix it with air as it
enters the induction system of the engine.
 It maintains the fuel-air proportion under all conditions of operation appropriate to
the conditions.
Valves

 It is used to allow the flow into and out of the cylinder at proper time in the cycle.
 Valves are made of forged steel.
 Two stroke engines do not have valves they have ports system.
Intake Manifold

 It is a piping system which delivers Incoming air to the cylinder.

 They are made up of cast metal, plastic or composite materials.
 In SI engine fuel added to the air in intake manifold.
Exhaust Manifold

 Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from the system.
 Made up of Cast Iron
Turbo Charger

 It is a turbine drive forced induction device that increases an internal combustion

engine’s efficiency and power output by forcing extra compressed air into the
combustion chamber.
 The turbine is powered by the exhaust flow of the engine so it takes very little
useful work from engine.
Valve Spring

 The spring which attached at the valve is known Valve Spring.

 Its main function is that it Push back the valve or closed the valve.
Fuel Injector

 A pressurized nozzle which sprays the fuel into the incoming air on SI Engine.
 Injector directly spray at the combustion chamber.
 It is placed at the center of the combustion chamber.
 The power to inject the fuel comes from a pump or a pressure container farther
back in the fuel supply.
Camshaft

 It is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an internal part.

 It is used to operate poppet valves.
 It is made up of Chilled Iron Castings and Billet Steel.

Working Principle of Internal Combustion Engines

Four Stroke Engine Cycle

Suction/Intake Stroke

Intake stroke occurs when the air-fuel mixture is introduced to the

combustion chamber. In this stroke, the piston moves from TDC (Top Dead
Center – the farthest position of piston to the crankshaft) to BDC (Bottom Dead
Center – the nearest position of piston to the crankshaft.) The movement of the
piston towards the BDC creates a low-pressure area in the cylinder. The inlet
valve remains to open a few degrees of crankshaft rotation after BDC. The intake
valve then closes and the air-fuel mixture is sealed in the cylinder

 Key points
 Inlet Valve – Open
 Outlet Valve -- – Closed
 Crankshaft Rotation – 180 degrees

Compression Stroke

In compression stroke, the trapped air-fuel mixture is compressed inside

the cylinder. During the stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC compressing
the air-fuel mixture. The momentum of the flywheel helps the piston move
forward. Compressing the air-fuel mixture allows more energy to be released
when the charge is ignited. The charge is the volume of compressed air-fuel
mixture trapped inside the combustion chamber ready for ignition. The inlet and
outlet valves must be closed to ensure that the cylinder is sealed resulting in
compression.

 Key points
 Inlet Valve – Closed
 Outlet Valve -- – Closed
 Crankshaft Rotation – 180 degrees (Total 360 degrees)
Power/Combustion Stroke

The second rotation of the crankshaft has begun when it completes a full
rotation during the compression stroke. The power stroke occurs when the
compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited with the help of a spark plug. Ignition or
Combustion is the rapid, oxidizing chemical reaction in which a fuel chemically
combines with oxygen in the atmosphere and releases energy in the form of
heat. The hot expanding gases force the piston head away from the cylinder
head.

 Key points
 Inlet Valve – Closed
 Outlet Valve -- – Closed
 Crankshaft Rotation – 180 degrees (Total 540 degrees)
Exhaust Stroke

As the piston reaches BDC during the power stroke, combustion is

complete and the cylinder is filled with exhaust gases. The exhaust valves open
during this stroke and the inertia of the flywheel and other moving parts push the
piston back to TDC, forcing the exhaust gases through the open exhaust valve.
At the end of the exhaust stroke, the piston is at TDC and one operating cycle
has been completed.

 Key points
 Inlet Valve – Closed
 Outlet Valve -- – Open
 Crankshaft Rotation – 180 degrees
 0 (Total 7200)
Two-Stroke Engine Cycle

Down Stroke

The piston moves from TDC (Top-Dead-Center) to BDC (Bottom-Dead-

Center) letting the fresh air enter into the combustion chamber. The fresh air-fuel
mixture gets into the combustion chamber through the crankcase. In this stroke,
the crankshaft makes the rotation of 1800.

Up Stroke

The piston is pushed from BDC to TDC. As a result, the fuel-air mixture
gets compressed and the spark plug ignites the mixture. The mixture expands
and the piston is pushed down. The inlet port is open during the upstroke. While
the inlet port is opened, the mixture gets sucked inside the crankcase. When the
mixture is pushed up into the combustion chamber during the previous upstroke,
a partial vacuum is created as no mixture is left behind in the crankcase. This
mixture is ready to go into the combustion chamber during downstroke but
remains in the crankcase until the piston goes up till TDC. In this stroke, the
crankshaft makes the rotation of 1800.

From the 2nd downstroke onwards the exhaust gases get expelled out
from one side while a fresh mixture enters into the combustion chamber
simultaneously due to partial vacuum created in the combustion chamber after
 removal of exhaust gases. This is the beauty of the engine. Both things happen
at the same time which makes it a 2-stroke engine.

The exhaust gases are expelled from the 2nd downstroke onwards from
one side while simultaneously a fresh mixture of air and fuel is injected into the
combustion chamber due to the partial vacuum created in the combustion
chamber after the removal of exhaust gases.

Difference Between Petrol Engine and Diesel Engine

The main difference between a petrol engine and a diesel engine is a petrol
engine draws a mixture of petrol and air during the suction stroke. And a diesel
engine draws only air during the suction stroke.

The petrol engine works on the Otto cycle. It is easy to start, lighter and cheaper,
It has a high running cost and low maintenance cost.

The diesel engine works on the diesel cycle. It difficult to start, heavier and
costlier, It has low running cost and high maintenance cost.

The petrol engines thermal efficiency is about 26%. These are high-speed
engines and used in light-duty vehicles. Where diesel engines thermal efficiency
is about 40%. These are low-speed engines and used in heavy-duty vehicles.

Comparison Between 2-stroke engine and a 4-stroke engine

 A 4-stroke engine weighs 50% heavier than a 2-stroke engine.

 A 4-stroke engine is more efficient than a 2-stroke engine because fuel is
consumed once every 4 strokes.
 A 2-stroke engine creates more torque at a higher RPM, while a 4-stroke engine
creates a higher torque at a lower RPM.
 A 4-stroke engine is quieter than a 2-stroke engine.
 2-stroke engines tend to wear out fast because they are designed to run at a
higher RPM.
 2-stroke engines are easier to fix because of simple construction. 4-stroke
engines have complex designs with more parts making them more expensive
and repairs cost more.
Two-stroke engines are typically found in smaller applications such as chainsaws, boat
motors, and dirt bikes. Four-stroke engines are found in go-karts, lawnmowers, and
combustion engines in your car.

Two-Stroke vs Four-Stroke

Two Strokes Four Stroke

It has one revolution of the crankshaft It has two revolutions of the crankshaft
during one power stroke during one power stroke

It generates high torque It generates less torque

Its uses port for fuel’s outlet and inlet It uses valves for outlet and inlet of a
fuel

Its engines result in lesser thermal Its engines result in higher thermal
efficiency efficiency

It has a larger ratio in terms of power to It has a lesser ratio in terms of power
weight to weight

It generates more smoke and shows It generates less smoke and shows
less efficiency more efficiency

Requires more lubricating oil as some Requires less lubricating oil

oil burns with the fuel

Due to poor lubrication, more wear and Less wear and tear occurs
tear occurs

Engines are cheaper and are simple for Engines are expensive due to
manufacturing lubrication and valves and are tough to
manufacture

Engines are basically lighter and are Engines are basically heavier because
noisy its flywheel is heavy and are less noisy

COMPARISON OF CI AND SI ENGINES

The CI engine has the following advantages over the SI engine.

1. Reliability of the CI engine is much higher than that of the SI engine. This is
because in case of the failure of the battery, ignition or carburetor system, the SI
engine cannot operate, whereas the CI engine, with a separate fuel injector for
each cylinder, has less risk of failure.

2. The distribution of fuel to each cylinder is uniform as each of them has a

separate injector, whereas in the SI engine the distribution of fuel mixture is not
uniform, owing to the design of the single carburetor and the intake manifold.

3. Since the servicing period of the fuel injection system of CI engine is longer, its

maintenance cost is less than that of the SI engine.

4. The expansion ratio of the CI engine is higher than that of the SI engine;
therefore, the heat loss to the cylinder walls is less in the CI engine than that of
the SI engine. Consequently, the cooling system of the CI engine can be of
smaller dimensions.

5. The torque characteristics of the CI engine are more uniform which results in
better top gear performance.

6. The CI engine can be switched over from part load to full load soon after
starting from cold, whereas the SI engine requires warming up.
 7. The fuel (diesel) for the CI engine is cheaper than the fuel (petrol) for SI
engine.

8. The fire risk in the CI engine is minimized due to the absence of the ignition
system.

9. On part load, the specific fuel consumption of the CI engine is low.

Applications of IC Engines

Following are the application of ic engine:

 IC engines are used in Road vehicles like scooters, motorcycles, buses etc.
 It is also used in Aircraft.
 IC engine is commonly used in Motorboats.
 IC engine has great application in small machines, such as lawnmowers,
chainsaws, and portable engine-generators.
Advantages of internal combustion engines

 Size of engine is very less compared to external combustion engines

 Power to weight ratio is high
 Very suitable for small power requirement applications
 Usually more portable than their counterpart external combustion engines
 Safer to operate
 Starting time is very less
 High efficiency than external combustion engine
 No chances of leakage of working fluids
 Requires less maintenance
 Lubricant consumption is less as compared to external combustion engines
 In case of reciprocating internal combustion overall working temperature is
low because peak temperature is reached for only small period of time (only
at detonation of fuel).
Disadvantages of internal combustion engines

 Variety of fuels that can be used is limited to very fine quality gaseous and
liquid fuel
 Fuel used is very costly like gasoline or diesel
 Engine emissions are generally high compared to external combustion engine
 Not suitable of large scale power generation
 In case of reciprocating internal combustion noise is generated due to
detonation of fuel
Benefits of having an IC Engine in a Vehicle

An internal combustion engine has certain advantages which are as follows:

 The advantage of an internal combustion machine is that the produced

gas can be made to act directly for generating movement. For example,
the gas can act on the pistons or rotors, or the entire engine thus enabling
it to drive the vehicle.
  These engines are mostly used in transportation and other situations
where there is the need for a non-electric motor.
 Internal combustion engine offers extremely high driveability as well as
durability which makes it a smart choice for automobiles.
 Compared to gas turbines, ICEs are more efficient at idle speed in terms
of fuel consumption. Moreover, while gas turbines have delayed
responses to various power requirement changes, ICEs respond quickly.
 These engines are portable in nature as these are more convenient to use
in vehicles over electricity.
Advancements

One of the main advances in the design of the internal combustion engines is in the use
of a direct injection mechanism.

With this mechanism, air is first filled in the cylinder then when halfway through
the compression stroke, a controlled small amount of fuel is directly injected into
the cylinder so that a lean mixture can be created. With this design, there is no
need to have a carburetor. Again, it ensures that a better compression is
achieved while lowering the NOx emissions. Furthermore, the stratified learner
mixture can also be used which ensures a reduction in the fuel consumption.

Another possible advance in the design of these engines is the use of superchargers.

With this system, the compressor is coupled to the engine through the use of a
belt to ensure that the output is directly connected to the engine. Its performance
s enhanced through the increment in the amount of oxygen fed into the engine
which helps in better burning. This is achieved through the sucking of air as the
engine rotates which is then compressed and fed into the cylinders. Again, there
is the use of turbochargers which work in the same way as superchargers but the
coupling of the compressor is not in the engine but rather in the shaft. With this
system, the turbocharger uses the exhaust to turn the turbine which then is
responsible for the rotation of the compressor. However, turbochargers can only
work at very high velocity exhausts which then makes them take some time to
start up more so when in cold starts. This is the time referred to as the turbo lag.

Another advancement was in the use of six stroke engines.

This system was invented for specific reasons which included reducing the
weight to power ratio, reducing scavenging, increasing power and fuel economy,
improving cooling and reducing the moving parts. With this system, the water is
first injected into the cylinder towards the end of the exhaust stroke. In this way,
the fluid absorbs the heat then expands in a way that provides another power
stroke. This system improves the performance of the engines by reducing the
emissions and increases the performance. With such a system it is easy to
conserve the environment through the minimal emissions.
References:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=chb8H8W4tOo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMjtmsr3CqA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xkItNVXsTA

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine

https://www.theengineerspost.com/internal-combustion-engines/?fbclid=IwAR0P2OClu1
vXUtnBYiAX-FykGl0GV4ZTbl9gxPFX5VhUasgKcm9mFAqFvSs

http://www.crankshift.com/history-internal combustionengine/?fbclid=IwAR2BzKK6TY
bfxHHvxq_W-kI9tzPaShyOVwP68RVDOOFQsb1oX1k8L Dbkzchttps://byjus.com
/physics/two-stroke-engine/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Lenoir

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Otto

https://byjus.com/physics/four-stroke-engine/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-stroke_engine

https://www.rd.com/article/diesel-vs-gasoline/

https://engihub.com/air-cooling-of-engine/

http://www.hillagric.ac.in/edu/coa/agengg/lecture/243/Lecture%203%20Engine.pdf

https://clubtechnical.com/internal-combustion-engines

https://iarjset.com/upload/2017/august-17/IARJSET%2018.pdf

Comparison of Spark Ignition Vs Compression Ignition - ExtruDesign

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdUnLM_9hYA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BorWWz8i5DA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yxnYUqp_HYs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e8PeuoX8V94
 ME480 GROUP 3 – P3
HEMI ENGINES AND HAND FREE DRIVING

Figure 1: Chrysler FirePower 227 Hemi

HISTORY OF HEMI ENGINE

“Hemi” was invented by Allie Ray Welch out of

Chelsea, Wisconsin in 1901, around the turn of the last
century, with the first prototype built by Truscott Launch and
Engine Company. A two-cylinder engine, the first Hemi
ever was built for use in a boat. As for the first Hemi-
powered car, Chrysler wasn’t the first either, that honor went
to a Belgian company called Pipe in 1905.
Figure 2: First Hemi Engine Built By
WHAT IS HEMI ENGINE?
Welch

▪ “Hemi” is the colloquial term for an engine with

hemispherical combustion chambers, likely referring to Chrysler’s
muscle cars in our modern automotive epoch

Figure 3: Chrysler 426 Hemi engine (second generation hemi)

 ▪ is also a trademark, denoting a series of inline six-cylinder and V8
Chrysler HEMI engines

▪ It usually (but not always) has cylinders with a domed head (rather than
the traditional flat head) and a hemispherical combustion chamber.

WHAT MAKES HEMI UNIQUE?

A HEMI has a super-efficient combustion chamber, making it markedly

more powerful than other engines. Unlike a flat-head piston on the engine,
HEMI pistons usually have a dome-shaped head with open, angled valves and
twin spark plugs per cylinder. This configuration allows for:

▪ Extreme intake of air through the intake manifold

▪ Optimal mix of fuel and air
▪ Higher compression
▪ More power output
Valves of a HEMI ENGINE
• A hemispherical Combustion chamber allows the valves of a two-valves-per-
cylinder engine to face each other across the chamber, rather than opening
side by side.
• This layout make space in the combustion chamber roof for larger valves and
straightens the air flow passages through the cylindrical head.
• This creates what is known as a cross-flow head, where intake charge flows
directly across the chamber to the exhaust valve located directly opposite it.
Which adds efficiency and power
Valve Train of a HEMI ENGINE
• The hemi motor’s tappets and pushrods are accurately “pointed” at the rocker
arm ends for best mechanical efficiency. The intake and exhaust rocker arms
are different in length, and pivot in opposite directions.
• The valve seats are located directly across the head from each other and 90
deg. To the bank axis, not parallel to the cylinder bank axis.
Spark Plugs of a HEMI ENGINE
• the spark plug is frequently placed at or near the centroid of the
chamber to facilitate complete combustion.
• Because of their lack of quench Hemispherical combustion chambers
are more sensitive to fuel octane rating
• A given compression ratio will require a higher octane rating to avoid
ping in a hemi engine than in a wedge engine.
• Hemi engines use a dome-topped pistons to attain desired compression
ratio but this design only works best at high RPM

Pistons of a HEMI ENGINE

• All original pistons are cast aluminum alloy. Most have slight compression
domes ( area of slightly smaller diameter than the bore) with two valve
clearance notches. All have “floating” pistons pins with retaining clips

ADVANTAGES OF HEMI ENGINE

▪ Powerful: due to their unique design, Hemi engines can develop more power
than other types of engines

▪ Reliable: Hemi engines are well-known because they last in time and they
can be reliable on long-term

▪ key advantages of the HEMI head versus the flathead engine. Surface area
causes heat loss. Fuel that is near the head walls may be so cool that it does
not burn efficiently. With a flat head, the amount of surface area relative to
volume of the combustion chamber is large.

▪ Size of the valves - Since the

valves are on opposite sides of the
head, there is more room for
valves. The engine design that
preceded the HEMI was a wedge-
shaped combustion chamber with
the valves in line with each other.
 ▪ Spark plugs were located in the center of the cylinder. This created an even
flame front, increasing combustion efficiency (often offset, However, by large
domed pistons which shrouded the spark plugs)

▪ Hemi engines could run higher compression rations without fear of detonation

DISADVANTAGES OF HEMI ENGINE

▪ Heavy: Due to its design, the Hemi engine is heavier than other traditional
engines

▪ Expensive: Hemi engines area more expensive engine, but this is something
normal for an engine which generates more power than the other ones

▪ Not Fuel Efficient: Because of the power it generates, the engine is not fuel
efficient and the gas mileage is not great.

▪ One thing that a hemispherical head will never have is four valves per
cylinder. The valve angles would be so crazy that the head would be nearly
impossible to design.

▪ Even if hemi engines have good advantages mention above, this design is
outdated and modern engines have better configurations such as a
PENTROOF ENGINE that could accommodate four valves

▪ Most high performance engines no longer use HEMI engine designs but the
desire to create a smaller combustion chamber which reduce the heat loss
during combustion, and also shorten the distance the flame front must travel
during combustion.
SOME OF THE MODELS THAT CURRENTLY FEATURES A HEMI

▪ Jeep Wrangler Rubicon 392 ( Horsepower: 470 )

The newly announced Wrangler Rubicon
392 is the first Wrangler to feature a V8 in a
very long time.

Figure 4: Wrangler Rubicon 392

▪ Jeep Grand Cherokee ( Horsepower: 475-707 )

The Jeep Grand Cherokee comes in a few flavors of Hemi adornment,
including a standard Hemi and a supercharged iteration.

▪ Dodge Charger ( Horsepower: 370-797 )

The Charger has changed greatly since its
introduction in the 1960s, the biggest
difference being the number of doors. And like
the Grand Cherokee, the Charger now comes
in a few flavors.

▪ Dodge Challenger ( Horsepower: 375-797 )

a multitude of options when selecting a Hemi- Figure 5: Dodge 6.2L HEMI®
powered Challenger.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

▪ SUPERCHARGING

is a method used to increase the density of air charge before it enters the
cylinder. This allows more Oxygen for combustion than conventional methods.
This results in better combustion and more power output. In January 2003, the first
supercharged HEMI engine was produced by Chrysler. It produces 430
horsepower and 480 lb-ft of torque, using the 5.7 Hemi engine and a Whipple
supercharger.

▪ CYLINDER DE-ACTIVATION

A new Mopar 5.7 litre 345 HEMI Magnum V-8 engine was developed
recently. It is capable of producing a power of 345 hp at 5600 rpm and a torque of
375 lb-ft at 4400 rpm from 5.7 litres. A 6.1 litre version is being developed to be
fitted in the Mercedes five-speed automatic to replace the current V-10 to obtain
more power. This engine featured cylinder de-activation using the multi-
displacement system (MDS). The MDS turns off the fuel consumption in four
cylinders when V-8 power is not needed. The system deactivates the valve lifters.
This keeps the valves in four cylinders closed, and there is no combustion. In
addition to stopping combustion, energy is not lost by pumping air through these
cylinders. This provides a world-class combination of power and fuel economy.

REFERENCES :

▪ https://www.autolist.com/guides/what-is-a-hemi-engine
▪ https://www.thedrive.com/cars-101/37691/hemi
▪ https://www.seminarsonly.com/mech%20&%20auto/HEMI%20engines.ph
p
▪ https://auto.howstuffworks.com/hemi.htm
▪ https://www.slideshare.net/cpricenaik/supercavitation?next_slideshow=1
HAND FREE DRIVING

Figure 6: Tesla Model S

Definition
Self-driving vehicles are cars or trucks in which human drivers are never required
to take control to safely operate the vehicle also known as autonomous or driverless cars.
They combined sensors in software to control, navigate and drive the vehicle. Various
self-driving technologies have been developed by Google, Uber, Tesla Nissan and other
major automakers, researchers, and other technology companies.
History of Self-Driving Cars
Early Concepts and Ideas
In 1925, Houdina Radio Control demonstrated the radio-controlled "American
Wonder" on New York City streets, traveling up Broadway and down Fifth Avenue through
the thick of a traffic jam. The American Wonder was a 1926 Chandler that was equipped
with a transmitting antenna on the tonneau and was operated by a person in another car
that followed it and sent out radio impulses which were caught by the transmitting
antenna. The antenna introduced the signals to circuit-breakers which operated small
electric motors that directed every movement of the car.
An early depiction of automated guided cars was Norman Bel Geddes's Futurama
exhibit sponsored by General Motors at the 1939 World's Fair, which showed radio-
controlled electric cars propelled via electromagnetic fields provided by circuits embedded
in the roadway.
Early Experimentations and Trials
In 1953, RCA (Radio Corporation of America) Labs successfully created a system
with a miniature car guided and controlled by wires laid in a pattern on a laboratory floor.
The system sparked the imagination of Leland M. Hancock, traffic engineer in the
Nebraska Department of Roads, and of his director, L. N. Ress, state engineer. The
decision was made to experiment with the system in actual highway installations.

In 1957, a full-size system was successfully

demonstrated by RCA Labs and the State of
Nebraska on a 400-foot strip of public highway at the
intersection of U.S. Route 77 and Nebraska Highway
2, then just outside Lincoln, Nebraska. It was
developed in collaboration with General Motors, who
provided two standard car models with equipment
consisting of special radio receivers and audible and
visual warning devices that were able to simulate
automatic steering, acceleration, and brake control.
Figure 7:General Motors' Firebird III on display at
the Century 21 Exposition, Seattle, 1962.

During the 1960s, the United Kingdom's Transport

and Road Research Laboratory tested a
driverless Citroen DS that interacted with magnetic
cables that were embedded in the road. It went
through a test track at 80 miles per hour (130 km/h)
without deviation of speed or direction in any weather
conditions, and in a far more effective way than by
human control.
Figure 8The RRL's modified 1960 Citroen DS19 to
be automatically controlled at the Science
Museum, London.

In the 1980s, a vision-guided Mercedes-Benz robotic van, designed by Ernst Dickmanns

and his team at the Bundeswehr University Munich in Munich, Germany, achieved a
speed of 39 miles per hour (63 km/h) on streets without traffic.
In 1994, the twin robot vehicles VaMP and Vita-2 of Daimler-Benz and Ernst Dickmanns
of UniBwM drove more than 620 miles (1,000 km) on a Paris three-lane highway in
standard heavy traffic at speeds up to 81 miles per hour (130 km/h), albeit semi-
autonomously with human interventions. They demonstrated autonomous driving in free
lanes, convoy driving, and lane changes with autonomous passing of other cars.

In October 2005, the second DARPA Grand Challenge was again held in a desert
environment. GPS points were placed, and obstacle types were located in advance. This
year, five vehicles completed the course. David Hall of Velodyne competed in the event
with a prototype lidar sensor, which he then manufactured with Velodyne LiDAR. Lidar
quickly became an integral sensor for self-driving vehicles, and five out of six of the
vehicles that finished the 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge used Velodyne's product.

Many major automotive manufacturers, including General Motors, Ford, Mercedes Benz,
Volkswagen, Audi, Nissan, Toyota, BMW, and Volvo, are in the process of testing
driverless car systems. In 2010, the Institute of Control Engineering of the Technische
Universität Braunschweig (Germany) demonstrated the first autonomous driving on public
streets in Germany with the research vehicle Leonie. It was the first car licensed for
autonomous driving on the streets and highways in Germany.

Operating Self-driving Cars Currently

March 2015 Tesla Motors announced that it will introduce its Autopilot technology
by mid-2015 through a software update for the cars equipped with the systems that allow
autonomous driving.

Figure 9 Tesla Models S,3,X,Y and, R (Roadster)

On March 5, 2021, Honda began leasing
in Japan a limited edition of 100 Legend
Hybrid EX sedans equipped with the newly
approved Level 3 automated driving
equipment which was granted the safety
certification by Japanese government to
their autonomous "Traffic Jam Pilot"
driving technology, and legally allow
drivers to take their eyes off the road.
Figure 10 Honda Legend Hybrid EX

Self-Driving Car Technology: How Do Driverless Cars Work?

Self-driving vehicles employ a wide range of technologies like radar, cameras,
ultrasound, and radio antennas to navigate safely on our roads. In modern autonomous
vehicles, these technologies are used in conjunction with one another, as each one
provides a layer of autonomy that helps make the entire system more reliable and
robust.

What technology makes self-driving cars possible?

It’s really three technologies, Amici says: sensors, connectivity, and software/control
algorithms.

“Most of the sensors required for autonomous driving are available today and are used
in advanced safety features such as blind-spot monitoring, lane-keep assistance, and
forward collision warning,” he says. “Sensors for other features such as radar,
ultrasonics, and cameras provide the input necessary to navigate the car safely.”

Connectivity means cars have access to the latest traffic, weather, surface conditions,
construction, maps, adjacent cars, and road infrastructure, he says. This data is used to
monitor a car’s surrounding operating environment to anticipate braking or avoid
hazardous conditions.

Finally, software/control algorithms are needed to reliably capture the data from sensors
and connectivity and make decisions on steering, braking, speed, and route
guidance. “By far the most complex part of self-driving cars, the decision-making of the
algorithms, must be able to handle a multitude of simple and complex driving situations
flawlessly,” Amici says. “The software used to implement these algorithms must be
robust and fault-tolerant.”
Two of the most talked about self-driving advancements come from Google and Tesla.
They take different approaches: Google is using lidar (a radar-like technology that uses
light instead of radio waves) sensor technology and going straight to cars without
steering wheels or foot pedals. Tesla has rolled out a software system called Autopilot,
which employs high-tech camera sensors as a car’s “eyes,” to some of its cars already
on the market.

While technologies and capabilities continue to evolve toward making autonomous

vehicles a reality, there are some hurdles. Right now, autonomous cars are legal only in
a few U.S. states, as regulators weigh how to best ensure their safe interaction with
standard human-driven vehicles.

“Self-driving capability will add benefits to our whole society, such as providing
transportation for people who are otherwise not able to drive because of age or physical
impairment,” Freckmann says. “That is both exciting and meaningful.”

5 Core Components
• Central computer – it analyzes all the data from the various sensors to manipulate
the steering, acceleration, and braking.

Vision Sensors
• Radar Sensors – it is dotted around the car and monitor the position of vehicles
nearby.
• Cameras – it will detect traffic lights, read road signs, and keep track of other
vehicles. Also, it will look out to pedestrians and other obstacles ahead.
• Lidar Sensors – it will help to detect the edges of the roads and identify lane
markings by bouncing pulses of light off the car
surroundings. In addition, lidar is a remote
sensing method that uses light in the form of a
pulsed laser to measure distances from object.
• Ultrasonic Sensors – these are planted in the
wheels and can detect the position of curbs and
other vehicles when parking.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
• Decreased the number of accidents
• Lessens traffic jams
• Stress-free parking
• Time-saving vehicle
• Accessibility to transportation
Disadvantages
• Expensive
• Safety and security concerns
• Prone to hacking
• Fewer job opportunities to others
• Non-functional sensors

Safety Features
1. Adaptive Cruise Control - also known as Dynamic Cruise Control is an intelligent
form of cruise control that works by slowing down the speed and speeding up
automatically to keep pace with the vehicle in front of it.
2. Autonomous Emergency Braking – this technique works by scanning the road
ahead and can apply the brakes automatically to avoid a collision.
3. Blindspot Detection – is one of the core technologies which provides 360 degrees
of electronic coverage around a car, regardless of the speed. Blindspot detection
or blindspot monitoring includes two different categories, active blindspot
monitoring and passive blindspot monitoring.
4. Electronic Stability Control – an automatic feature that uses automatic computer-
controlled braking of individual wheels to assist in maintaining control in critical
driving situations.
5. Lane-Keeping Assist – a technique in autonomous driving vehicles that enables
vehicles to travel along a desired line of lanes by adjusting the front steering angle.
6. Reverse Park Assist – helps a driver to sense when objects are in the blind spot
of the vehicle. The system can help in preventing reverse parking accidents.
7. Rear Cross-Traffic Assist – traffic alert system helps drivers reversing out of
perpendicular parking spaces when their rear view is obstructed.
8. Traffic Jam Assist – the technique is basically a low-speed version of Adaptive
Cruise Control that tries to maintain the set speed while taking other vehicles into
account. Traffic jam assist is based on the sensors, and the functionality of
adaptive cruise control with stop & go and lane-keeping support.
 9. Vehicle to Vehicle Communication – a technique that wirelessly exchanges
information about the speed, position as well as distance of the surrounding
vehicles.
10. Vehicle Guidance System – This technology helps steer the vehicle without human
intervention. Unlike driver assistance systems, this system needs no monitoring by
a human driver. The Vehicle Guidance System is part of the control structure of
the vehicle and consists of a path generator, a motion planning algorithm, and a
sensor fusion module.

SAE Classification

A classification system with six levels – ranging from fully manual to fully automated
systems – was published in 2014 by SAE International, an automotive standardization
body, as J3016, Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor
Vehicle Automated Driving Systems. This classification is based on the amount of driver
intervention and attentiveness required, rather than the vehicle's capabilities, although
these are loosely related. In the United States in 2013, the National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration (NHTSA) released a formal classification system, but abandoned
it in favor of the SAE standard in 2016. Also in 2016, SAE updated its classification,
called J3016_201609.

Figure 11 SAE (J3016) Automation Levels

References:

https://analyticsindiamag.com/10-creative-safety-features-for-driverless-car/

halffastchicago.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-autonomous-car/

https://www.fi.edu/science-of-selfdriving-cars

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-driving_car#cite_ref-75