NAME STUDENT : LARAIB HUSSA NAME TUTOR: MALIHA BARI

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PROGRAM: B.ED (1.5YEARS) COURSE NAME : PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

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Q.1 What is meant by philosophy? Explain its definitions provided by the different philosophers..

ANS.

DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY

A beginner in philosophy is perturbed to find that different philosophers have given different definitions of
philosophy. While some philosophers have laid emphasis on psychological facts, others have given more importance
to values. According to John Dewey, "Whenever philosophy has been taken seriously, it has always been assumed
that it signified achieving a wisdom that would influence the conduct of life." On the other hand, according to
Windelband, philosophy is" the critical science of universal values."However, some important definitions of
philosophy are as follows:

Quite literally, the term "philosophy" means, "love of wisdom." In a broad sense, philosophy is an activity people
undertake when they seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves, the world in which they live, and
their relationships to the world and to each other. As an academic discipline philosophy is much the same. Those
who study philosophy are perpetually engaged in asking, answering, and arguing for their answers to life’s most
basic questions. To make such a pursuit more systematic academic philosophy is traditionally divided into major
areas of study.

1. Philosophy is a Critical Method of Approaching Experience Examples of this type of definitions are as
follows: 1. "Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method of approaching experience rather than a body of
conclusions about experience." Edgar S. Brightman 2. "If is not the specific content of the conclusions, but
the spirit and method by which they are reached, which entitles them to be described as philosophical..."
Clifford Barrat
"Were I limited to one line for my answer to it, I should say that philosophy is general theory of criticism."C. J.
Ducasse

2. Philosophy is Comprehensive Synthetic Science The following definitions of philosophy emphasize its
synthetic aspect: 1. "Philosophy, like science, consists of theories of insights arrived at as a result of systematic
reflection." —Joseph A. Leighton
2. "Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science." Herbert Spencer
3. "Our subject is a collection of science, such as theory of knowledge, logic, cosmology, ethics and aesthetics, as
well as a unified survey." Roy Wood Sellars
4. The above mentioned definitions of philosophy show that while some philosophers have mainly emphasized
critical philosophy, others have defined it as a synthetic discipline. In fact, both these view-points are one-sided
because philosophy is both critical as well as synthetic. Literally speaking, the word 'philosophy' involves two
Greek words Phil meaning love and Sophia meaning knowledge. Thus literally speaking, philosophy means love
of wisdom. The literal meaning of philosophy shows that the philosopher is constantly and everywhere engaged in
the search for truth. He does not bother so much to arrive at final conclusions and continues with his search for
truth throughout his life. Hisaim is the pursuit of truth rather than its possession .

Scope of Philosophy

The scope of philosophy can be divided into the following two parts:

(1) Field of Philosophical Sciences. The scope of philosophy includes different philosophical sciences such as
metaphysics, epistemology, logic, semantics, philosophy of science, axiology, aesthetics, ethics, philosophy
of religion, political philosophy, philosophy of education, philosophy of history, economic philosophy etc.
All these sciences are important parts of the field of philosophy.

(2) Field of Philosophy as Comprehensive Science. Philosophy is the science of sciences, the mother of all
sciences. From this point of view, its scope includes the criticism and synthesis of the postulates and conclusions
of the physical and social sciences.
 (3) Subject Matter of Philosophy. The scope of philosophy clarifies its subject matter. Its subject matter includes
the conclusions and postulates of all the physical and social sciences besides their general problems.

In the words of C.D. Broad, "The object of philosophy is to bake over the result of the various sciences, add to
them the result of religious and ethical experiences of mankind and then reflect upon the whole, hoping to be able
to reach some general conclusions as to the nature of the universe and as to our position and prospects in it."

The above discussion makes it clear that the philosophical problems, scope and subject matter depend on
philosophical sciences and the conclusions and postulates of different sciences.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

While studying the philosophical thoughts of a philosopher, we study his thinking in different branches of
philosophy. These branches of philosophy are as follows:
(1) Epistemology. Philosophy is the search for knowledge. This search is critical. Hence, the first problem which
arises before a philosopher is about the nature of knowledge and its limitations. Therefore, epistemology is
the most fundamental branch of philosophy. It discusses philosophically truth, falsehood, validity of
knowledge, limits of knowledge and nature of knowledge, knower and known etc

(2) Metaphysics. This is the study of existence, reality or essence. Its main branches are as follows:

(i) Cosmogony. This is a study of creation. Is the world created, or is it eternal? How was world created?
Why was it created? Who created the world? What is the purpose in creation? All these are the problems
of cosmogony.
(ii) Cosmology. The main problems of cosmology are: Is the world one or it many, or is it both one and
many?
(iii) Ontology. Ontology is the study of ultimate reality. Is the reality one or is it many or is it both one and
many? If reality is many, what is the relation between these many elements? All these are ontological
questions.
(iv) Philosophy of self. This is mainly concerned with the philosophical analysis of self. What is self? What
is its relation with the body? Is it free of does it depend on the body? Is it one or many? All these are
problems of philosophy of self.
(v) Eschatology. The discussion of the condition of soul after death, the nature of the other world, etc., form
the subject matter of this branch of philosophy.

(3) Axiology

This branch of philosophy philosophically studies value. It has been divided into the following three
branches:
(i) Ethics. Ethics discusses the criteria of right and good
(ii) Aesthetics. Aesthetics discusses the nature and criteria of beauty.
(iii) Logic studies truth. The subject matter of logic includes the methods of judgment, types of
proposition, hypothesis, definition, comparison, division, classification and fundamental laws of
thoughts, etc.
(4) Philosophy of Sciences. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the philosophical examination of
the postulates and conclusions of different sciences.
(5) Philosophies of Social Science. The philosophical problems in different social sciences give birth to
different branches of philosophy of which the main are as follows:
(i) Philosophies of Education. This is concerned with the aim of education and the basic philosophical
problems arising in the field of education.
(ii) Social Philosophy. This branch of philosophy discusses the philosophical basis of social processes and
social institutions.
(iii) Political Philosophy. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the forms of government, forms of
state and other basic problems arising in the political field.
 (IV)Philosophy of History. The subject matter of this branch of philosophy is the nature of historical process, its
purpose and its relations with the cosmic process.

(v) Philosophy of Economics. This branch of philosophy studies the aim of man's economic activities and the
fundamental problems arising in the economic field.

Besides the above mentioned branches of philosophy based on sciences, there may be certain comparatively
lesser branches of philosophy such as philosophy of physics, philosophy of commerce, philosophy of physical
education, philosophy of marriage, philosophy of family etc. These, however, are not sufficient to form
independent branches of philosophy.

(6) Semantics. The most important branch of philosophy, according to the contemporary school of Logical
Positivism, is semantics which is concerned with the determination of the meanings of different words used in
different languages (

RELATIONSHIP OF EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY

Educational thinking, like every other branch of knowledge, started in the philosophical deliberation of the
ancient Greek philosophers. Thus the meaning of education in west is initially available in the works of Plato. It is
interesting to note that thousands of years ago Plato gave a meaning to education which is even now followed in
the West with slight changes here and there.

Plato defined education as a life-long process starting, "from the first years of childhood and lasting to the very
end of the life." He used the term education in a very wide sense, "which makes a man eagerly pursue the ideal
perfection of citizenship and teaches him how rightly to rule and how to obey."

Education not only provides knowledge and skills but also inculcates values, training of instincts, fostering right
attitude and habits. In (Republic), Plato points out, that "true education, whatever that may be, will have the
greatest tendency to civilize and humanize them in their relation to one another and to those who are under their
protection."This humanist definition of education propounded by Plato is still the most widely accepted meaning
of education in the West. Education everywhere has been taken as a process of inculcating values. As Plato said,
"Now I mean by education that training which is given by suitable habits to the first instincts of virtue in
children."

These views of Plato have been universally accepted in West as well as in the East. Education has been defined
differently by the idealists, the pragmatists, the naturalists and the realist philosophers. However, its meaning has
been generally idealistic. Without some sort of idealism there can be no education worth the name.

Philosophy of education,

philosophical reflection on the nature, aims, and problems of education. The philosophy of education is Janus-faced,
looking both inward to the parent discipline of philosophy and outward to educational practice. (In this respect it is
like other areas of “applied” philosophy, such as the philosophy of law, the philosophy of science, and the philosophy
of medicine, including bioethics.) This dual focus requires it to work on both sides of the traditional divide between
theory and practice, taking as its subject matter both basic philosophical issues (e.g., the nature of knowledge) and
more specific issues arising from educational practice (e.g., the desirability of standardized testing). These practical
issues in turn have implications for a variety of long-standing philosophical problems
in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and political philosophy. In addressing these many issues and problems, the
philosopher of education strives for conceptual clarity, argumentative rigour, and informed valuation.
Principal historical figures
The history of philosophy of education is an important source of concerns and issues—as is the history of
education itself—for setting the intellectual agenda of contemporary philosophers of education. Equally
relevant is the range of contemporary approaches to the subject. Although it is not possible here to review
systematically either that history or those contemporary approaches, brief sketches of several key figures are
offered next.

The Western philosophical tradition began in ancient Greece, and philosophy of education began with it.
The major historical figures developed philosophical views of education that were embedded in their
broader metaphysical, epistemological, ethical, and political theories. The introduction by Socrates of the
“Socratic method” of questioning (see dialectic) began a tradition in which reasoning and the search for
reasons that might justify beliefs, judgments, and actions was (and remains) fundamental; such questioning
in turn eventually gave rise to the view that education should encourage in all students and persons, to the
greatest extent possible, the pursuit of the life of reason. This view of the central place of reason in
education has been shared by most of the major figures in the history of philosophy of education, despite the
otherwise substantial differences in their other philosophical views.

Socrates’ student Plato endorsed that view and held that a fundamental task of education is that of helping
students to value reason and to be reasonable, which for him involved valuing wisdom above pleasure,
honour, and other less-worthy pursuits. In his dialogue Republic he set out a vision of education in which
different groups of students would receive different sorts of education, depending on their abilities, interests,
and stations in life. His utopian vision has been seen by many to be a precursor of what has come to be
called educational “sorting.” Millennia later, the American pragmatist philosopher John Dewey (1859–
1952) argued that education should be tailored to the individual child, though he rejected Plato’s
hierarchical sorting of students into categories.

Plato

Plato’s student Aristotle also took the highest aim of education to be the fostering of good judgment or
wisdom, but he was more optimistic than Plato about the ability of the typical student to achieve it. He also
emphasized the fostering of moral virtue and the development of character; his emphasis on virtue and his
insistence that virtues develop in the context of community-guided practice—and that the rights and
interests of individual citizens do not always outweigh those of the community—are reflected in
contemporary interest in “virtue theory” in ethics and “communitarianism” in political philosophy.

Aristotle

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78) famously insisted that formal education, like society itself, is inevitably
corrupting; he argued that education should enable the “natural” and “free” development of children, a view
that eventually led to the modern movement known as “open education.” These ideas are in some ways
reflected in 20th-century “progressivism,” a movement often (but not always accurately) associated with
Dewey. Unlike Plato, Rousseau also prescribed fundamentally distinct educations for boys and girls, and in
doing so he raised issues concerning gender and its place in education that are of central concern today.
Dewey emphasized the educational centrality of experience and held that experience is genuinely
educational only when it leads to “growth.” But the idea that the aim of education is growth has proved to
be a problematic and controversial one, and even the meaning of the slogan is unclear. Dewey also
emphasized the importance of the student’s own interests in determining appropriate educational activities
and ends-in-view; in this respect he is usually seen as a proponent of “child-centred” education, though he
also stressed the importance of students’ understanding of traditional subject matter. While these Deweyan
themes are strongly reminiscent of Rousseau, Dewey placed them in a far more sophisticated—albeit
philosophically contentious—context. He emphasized the central importance of education for the health of
democratic social and political institutions, and he developed his educational and political views from a
foundation of systematic metaphysics and epistemology.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

While studying the philosophical thoughts of a philosopher, we study his thinking in different branches of
philosophy. These branches of philosophy are as follows:

(1) Epistemology. Philosophy is the search for knowledge. This search is critical. Hence, the first problem
which arises before a philosopher is about the nature of knowledge and its limitations. Therefore,
epistemology is the most fundamental branch of philosophy. It discusses philosophically truth, falsehood,
validity of knowledge, limits of knowledge and nature of knowledge, knower and known etc.

(2) Metaphysics. This is the study of existence, reality or essence. Its main branches are as follows:

(i) Cosmogony. This is a study of creation. Is the world created, or is it eternal? How was world created?
Why was it created? Who created the world? What is the purpose in creation? All these are the problems of
cosmogony.

(ii) Cosmology. The main problems of cosmology are: Is the world one or it many, or is it both one and
many?

(iii) Ontology. Ontology is the study of ultimate reality. Is the reality one or is it many or is it both one and
many? If reality is many, what is the relation between these many elements? All these are ontological
questions.

(iv) Philosophy of self. This is mainly concerned with the philosophical analysis of self. What is self? What
is its relation with the body? Is it free of does it depend on the body? Is it one or many? All these are
problems of philosophy of self.

(v) Eschatology. The discussion of the condition of soul after death, the nature of the other world, etc., form
the subject matter of this branch of philosophy.

(3) Axiology. This branch of philosophy philosophically studies value. It has been divided into the
following three branches:

(i) Ethics. Ethics discusses the criteria of right and good.

(ii) Aesthetics. Aesthetics discusses the nature and criteria of beauty.

(iii) Logic studies truth. The subject matter of logic includes the methods of judgment, types of proposition,
hypothesis, definition, comparison, division, classification and fundamental laws of thoughts, etc.

(4) Philosophy of Sciences. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the philosophical examination of
the postulates and conclusions of different sciences.

(5) Philosophies of Social Science. The philosophical problems in different social sciences give birth to
different branches of philosophy of which the main are as follows:
(i) Philosophies of Education. This is concerned with the aim of education and the basic philosophical
problems arising in the field of education.

(ii) Social Philosophy. This branch of philosophy discusses the philosophical basis of social processes and
social institutions.

(iii) Political Philosophy. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the forms of government, forms of
state and other basic problems arising in the political field.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Of course, the history of philosophy of education includes many more figures than Socrates, Plato, Aristotle,
Rousseau, and Dewey. Other major philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas, Augustine, Thomas
Hobbes, René Descartes, John Locke, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx, Bertrand
Russell, and, more recently, R.S. Peters in Britain and Israel Scheffler in the United States, have also made
substantial contributions to educational thought. It is worth noting again that virtually all these figures,
despite their many philosophical differences and with various qualifications and differences of emphasis,
take the fundamental aim of education to be the fostering of rationality (see reason). No other proposed aim
of education has enjoyed the positive endorsement of so many historically important philosophers—
although, as will be seen below, this aim has come under increasing scrutiny in recent decades.

RELATIONSHIP OF EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY

Educational thinking, like every other branch of knowledge, started in the philosophical deliberation of the
ancient Greek philosophers. Thus the meaning of education in west is initially available in the works of
Plato. It is interesting to note that thousands of years ago Plato gave a meaning to education which is even
now followed in the West with slight changes here and there. Plato defined education as a life-long process
starting, "from the first years of childhood and lasting to the very end of the life." He used the term
education in a very wide sense, "which makes a man eagerly pursue the ideal perfection of citizenship and
teaches him how rightly to rule and how to obey."

Education not only provides knowledge and skills but also inculcates values, training of instincts, fostering
right attitude and habits. In (Republic), Plato points out, that "true education, whatever that may be, will
have the greatest tendency to civilize and humanize them in their relation to one another and to those who
are under their protection."This humanist definition of education propounded by Plato is still the most
widely accepted meaning of education in the West. Education everywhere has been taken as a process of
inculcating values.

As Plato said,

"Now I mean by education that training which is given by suitable habits to the first instincts of virtue in
children." These views of Plato have been universally accepted in West as well as in the East. Education has
been defined differently by the idealists, the pragmatists, the naturalists and the realist philosophers.
However, its meaning has been generally idealistic. Without some sort of idealism there can be no education
worth the name. In the words of Robert R. Rusk, "We may accept the aim of education is the enhancement
or enrichment of personality, the differentiating feature of which is the embodiment of universal values."
The Western educational philosophers have generally agreed that the growth of the human child is the
essence of education. In the words of A.G. Hughes, "The essence of discipline is, thus not forced
subordination to the will of hated tyrants, but submission to the example of admired superiors". In the
Middle Ages Comenius declared education to be a process whereby an individual developed quality relating
to religion, knowledge and morality, and thereby established his claim to be called a human being. "The
fundamental principles of education", according to Froebel, "instruction and teaching should be passive and
protective not directive and interfering." The principle of liberty has found most eloquent expression in the
definition of education given by Rousseau when he said, "Let us obey the call of Nature. We shall see that
her yoke is easy and that when we give heed to her voice we find the joy in the answer of a good
conscience."

Other has laid emphasis upon the social meaning of education whereby it aims at making an individual fit in
the society. It was in this sense that Aldous Huxley said, "A perfect education is one which trains up every
human being to fit into the place he or she is to occupy in the social hierarchy, but without, in the process,
destroying his or her individuality." All the foregoing definitions have stated that education is the process of
development. It, therefore, becomes necessary to discover what is implied in this development. Although the
ability to learn depends upon development, but development is not synonymous with education.

Development means the gradual and continuous progress of mind and body. Through this development the
child acquires the following elements:
1. Knowledge of the environment by which he is surrounded.
2. The necessary motor control to fulfill has individual needs.
3. Linguistic abilities to enable him to converse.
4. Some knowledge of individual and collective relationship.

The development of all these elements begins at home itself. The educator's task is to continue this process
and to encourage it while the child is at school. In fact, this process of development continues right through
an individual's life time. Consequently, it is accepted that education in its general sense continues
throughout a man's natural span of life, Even the successful teacher or educator himself remains a student
throughout his life. On the one hand, he teaches certain things to some people but at the same time he learns
something from them. All successful educators experience that the development undergone by their
thoughts, personalities and abilities would have been impossible otherwise. In much the same way, people
other than the educator, teach and learn simultaneously .

Q.2 Define the term ‘Idealism’. Which aims does idealism achieves through education?
ANS.
INTRODUCTION
Idealism: Aim
Self Realization:
The aim is to enable each child to realize soul, recognize his real form and proceed towards self knowledge.
Self realization means full knowledge of the self or the soul. Man has a soul. Beyond soul there is supreme
soul. Human soul is a part of this soul. Man achieves perfection when he realizes self. So that idealist
philosophers have advocated that liberation or nirvana or mukti is the ultimate aim of life.

1 IDEALISM

the Western culture, idealism is perhaps the oldest systematic philosophy, dating back at least to Plato in
ancient Greece. From that time until now, idealism has been a dominant philosophical influence to our
society, for example in the American philosophical thought, it was inspired so much by the German
idealism. Even though idealism is not as strong as it was before, it is still alive in certain areas such as
contemporary religious studies and certain aspects of moral philosophy.
Idealism is the philosophical theory that maintains that the ultimate nature of reality is based on mind or
ideas. It holds that the so-called external or real world is inseparable from mind, consciousness, or
perception. Idealism is any philosophy which argues that the only things knowable are consciousness or the
contents of consciousness; not anything in the outside world, if such a place actually exists.

Indeed, idealism often takes the form of arguing that the only real things are mental entities, not physical
things and argues that reality is somehow dependent upon the mind rather than independent of it. Some
narrow versions of idealism argue that our understanding of reality reflects the workings of our mind, first
and foremost, that the properties of objects have no standing independent of minds perceiving them.
Besides, the nature and identity of the mind in idealism upon which reality is dependent is one issue that has
divided idealists of various sorts. Some argue that there is some objective mind outside of nature; some
argue that it is simply the common power of reason or rationality; some argue that it is the collective mental
faculties of society; and some focus simply on the minds of individual human beings.

In short, the main tenant of idealism is that ideas and knowledge are the truest reality. Many things in the
world change, but ideas and knowledge are enduring. Idealism was often referred to as idea-ism. Idealists
believe that ideas can change lives. The most important part of a person is the mind. It is to be nourished
and developed.

To achieve a sufficient understanding of idealism, it is necessary to examine the works of selected

outstanding philosophers usually associated with this philosophy. Idealism comes in several flavors:

(a) Platonic idealism - there exists a perfect realm of form and ideas and our world merely contains shadows
of PDFmyURL.com Fig ure 7.1: P lat o (4 27 - 34 7 B.C .E.) that realm; only ideas can be known or have
any reality;
(b) Religious idealism - this theory argues that all knowledge originates in perceived phenomena which
have been organized by categories.
(c) Modern idealism - all objects are identical with some idea and the ideal knowledge is itself the system of
ideas.
How does modern idealism compare with the other idealism of earlier periods? Discuss.

Idealism in Education

Ever since knowledge dawned in human mind man has been thinking about problems ontological,
epistemological, eschatological and axiological. The questions of philosophy in the beginning of human
knowledge were everywhere mixed with psychological
problems. Thus, psychology in the beginning was concerned with the nature of the mind and the processes
of consciousness. As men lived in small groups and the society was generally confined to a particular
village, city or group of villages, the solutions offered were simple. There was hardly any distinction
between social and political problems as the political institutions were developed as a means to social
welfare.

Therefore, most of the ancient thinkers did not distinguish between social philosophy and political
philosophy. As the life was simple and social stratification and differentiation was not complex the thinkers
offered solutions working in more than one field of knowledge. Most of the thinkers were teachers and men
of education who used to pass their life completely free from worldly affairs.

The state and the society generally extended support to these scholars and they were generally respected
and followed. The job of instruction and education of the younger generation was generally entrusted to
these men of letters. The state supported finance but not interfered in the process of education. These great
teachers formed their own personal institutions where their disciples collected to hear their learned
discourses and learn through their lives. In this way, society was generally governed by the teachings of
these great scholars though the administrative machinery was almost everywhere in the hands of the state.

Aims and Ideals of Education

Idealism has influenced every sphere of education. In the first place we will glance at the impact of
idealism on the aims of education. Since idealism believes human personality to be the most important, it
wants education to aim at the development of human personality culminating in self-realization. In the
words of Home, "The end of ends, the goal of goals, according to Idealism, is the increasing realization of
the Absolute Idea for the individual, society and the race". Further explaining this aim of education, Rusk
has commented, "We may accept that the aim of education is the enhancement or enrichment of personality,
the differentiating feature of which is the embodiment of universal values"

.1 These universal values are expressed as the beauty, goodness and truth, and the aim of education is to
concretise these values in the child's life. Thus the idealists cherish the following aims and ideals of
education:

1. Development of personality. As has been already pointed out, the most important aim of education,
according to the idealist thinkers, both ancient and modern, Eastern and Western, is the development of
personality. This has been called manmaking by Vivekananda. Explaining this ideal of education,
Herman Harell Home says, "The forces that make men and women I find to be heredity, environment
and will. Education is not a fourth elemental force, but it does its work in cooperation with these three.
Education, through public-opinion influences and may come to control, the force of heredity, it is itself
a part of the physical and social environment; it assists in the formation of will. By consciously
directing, through education and otherwise, these forces shall in time have the true superman of our
modern dreams, as well as the ideal people of Plato's Republic. But unlike Plato and Shaw, we shall
have to work through, not without, the family as an institution."

2. The idealists believe that man is God's finest and ultimate creation. That is why development of the
human personality has been accepted as the aim of education, and stress has been laid on the teaching of
humanitarian subjects such a literature,

art, religion, ethics, etc. Through education the cultural and social heritage of the community must be
maintained and transmitted to the following generations. Some other idealists believe that the aim of
education is to guide the individual to selfrealization, for this also includes the development of the
personality. Such development, in fact, is the development of those divine qualities which are inherent in
human beings but which are dormant at his birth. The educator's task is to manifest these qualities. And for
this reason every human being has an equal right to education. 3. Self-realisation. As has been already
pointed out, according to idealists the aim of education is self-realisation. This is the individualist aim of
education emphasised by the idealist.

3. Development of will power. Self-realisation requires development of will power. H.H. Home has given
eight points for the realisation of this ideal:

(i) The training of the will should be indirect by activity rather than idea.
(ii) The object lesson method according to time and context should be used.
(iii) The power of will should be increased by self-suggestion, knowledge and practice.
(iv) Practice is the only way to acquire will power.
(v) Proper discipline leads to will power.
(vi) The educands should be acquainted of facts concerning nature and society.
(vii) Development of moral character by ethical instruction
(viii) . Freedom to make choice in most of the matters concerning the individual.

4. Synthesis of Man and Nature. Another aspect of the idealistic conception of education is the synthesis
between nature and human beings. Adams has suggested that education must aim at achieving an
understanding of nature in human beings and educating them to achieve harmony with it. This can be
done by acquainting the educated with the permanent laws which guide and control natural phenomena.
These laws of nature are the causes of all natural activity. Only through such knowledge can the
educand arrive at a harmony with all that lies around him.

6. Cultural Development. Greatest significance is attached to the cultural environment created by religion,
morality, art, literature, mathematics, science, etc. That is why the idealist tendency is to stress the teaching
of humanities so that the cultural and social heritage is maintained intact and allowed to grow. Education is
also concerned with enabling the individual to make his own contribution to the cultural development of the
community. The ideals of beauty, goodness and truth are the spiritual ideals of the human race, and the child
has to be trained to achieve them in reality. Education must transform the child into a true human being by
educating him to manifest the divine qualities which are invested in him. The idealists argue that there is
system in every part of the universe, and hence the individual must also be taught to create some system in
his life through intellectual and spiritual guidance. For this it is essential to develop every aspect of his
life—the physical, moral, ethical, intellectual, spiritual and the aesthetic. Failure to develop any one of these
would create an imbalance in the individual's personality. In the words of Froebel, "The object of education
is the realisation of a faithful, pure, inviolable

Platonic Idealism

Plato was a Greek philosopher during the 4th century B.C.E. - a student of Socrates and teacher of
Aristotle.
Platonism is an ancient school of philosophy founded by Plato.At the beginning, this school had a physical
existence at a site just outside the walls of Athens called the Academy, as well as the intellectual unity of a
shared approach to philosophizing.

Platonic idealism usually refers to Plato’s theory of forms or doctrine of ideas, the exact philosophical
meaning of which is perhaps one of the most disputed questions in higher academic philosophy. Plato held
the realm of ideas to be absolute reality. Plato’s method was the dialectic method - all thinking begins with a
thesis; as exemplified in the Socratic dialogues. Its main doctrine is that the objects of our thoughts
constitute the ultimate and eternal reality.

The reality is physically perceive is but a shadow of that. Plato’s argument that the real world is the same as
the world of ideas played a great role in the later development of western religion. Some critics hold Plato
argued that truth is an abstraction. In other words, we are urged to believe that Plato's theory of ideas is an
abstraction, divorced from the so-called external world, of modern European philosophy; despite the fact
Plato taught that ideas are ultimately real and different from non-ideal things. According to Platonic
idealism, there exists a perfect realm of form and ideas and our world merely contains shadows of that
realm. Plato was a follower of Socrates, a truly innovative thinker of his time, who did not , but shared them
orally through a question and answer approach. Plato presented his ideas in two works: The Republic and
Laws. He believed in the importance of searching for truth because truth was perfect and eternal. He wrote
about separating the world of ideas from the world of matter. Ideas are constant, but in the world of matter,
information and ideas are constantly changing because of their sensory nature.

Therefore Plato’s idealism suggested moving from opinion to true knowledge in the form of critical
discussions, or the dialectic. Since at the end of the discussion, the ideas or opinions will begin to synthesize
as they work closer to truth. Knowledge is a process of discovery that can be attained through skilful
questioning. For example, a particular tree, with a branch or two missing, possibly alive, possibly dead, and
with the initials of two lovers carved into its bark, is distinct from the abstract form of tree-ness. A tree is
the ideal that each of us holds that allows us to identify the imperfect reflections of trees all around us.
Platonic Idealism Plato was a Greek philosopher during the 4th century B.C.E. - a student of Socrates and
teacher of Aristotle.

Platonism is an ancient school of philosophy founded by Plato.At the beginning, this school had a physical
existence at a site just outside the walls of Athens called the Academy, as well as the intellectual unity of a
shared approach to philosophizing. Platonic idealism usually refers to Plato’s theory of forms or doctrine of
ideas, the exact philosophical meaning of which is perhaps one of the most disputed questions in higher
academic philosophy. Plato held the realm of ideas to be absolute reality. Plato’s method was the dialectic
method - all thinking begins with a thesis; as exemplified in the Socratic dialogues. Its main doctrine is that
the objects of our thoughts constitute the ultimate and eternal reality.

The reality is physically perceive is but a shadow of that. Plato’s argument that the real world is the same as
the world of ideas played a great role in the later development of western religion. Some critics hold Plato
argued that truth is an abstraction. In other words, we are urged to believe that Plato's theory of ideas is an
abstraction, divorced from the so-called external world, of modern European philosophy; despite the fact
Plato taught that ideas are ultimately real and different from non-ideal things.

According to Platonic idealism, there exists a perfect realm of form and ideas and our world merely
contains shadows of that realm. Plato was a follower of Socrates, a truly innovative thinker of his time, who
did not PDFmyURL.com record his ideas, but shared them orally through a question and answer approach.
Plato presented his ideas in two works: The Republic and Laws. He believed in the importance of searching
for truth because truth was perfect and eternal. He wrote about separating the world of ideas from the world
of matter. Ideas are constant, but in the world of matter, information and ideas are constantly changing
because of their sensory nature. Therefore Plato’s idealism suggested moving from opinion to true
knowledge in the form of critical discussions, or the dialectic. Since at the end of the discussion, the ideas or
opinions will begin to synthesize as they work closer to truth. Knowledge is a process of discovery that can
be attained through skilful questioning. For example, a particular tree, with a branch or two missing,
possibly alive, possibly dead, and with the initials of two lovers carved into its bark, is distinct from the
abstract form of tree-ness. A tree is the ideal that each of us holds that allows us to identify the imperfect
reflections of trees all around us.

Religious Idealism: Augustine Religion and idealism are closely attached. Judaism, the originator of
Christianity, and Christianity were influenced by many of the Greek philosophers that hold idealism
strongly. Saint Augustine of Hippo, a bishop, a confessor, a doctor of the church, and one of the great
thinkers of the Catholic Church discussed the universe as Saint Augustine of Hippo

_Hippo being divided into the City of God and the City of Man.

The City of God was governed by truth and goodness whereas The City of Man was governed by the senses.
This parallels Plato’s scheme of the world of ideas and the world of matter. Religious thinkers believed that
man did not create knowledge, but discovered it. Augustine, like Plato did not believe that one person could
teach another. Instead, they must be led to understanding through skilful questioning. Religious idealists see
individuals as creations of God who have souls and contain elements of godliness that need to be developed.
Augustine was connected the philosophy of Platonists and Neo-Platonist with Christianity. For instance, he
saw the World of Ideas as the City of God and the World of Matter as the City of Man. He interpreted the
pagan idea of the Good as God and matter as man: evil. Plato believed in absolute truth based on science
and reason whereas Augustine believed in irrational faith in God. Augustine also saw parallels with the
ideas of rediscovery of knowledge - the fall of Adam, the origin of knowledge - God created it, and
educational philosophy: worldly knowledge was wrong, faith over reason.

He believed that faith based knowledge is determined by the church and all true knowledge came from
God. According to Ozmon & Craver, 2008 today one can see the tremendous influence religious idealism
has had on American education. Early Christians implemented the idea of systematic teaching, which was
used consistently throughout new and established schools. Many Greek and Jewish ideas about the nature of
humanity were taught. For centuries, the Christian church educated generations with Idealist philosophy. In
addition, idealism and the Judeo-Christian religion were unified in European culture by the Middle Ages
and thereafter. Augustine was also very influential in the history of education where he introduced the
theory of three different types of students and instructed teachers to adapt their teaching styles to each
student's individual learning style. The three different kinds of students are:

(a) The student who has been well-educated by knowledgeable teachers;

(b) The student who has had no education; and

(c) The student who has had a poor education, but believes himself to be well educated. If a student has
been well educated in a wide variety of subjects, the teacher must be careful not to repeat what they have
already learned, but to challenge the student with material which they do not yet know thoroughly. With the
student who has had no education, the teacher must be patient, willing to repeat things until the student
understands and sympathetic. Perhaps the most difficult student, however, is the one with an inferior
education who believes he understands something when he does not. Augustine stressed the importance of
showing this type of student the difference between having words and having understanding and of helping
the student to remain humble with his acquisition of knowledge.

An additional fundamental idea which Augustine introduced is the idea of teachers responding positively to
the questions they may receive from their students, no matter if the student interrupted his teacher.
Augustine also founded the controlled style of teaching. This teaching style ensures the student’s full
understanding of a concept because the teacher does not bombard the student with too much material;
focuses on one topic at a time; helps them discover what they don't understand, rather than moving on too
quickly; anticipates questions; and helps them learn to solve difficulties and find solutions to problems. In a
nutshell, Augustine claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when speaking to the students:

(i) The mixed style includes complex and sometimes showy language to help students see the
beautiful artistry of the subject they are studying; and
(ii) (ii) The grand style is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but is exciting and heartfelt, with
the purpose of igniting the same passion in the students’ hearts. Augustine balanced his teaching
philosophy with the traditional bible-based practice of strict discipline where he agreed with
using punishment as an incentive for children to learn. Augustine believed all people tend toward
evil, and students must therefore be physically punished when they allow their evil desires to
direct their actions. Identify and explain the aims, content, and the methods of education based
on the educational philosophy of Aristotle.
 Modern Idealism: Rene Descartes, Immanuel Kant, and Friedrich Hegel By the beginning of the
modern period in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, idealism has become to be largely identified with
systematization and subjectivism. Some major features of modern idealism are:

(a) Belief that reality includes, in addition to the physical universe, that which transcends it, is superior
to it, and which is eternal. This ultimate reality is non-physical and is best characterized by the term
mind;

(b) Physical realities draw their meaning from the transcendent realities to which they are related;

(c) That which is distinctive of human nature is mind. Mind is more than the physical entity, brain;

(d) Human life has a predetermined purpose. It is to become more like the transcendent mind;

(e) Man's purpose is fulfilled by development of the intellect and is referred to as self-realization;

(f) Ultimate reality includes absolute values;

(g) Knowledge comes through the application of reason to sense experience. In so far as the physical
world reflects the transcendent world, we can determine the nature of the transcendent; and

(h) Learning is a personal process of developing the potential within. It is not conditioning or pouring in
facts, but it is self-realization. Learning is a process of discovery.

The identification of modern idealism was encouraged by the writings and thoughts of Renè Descartes,
Immanuel Kant, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.

René Descartes Descartes, a French philosopher, was born in the town of La Haye in the south of
France.

In 1606, at the age of 8, Descartes attended the Jesuit college of Henri IV in La Flèche, where he
studied literature, grammar, science, and mathematics. In 1614, he studied civil and cannon law at
Poitiers. In 1616, he received his baccalaureate and licentiate degrees in law. Aside from his law Figure

7.3: Re né De scar te sSource re ne de scar te s.com/ degrees, Descartes also spent time studying
philosophy, theology, and medicine. After a short stay in the military, Descartes went on to lead a quiet
life, continuing his intellectual pursuits, writing philosophical essays, and exploring the world of
science and mathematics.

In 1637, he published geometry, in which his combination of algebra and geometry gave birth to
analytical geometry, known as Cartesian Geometry. But the most important contribution Descartes
made was his philosophical writings. Descartes was convinced that science and mathematics could be
used to explain everything in nature, so he was the first to describe the physical universe in terms of
matter and motion - seeing the universe a as giant mathematically designed engine. Descartes wrote
three important texts:

Discourse on Method of rightly conducting the reason and seeking truth in the sciences, "Meditations
on First Philosophy and A Principles of Philosophy” . In his Discourse on Method, he attempts to arrive
at a fundamental set of principles that one can know as true without any doubt. To achieve this, he
employs a method called metaphysical doubt, sometimes also referred to as methodological skepticism
 wne he rejects any ideas that can be doubted, and then re-establishes them in order to acquire a firm
foundation for genuine knowledge. Initially, Descartes arrives at only a single principle - thought exists:
„thought cannot be separated from me, therefore, I exist. Most famously, this is known as cogito ergo
sum where it means I think, therefore I am. Therefore, Descartes concluded, if he doubted, then
something or someone must be doing the doubting; therefore the very fact that he doubted proved his
existence. Descartes decides that he can be certain that he exists because he thinks as he perceives his
body through the use of the senses; however, these have previously been proven unreliable. Hence,
Descartes assumes that the only indubitable knowledge is that he is a thinking thing. Thinking is his
essence as it is the only thing about him that cannot be doubted. Descartes defines thought or cogitatio
as what happens in me such that I am immediately conscious of it, insofar as I am conscious of it.
Thinking is thus every activity of a person of which he is immediately conscious.

Q#3 Compare the curriculum based on idealism with that of pragmatism.

ANS.

Read this Essay to learn about Idealism . After reading this Essay you will learn about:
1. Introduction to Idealism 2. Bases of Idealism 3. Idealism in Education 4. Curriculum 5.
Contribution 6. Criticism.

Contents:
1 Essay on the Introduction to Idealism
2 Essay on the Bases of Idealism
3 Essay on the Idealism in Education
4 Essay on the Curriculum of Idealism
5 Essay on the Contribution of Idealism
6 Essay on the Criticism of Idealism
Essay # 1. Introduction to Idealism:
The oldest system of Philosophy known Toman is said to be idealism whose origin goes back to ancient
India in the east and to Plato in the west.

Idealism as a school of philosophy believes in mind and idolizes it. This philosophy seeks to explain and
interpret man and universe in terms of spirit or mind.

It gives its priority to spirit, which is real and as such the entire universe is the extension of the mind or
spirit. Idealism shifts its emphasis from the scientific facts of life to the spiritual aspects of human
experiences and activities.

It asserts that material world is not the manifestation of reality. It, therefore, attaches supreme importance to
the study of man and his mind. Besides, this school of philosophy places emphasis on the ideas and ideals
than the full fact of matter which guides the actions of men in the every aspect.
Essay # 2. Bases of Idealism:
I. Metaphysics or Axiom of Reality:
Idealism believes in mind which is the reality. It goes against the material aspect of human activities, or
material aspect is an anti-thesis to the ideal or spiritual, which is destructible in nature. Reality does not lie
in it. The ideas or ideals, on the contrary, are external and unchangeable which give form to cosmos. As
such, mind is attached a supreme significance by the idealists than the matter.

They illustrate it as “if Newton and Einstein gave us Physics and Shakespeare the best dramas, they
were not results of reactions to a physical stimulus but they were the characteristic creations of
mind”. The idealists have ideolised the mind beyond everything and advocated the evolution of mind which
enables a man to know the truth, goodness and beauty-three cardinal and eternal values of life.
Knowledge through activity of mind, rather than through the senses, is the first article of faith in idealism.
For idealists, all knowledge is independent of sense experience, the act of knowing takes place within the
chamber of mind.

Idealists believe in the universal mind which is above the human mind and is the source of all human values
and goal of all human activities is the realization of this universal mind. Man is conceived as a microcosm
within macrocosm. Therefore, spiritual mind is a part of the universal mind.

II. Epistemology:
According to idealists, the real knowledge is the knowledge of self or spirit. Self-realization IS the aim of all
activities. Idealism believes in the spiritual nature of man, by virtue of which, man is essentially
distinguished from other lower creatures of the universe. But man’s spiritual nature is not something that
has been extraneously added to him. It is the very essence of his bring.

This spiritual nature finds its expression in art, culture, morality and religion. Thus in an ultimate analysis,
mind or spirit is the essential aspect of this philosophy. Knowledge gleaned through activity of mind is more
important than the knowledge received through five sense organs of men.

The ‘Mind’ is active and as such the gateway of knowledge. The highest knowledge is t knowledge of
spiritual reality i.e. Brahma Gyan or knowledge of self.

III. Axiology:
Idealism attaches importance to the higher values of life which are eternal and perennial stand absolute,
universal and indestructible Men cannot create these values and they have to over and realize them in their
day-to-day lives.
These values are summum bonum of life which represents Satyam (truth), Shivam (goodness), and Sundram
(beauty). These values are purely spiritual in nature in their entirety. Truth represents intellectual side.

Goodness moral side and acuity, the aesthetic side of these eternal values which are identical to each other.
Beauty is Truth is Beauty; all are embedded which we need to know, for these higher values were true
yesterday, are true today and will be true tomorrow. These values are absolute & infallible in nature which
sublimes the life in a glorified and magnificent manner.

To sum up, the fundamental principles of idealism are:

1. Spirit and mind constitute reality, not body and matter.

2. Spiritual man is the supreme creation of God and he must strive for self-realization.

3. God is the source of all knowledge.

4. Values are absolute and unchanging and are so called spiritual values: truth, goodness & beauty.

5. What is ultimately real is not the object itself but the idea behind it.

6. Man is not the architect of values.

7. Freedom of mind is the highest virtue: a necessity of realizing spiritual reality.

8. Spirit or ideal constitutes the pillar of this philosophy.

Essay # 3. Idealism in Education:

It can be conceived and perceived that education helps a man to realize his spiritual realm because man is
born with a spiritual-self or realm. Rusk writes, “Education is expected to enlarge the boundaries of the
spiritual realm.”
This education is a spiritual necessity. Further, education is a social necessity as idealists assert from the
stand point that the ideals of race and its cultural patterns are preserved, transmitted and modified
subsequently in the light of new situations and experiences. The Purpose of education is the development of
mind and self of the child. It is unfolding of what is already enfolded.
Idealistic philosophy pervades various aspects of education which are as follows:
Aims of Education:
The following aims are stressed by idealists which are said to be the chief contributions of the idealistic
philosophy to the field of education.
(i) Exaltation of Human Personality:
Idealists consider the development of human personality as the supreme idealistic objective of life. Exalt the
personality is the core philosophy of idealism. According to Ross, “Human personality is the supreme
value and constitutes the noblest work of God.”
So, men is believed “the roof and crown” of all creations of God. Therefore, the chief aim of education
should be the exaltation of self which implies the realization of the highest potentialities of the self in a
social and cultural environment. Hence, the aim is to enable each one to become his true self.

(ii) Self-realization:
Since individual is spiritual being and the supreme creation of God, education should aim at providing every
sorts of help to realize the self and unity within himself and to try to link himself with the universal self. In
other words, it is meant as the liberation of soul or attainment of Mokshya as stressed by Indian idealism.
Thus, spiritual realization of ultimate reality is prized goal of education.

(iii) Realization of Spiritual Values:

Spiritual values are the supreme and higher values which have universal validity and cm be attained by
spiritual activities-intellectual, moral and aesthetic. One should do the right thing, know the truth and desire
beauty. Therefore, education aims at helping the pupils to realize these’ cardinal supreme values of life.

Truth, Goodness and Beauty are mutually inter-woven. All the social virtues and skills acquired are to be
judged by the yard-stick of spiritual values.

(iv) Development of Morality:

Development of moral sense is another important aim of education which, according to idealistic
philosophy, enables the child to differentiate between just and unjust, good and evil, right and wrong and
beauty and ugliness. Education helps the child by nurturing his will power which can be ignited by the
correct appreciation of truth, goodness and beauty.

(v) Universal Education:

Idealism lays stress on self-realization which can be possible by providing education to all without any
differences and discriminations. It should be universal because all human beings are equally the children of
God. As such, the aim is to provide opportunities to realize the self.

(vi) Development of Inventive and Creative Powers:

The important aim of education according to this school of philosophy is to develop and foster the inventive
and creative powers of the child so that he can mold the environment to suit to his needs and purposes. He
should harness the forces of nature in such a way that these should render him the best possible service.
(vii) Enrichment of Cultural Heritage:
Since man is the creator of his own culture by dint of his creative activity, he should try to preserve, transmit
and improve it according to the best of his capacity. Thus, education helps him/her to contribute the best to
the enrichment and refinement of his/her culture.

(viii) Sublimation of Instincts:

The chief aim of education according to idealist is to sublimate the animal instincts of the child into spiritual
and social qualities for the development of personality and adjustment in the society.

(ix) Development of Complete Man:

The aim of education, according to idealists, should be the fullest development of child and man which
implies harmonious and all-round development-physical, intellectual, social, moral, spiritual and aesthetic
aspects of individuality.

(x) Simple Living and High Thinking:

Simple living and high thinking should be the aim of education according to idealists. A person who lives a
simple and docile life thinks high which paves a way for his personal development and refinement.

Essay # 4. Curriculum of Idealism:

Since the aims of education according to the philosophy of idealism are to make the child an ideal or
spiritual man, the curriculum should be framed to enable child to develop fully. For the intellectual
advancement of the child language, literature, philosophy, social studies, science, mathematics etc. are
suggested in the curriculum.

For moral, spiritual and aesthetic development, ‘Humanities’ finds a place of prominence. Besides fine arts,
poetry, ethics, religion, metaphysics, music are suggested.

The study of Hygiene and physiology, practice of physical skills, Gymnastics, Athletics etc. are suggested to
be included in the curriculum for physical development. Rusk talks of types of activities i.e. Physical
activities and spiritual activities to be included in an idealistic curriculum.

Subjects like gymnastics, athletics, history, language, fine arts, morality, ethics, religion, science,
mathematics should be included in it. Aurobindo and Radhakrishnan favored moral

religious, spiritual and physical education. Platonic curriculum also reelected intellectual, moral aesthetic
activities.
Therefore, idealistic curriculum comprises of physical, intellectual and spiritual activities which enables
child to develop fully. Thai is why an idealistic curriculum reflects myriad experiences the race.

I. Methods of Teaching:
Method is the weakest point in idealistic philosophy of education. It does not advocate any special method,
but touches a host of methods to fulfill the aims. Methods like questioning, discussion and lecture are very
important. Platonic methods i.e. inductive and deductive methods are advocated.

Learning through memorization and imitation has also been suggested. Logical method of Hegel is
suggested. Proceed from simple to complex in teaching, which was the popular method of Rene Descartes
finds a place in the scheme of teaching idealistic education.

For gathering knowledge, idealistic philosophy advocates the use of text books. But for the assimilation of
knowledge Socratic or Discussion method is a fundamental method under the idealistic philosophy. Besides,
Kindergarten method i.e. Play which is based on spontaneous activity of the child and self-activity method
of Pestalozzi which is based on psychological principles and practices are suggested. To sum up, idealists
have given us lofty aims of education, it have failed to satisfy us as far as methods of teaching are
concerned.

II. Discipline:
As freedom is the key note of naturalists, discipline is the cry of idealists. Idealists are not in favour of free
discipline but inner or self-discipline for attainment of spiritual perfection. Free discipline, further, may lead
the child astray and wayward.

They feel that strict discipline is essential or self-realization but it should not be imposed from outside.
Further, idealists are in support of ranting freedom to the child but in a restraint and guided way.

It should be regulated, guided and restrained freedom. It implies responsibility. It does not mean
waywardness. Teacher has to create a congenial atmosphere by his ideals and examples for the realization of
higher values of life by the child. Self- discipline, as such, is essential for realization of spiritual values.

III. Role of Teacher:

This philosophy assigns a special place to the teacher. He is the ideal person who leads a simple and
virtuous life. He is the spring of inspiration for his pupils to emulate his super qualities. He acts as a friend,
philosopher and guide as opposed to the contention of naturalists.

In the words of Ross, “The educator constitutes the special environment factor whose function is to lead the
child nearer to reality, to guide him towards his utmost possible perfection.” To the idealist, “The school is a
garden, the educed a tender plant and the educator the careful gardener. Above all, he should be a man of
character who helps the child to attain spiritual perfection.”

Ross has beautifully summed up the role of teacher in the idealistic school as “The naturalists may be
content with briars but idealistic wants fine roses. So, the educator assists the educed to grow according to
the laws of this nature, to attain levels that would otherwise be denied to him.”

Teacher should respect the learner and assist him to realize the fullness of his/her own personality. Above
all, he is a model and an example before the pupils.

Essay # 5. Contribution of Idealism to Education:

The profound influence of idealism upon the field of education can be judged by the yardsticks of the
following:
1. The aim of education according to idealistic philosophy is exaltation of personality which is the result of
self-realization achieved by spiritual knowledge. Spiritual development is, thus the ultimate aim of life. This
spiritual orientation has touched the present day curriculum and methods of teaching in a lucid manner.

2. Like naturalists, it gives prime importance to the development of human personality in all its facets in its
aims of education which are recognized in the present day educational system all over the world.

3. Idealism gives heavy weightage on ideals of life or spiritual values of life, without which, the present
world cannot survive. So, idealism influences the global system of education by re-orientating its curriculum
and the entire gamut of education.

4. Another chief contribution of idealism is its emphasis on universal education which is essential for
modern nation. It is inevitable from the fact that it recognises the identity of each individual in realising the
supreme cardinal values in life.

5. The most important element in social culture is moral character. The task of education is to develop
character of the students by stressing on religion, and spiritual and ethical education.

6. Another contribution to the field of education is discipline and freedom which is the need of the hour.
Regulated freedom and self discipline can be helpful for the students for achieving knowledge i.e. spiritual
perfection.

7. The place of teacher cannot be overlooked. Modern day teachers need to be followed the prescripts
prescribed by idealists. It is rightly said that teacher’s personality can bring about a desirable change in the
behaviour of pupils.
8. Idealism requires that the past culture must be given its due place and accordingly

education aims at providing the means of acquainting the pupils with the great feats in literature, art,
science, humanities etc.

Essay # 6. Criticisms of Idealism:

The critics of idealism offer a bag of criticisms against it, some of which may be listed below:
1. Critics have leveled their charges that although idealism provides lofty aims, it lags behind in educational
method-the means to achieve aims and objectives.

2. Concepts like ideals, mind, spirit, the cosmos of idealism have little relevance in classroom teaching.

3. Idealistic concept of absolute or ultimate truth is controversial which cannot be easily attained.

4. It is more individualistic; negating the social aspects of society and laws.

5. It underrates, not altogether, the study of science and technology, which is essential for the progress of
civilization and nation.

6. It is not in keeping with the psychological nature of the child who is inclined to activity than to
contemplation of spiritual things.

7. It is inimical to experimental method. It pulls the wheels of latest method backward. It over-emphasis’s
the dependence of pupils on teacher, thus damaging their self-reliance and freedom for healthy growth.

8. It does not take note of individual differences and special abilities of pupils and put them to the same
course of studies. Therefore, it is un-psychological.

In-spite of criticisms, the contribution of idealism to the present world marked by crisis in character and loss
of eternal values, cannot be under-estimated. The theory of existentialism owes spiritual and higher values
of life.

Since education is a panacea for removing hat redness by bring amity and concord among human beings
through cultivation of eternal values for a better of this planet, idealistic principles should inform and orient
the entire periphery of education.
Q#4 Explain the different forms of naturalism?

Ans NATURALISM

Naturalism explains all the natural phenomena on the basis of natural laws. According to this view, Nature itself is the
ultimate reality. Nature has been explained by means of motion and energy. The different phenomena in nature occur
due to the motion and waves of electricity. Naturalism also accepts the principle of motion. It is also known as
energism because of its acceptance of energy. According to energism, all the natural things are only different forms of
energy. Naturalism is also known as positivism. Positivism means that the natural phenomena come within the scope
of some or the other positive sciences and can be explained by means of scientific laws. In modern times, positivism
was established by a French thinker August Comte.

According to naturalism, the natural laws are universal and necessary. Thus, the naturalists believe in the principle of
uniformity of nature. According to it the different natural phenomena occur mechanically without any purpose

After reading this unit, you will be able to: 1. Define Naturalism, Pragmatism and Existentialism.

2. Identify the similarities and differences among Naturalism, Pragmatism and Existentialism.

3. Analyze teaching learning process on the basis of Naturalism, Pragmatism and Existentialism.

4. Discuss the main tenets of Naturalism, Pragmatism and Existentialism.

5. Evaluate the Role of modern philosophies in education.

NATURALISM Naturalism explains all the natural phenomena on the basis of natural laws. According to this view,
Nature itself is the ultimate reality. Nature has been explained by means of motion and energy. The different
phenomena in nature occur due to the motion and waves of electricity. Naturalism also accepts the principle of
motion. It is also known as energism because of its acceptance of energy. According to energism, all the natural things
are only different forms of energy. Naturalism is also known as positivism. Positivism means that the natural
phenomena come within the scope of some or the other positive sciences and can be explained by means of scientific
laws. In modern times, positivism was established by a French thinker August Comte.

According to naturalism, the natural laws are universal and necessary. Thus, the naturalists believe in the principle of
uniformity of nature. According to it the different natural phenomena occur mechanically without any purpose

Philosophical Presuppositions In metaphysics, the ultimate reality, according to naturalism, is the Nature and Nature
is material. In epistemology, the naturalists are empiricists. They believe that knowledge is acquired through sense
organs and with the help of the brain. They do not accept the rationalist's position that all knowledge is innate. In
modern Western philosophy John Locke, Bishop Berkeley and David Hume, the British philosophers were
empiricists. They believed in the possibility of direct knowledge. In axiology, the naturalists believe in living
according to Nature as the best type of life. 'Follow Nature' is their slogan. Be natural is their motto. They are
pluralists since Nature has made all persons different.

Philosophical Forms of Naturalism From the standpoint of philosophical principles, the following three forms of
naturalism are distinguished:

(i) Naturalism of physical world. This principle seeks to explain human actions, individual experiences,
emotions and feelings on the basis of physical sciences. It seeks to explain the entire universe in the light of
the principles of physical sciences. It has little or no influence in the sphere of education, because all that it
has done is to place knowledge of science above every kind of knowledge. It points out that not only is
science one form of knowledge, but that it is the only form of valid knowledge. It is a concept of positivism,
and it holds that even philosophical knowledge is worthless.
(ii) Mechanical positivism. According to this principle, the entire universe is a machine made of matter and is
possessed of a self-driving energy that ensures its functioning. This is materialism, for it suggests that matter
is the only reality, and anything that exists is a form of matter. The human being is conceived of as nothing
more than an active machine which is activated by certain environmental influences. The impact of this kind
of positivism led to the emergence of the behavioural school in psychology which explained all human
behaviour in terms of stimulus and response. Behaviourists do not believe in the existence of any
consciousness distinguished from the material element. All processes of the mental faculty such as
imagination, memory, winking, etc., are explained in physiological terms. This school also makes no
distinction between human and animal, because both can be explained in terms of stimulus and response.
Behaviourism thus seeks to explain the entire range of human activity as a mechanical process. As naturalism
it has had a tremendous impact on education.
(iii) Biological naturalism. It is naturalism in this form, as biological naturalism, which has had the greatest
impact upon education. It has elaborated the theory of the natural man, and has explained that the evolution
of man and animal is a single process. It refuses to admit the spiritual nature of man and expounds that his
nature is the heritage he has received from his ancestors. That is why it traces many similarities between
human and animal behaviour. Biological naturalism contends that all the processes of Nature and the entire
existence of the universe cannot be explained in terms of mechanical and physical processes, because in the
biological world, evolution is a more important phenomenon. All living beings have an instinct to live and for
this reason life evolves from lower forms to higher and more complex ones. One can find all the
characteristics of evolution in man's life. The principles underlying evolution can explain the form that a
human being will ultimately assume and the manner in which he will progress. At the animal level, the
 process of evolution stops at the material or physical level, but in the case of human beings it is also
manifested in the mental, moral and spiritual levels. This instinctive evolution is found not only in individual
human beings but also in groups of human beings, because these groups also evolve to a stage of greater
complexity. But this evolution is also governed by the same principles which govern the individual's
evolution. In this process of evolution, the principles of struggle for existence and survival of the fittest have
been considered the most important by Charles Darwin, because in his opinion the principle of
selfpreservation is the strongest law of nature.

Aims of Education

Concerning the aims of education, naturalists adopt a biological and evolutionist attitude. Even among the different
forms of naturalism one finds a variation in the objectives assigned to education. Mechanical naturalism suggests that
education should aim at the efficiency and perfection of the human machine. But this concept does not represent
completely the naturalist school. Biological evolution uses education to ensure the proper adjustment or adaptation of
the child to his environment. McDougall points out that education aims at the transformation, synthesis and
sublimation of instincts. Darwinists argue that education must train the individual to struggle successfully for his own
survival.

Lamarck and his followers agree with the concept of biological evolution, because for them also the aim of education
is to adapt to the environment. On the other hand, Herbert Spencer believed education to be a preparation and a
training for the complete life. Bernard Shaw believed that education must aim not only at the individual's development
but also at making the individual capable of stimulating and sustaining social development, for this will add to the
social heritage of the succeeding generations. T.P. Nunn prefers to use education as a means of making the individual
capable of developing his own individuality and of contributing to society. Naturalists of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries believe that education should achieve a synthesis and adjustment between individual and society and also
between man and nature. Rousseau believed that education should develop the child according to his natural ability.
And it is accepted today that education should conform to the child's abilities. To quote Rousseau's words, "Now of
the three factors in education, nature is wholly beyond our control; things are only partly in our power; the education
of men is the only one controlled by us, and even here our power is largely illusory, for who can hope to direct every
word and deed of all with whom the child has to do.

What is the goal? As we have just shown it is the goal of nature since all three modes of education must work
together, the two that we can control must follow the lead of that which is beyond our control"1 The naturalist
approach to the aims of education is rather narrow in that it fails to include the spiritual aspect of man's nature. Its
inclusion would almost naturally remove the distance between idealism and naturalism and this is what is being
attempted now.
Curriculum As a system of philosophy, naturalism has been exceptionally susceptible to the development of science,
and by virtue of this influence it has attached much importance to evolutionary theory, empirical teaching and
scientific analysis, etc. As a result of the significance ascribed to scientific study naturalists want to introduce physical
and social sciences at every level of education because they believe these to be more important than the humanities.
Language and mathematics for the naturalists, are tools for the learning of science and both should be taught only so
long as they assist the learning of science. Literature, in any case should not completely absorb the students' interest
and attention. Curricula should be so constructed as to encourage the educand to take an interest in science and to gain
knowledge which is factual and objective.

Granting that the present is more important than the future, the naturalists have not fallen into the mistake of
neglecting the past, because the past contains many valuable suggestions for the educand. For this reason, naturalists
believe in the value of historical study. Such a study will enable them to construct a new social structure and thus plan
for the future.

Since evolutionists believe man to have developed or evolved, from the animal stage, and since they also believe that
there is no gap or discontinuity in the transition from the animal to the human, they want education to develop the
instincts and emotions.

On the subject of curriculum, naturalists have expressed theories which differ from each other to some extent.
Comenius wanted the educand to study every subject, without making any selection. Locke refuted this notion by
demonstrating that every individual cannot be made to study the same subject, because of certain natural handicaps.
Hence, much emphasis was laid upon modifying the curriculum to suit the needs of the individual. Herbert Spencer
arranged the curriculum with science as its nucleus and tried to synthesise the other subjects to science. The arts were
given a secondary place in his programme because he believed that one must first create the basic elements before
refining or making them sophisticated. In fact, he wanted to synthesise all subjects to the study of science, arriving at
a conception of liberal education arranged around science. T.H. Huxley, another naturalist, attached greater
importance to the cultural aspects of life than to the study of science. Thus, his conception of a liberal education
differed materially from that of Spencer. In contrast, modern naturalists do not stress the importance of any one
subject against that of any other, although more importance is attached to the sciences. Yet, the arts are not neglected,
but given an important place in the curriculum so that it may acquire a definitely wide base

Educational Methods Naturalist education is paidocentric.

The child occupies the central place in it. The child, in order to develop, should be left on its own. The society or the
state should not interfere in his contact with nature. This will allow the growth of the child in natural circumstances.
Therefore, the most important method of teaching, according to the naturalist, is to leave the child free to learn from
nature. Naturalism was responsible for a violent denunciation of the traditional methods of education. It opposed all
kinds of negative techniques and the stress on rote learning. Instead, it favoured teaching by more positive methods.
Being empirical, it preferred to educate the child by giving him actual experience of all that he is to learn. Locke
believed that training of the sense organs or sensory training, should be the first stage in the child's education.
Naturalists considered experience to be more important than books, for they propounded the principle of do and learn.
They felt that the child learns much from natural consequences, and therefore it is best that the child be left to do as he
is inclined, so that he may follow the dictates of his own nature.

Much emphasis is laid upon direct experience.

It is argued that the child learns more by direct experience of nature, men and objects than through books. By the
same reasoning, teaching of science can be more effective if it is done through practical work in the laboratory, just as
geometry is better learnt by-calculating the configuration of actual objects and spaces than through hypothetical
problems posed in the textbooks. Geography can be taught better through tours of places of geographical interest than
through maps and charts. The same holds true of the teaching of history. Hence, the naturalistic educational methods
depend more upon direct experience and personal observation than upon textbooks. Naturalist thinkers suggest the
following two methods of education: 1. Positive method. In this the educator tries to inform the child about various
subjects. This is the traditional method which the naturalist rejects as old fashioned and ineffective. 2. Negative
method. Concerning the negative methods of education, Rousseau has commented, "I call a negative education one
that tends to perfect the organs that are the instruments of knowledge before giving them this knowledge directly and
that endeavours to prepare the way for reason by the proper exercise of the senses". Hence negative education consists
in training the child to use his sense organs and motor organs instead of filling his mind with bits and pieces of
information. By using the various bodily powers at his disposal, the child will generate much knowledge for himself.

The play way method of education is very popular with naturalists because, during play, the child gets the opportunity
to manifest his dormant powers. He is often faced with situations which compel him to use these powers. Irrespective
of the definition of play— as recapitulation of man's ancient activities, as a rehearsal for the rough and tumble of
future life, as safety valve for letting off excess energy it is undoubtedly the most natural and facile way of developing
the child's natural inclinations. That games provide an outlet for man's creative power is true not only of the child's
games but also of games played in adult life.

Artificiality of any kind is another thing with the naturalists find objectionable. The atmosphere in the class and the
school should be informal, and the time-table should not be rigorously adhered to. Apart from the subjects taught as
part of the prescribed syllabus, the child must be encouraged to take active part in various extracurricular
programmes. And, in fact, the child should not be burdened by or compelled to submit to any definite teaching
method at all. Left to himself the child is perfectly capable of evolving an educational technique which suits him best.
If the educator wants to know what this method is, he should observe the child, since through such observation he can
learn what the child wants, in which direction he is inclined, in what things he evinces interest. Consequently, the
teacher will be enabled to mould his own technique to suit the child.

The Teacher Naturalism opposes the traditional concepts of education in which the educator inflicted any and all
kinds of punishment on the child in order to make it progress in the desired direction. Naturalists believe that the
period of infancy is important in itself, not merely as a stepping stone to adult life. That explains their extreme
emphasis upon the playway technique of education. They opine that the child should be encouraged to enjoy his
infancy and childhood as much as he can, with the least possible interference from the teacher. Consequently, the
teacher does not occupy as high and respected a position as he does under the idealistic tradition. One example of this
is Neil's Summerhill School in which the educator mixed with the educands, played and practically lived with them.

Even the matter of discipline was in the hands of the educands who selected a cabinet of five educands for this
purpose. This cabinet was even empowered to expel an educand from the school, if it felt the necessity for such an
extreme step. Neil's only function was to remove the various difficulties of the educands, after discussing everything
with them. Hence, in this school, the educator was no more than just one of the members of the school.

Naturalists suggest that the educator should be a guide and a friend, and that in his behaviour with the child, the
educator should try to recollect his own childhood and infancy. The child is naturally inclined to laughter and
happiness. Hence the educator should be jolly and not grave, for undue seriousness of manner and behaviour
depresses the child. The educator's role is primarily negative inasmuch as he is required to protect the child's inherent
goodness from bad influences originating in the environment. He is responsible for creating an environment in which
the child can experience the greatest amount of freedom. He must study the child's psychology and intervene in his
activity only when some obstacle bars the way to the child's progress.

Hence, the aim of education is, thus, to provide the child with opportunities for completely unrestricted self-
expression. The role of educator, therefore, is only to protect the child from repressions, mental conflicts and mental
disorders of all kind. Naturalism warns the educator against unnecessary seriousness, the desire to assert his authority,
physical punishment, etc., since all these measures have a detrimental influence upon the child's development. The
educator must think in terms of what he must avoid doing rather than think of things he must do. He can do even
better and become literally a child in dealing with children. But his guidance is apparent when he can give a positive
and confident opinion on controversial matters, and for this he must be possessed of unbounded self-confidence., He
can also guide the children in their search for new things, and can train them in new techniques of doing things so that
in later life they should become capable of doing things on their own.
The role of the teacher is most clearly defined by Ross in the following words, "His (educator's) place, if any, is
behind the scenes; he is an observer of the child's development rather than a giver of information, ideas, ideals and
will power, or a moulder of character. These the child will forge for himself, he knows better than any educator what
he should learn, when and how he should learn it. His education is the free development of his interests and motives
rather than an artificial effort made on him by an educator.

"It is evident, therefore, that the educator should never have recourse to any kind of pressure or force, even to the use
of his own authority. His task is simply to provide the theatre for the child's acting, to collect the materials required, to
provide the child with an opportunity to do as he likes, to create an ideal environment. As a result of the impact of
naturalism, many of the latest techniques of education, such as the Montessori system, Dalton plan, Project method,
etc., all grant to the teacher a similar status.

Compared to naturalistic philosophy, the idealistic school grants a more responsible position to the teacher. Adams
expressed the opinion that the educator himself has been through the same situations as the educand is experiencing at
present. He is no less a part of the intellectual world than anyone else. Both the educator and the educand are two
elements of the organic structure of the universe, and both have their own status and role in God's plan. The educator
teaches and guides him along the path of perfection.

The educator's role in the naturalist organisation of education is clarified by the example of Froebel's kindergarten
system. In this system, the school is conceived to be a garden, the educand to be a delicate plant and the educator the
careful, responsible and cautious gardener. The plant grows by itself, it seeks its own nourishment, and its
development is governed by natural laws. It is impossible to turn one plant into a plant of another kind. This is beyond
the abilities of even the greatest gardener. His only function is to make sure that the plant and the weed grows
according to its own nature, and that this development is not hindered.

Upto this point, the idealistic conception does not differ very much from the naturalistic conception. But, as Ross has
commented, the naturalist may be satisfied with wild flowers, but the idealist can be satisfied only by the finest of
roses. The idealist places greater stress on the aims of education, and believes this aim to be self-realisation or
perfection. Hence, under the idealistic pattern of education, the educator allows the educand to follow the natural
pattern of growth, but he reserves the right to guide the educand towards perfection. It is implied that such perfection
cannot be achieved without the educator's guidance, and hence the educator does not remain merely a friend, but
becomes a guide and a sage.

Contribution of Naturalism to Education Like other systems of philosophy of education, naturalism has also made
important contribution to education. It made education paidocentric, psychological, free, selfdependent, related to
nature and society, based upon developmental psychology, democratic, multisided and natural to the stages of
development. These points may now be discussed in detail.

1. Paidocentric education. In the naturalistic conception of education, the child is in the forefront while all other
things such as the educator, the books, the curriculum, the school, etc., are all in the background. Sir John Adams
called this the conception of paidocentric education. Naturalism stresses the fact that education should be guided by
the nature of the child, that the natural inclination of the child is always good. Rousseau said, "Everything is good as it
comes from the hands of the Author of Nature but everything degenerates in the hands of man". It is, therefore, argued
that the child is naturally invested with all goodness, and all that is necessary is to protect him from a defective
environment. He must be provided with the kind of environment which will encourage him to develop his innate
goodness, his natural sense of the beautiful. He must be enabled to avoid the ugly, to manifest the natural truth inside
him so that he can combat the falsity which is thrust upon him by the defective environment. In this process, the
educator can perform only the function of the guide. Naturalists are not inclined to transform the child's nature
through education or to apply to him the standards of the adult. Education according to them, is not the preparation for
life but life itself. Children should live like children, because infancy has its own significance, and it is not merely a
stepping stone to adulthood.

The child is not to be prepared and made ready for his future, but instead to be allowed to enjoy the present. Munro
opines that Rousseau was the first to state the principle, that, "Education finds its purpose, its process and its means
wholly within the child life and the child experience". In this manner, it can be summarized that education is the
process of living a natural life and moving towards evolution, because the child has within himself the germs of
evolution.

2. Emphasis upon psychology. The influence of naturalism was the cause of the psychological tendency gaining
so much prominence in the field of education. By stressing the fact of the child's nature, it emphasised the
importance of natural development. And, in order to determine what is natural and what is abnormal in child
development, the naturalists turned to the psychologists. Thus it came to be understood that education must
study the child and observe him. Many psychological researches have established that the child is not a young
adult, that he has a distinct psychology which differs from adult psychology. It has been established that the
child's mental activities of thinking, memory, imagination, recall, learning, etc., all differ from similar
activities in the adult. Hence, naturalism stressed the value of psychology for education. Rousseau is often
created with introducing the psychological tendency in education for he was the first to point out that
education should follow the child's nature, which must first be understood.
3. Although Thomas Fuller had stressed even before Rousseau the importance of studying the educand more
than books, it was the latter whose theorizing in this sphere took practical shape. Rousseau's ideas were put
into practice by Pestalozzi, Herbert, Froebel and other educationists. The introduction of psychology into the
 sphere of education led to considerable research in child psychology, and the entire process finally culminated
in the emergence of a distinct branch of psychology called educational psychology. William McDougall has
made valuable contribution to the literature on and knowledge of child psychology by his analysis of the
child's instincts and his definition of the process of character formation, determination and sentiment
formation in the child. Thorndike and other psychologists contributed great wealth of knowledge in the sphere
of manual skill and other aspects of child learning.

By comparing and examining the various stages in the evolution of the child, it was found that child psychology
differed considerably in infancy, childhood and adolescence. As a consequence, great stress was placed on
adopting different techniques of teaching at each one of these stages. Apart from this, education was further
influenced by the discovery that children differed from each other to a very great extent in respect of their
physical and mental capabilities, their nature and emotions, etc. It was considered desirable to make education
flexible so that it could accommodate all such variations and still contribute to the healthy development of the
child. But probably the greatest impact on education was that of the psychoanalysts. Freud put forward many
novel theses about child psychology.

Other psychoanalysts were responsible for many interesting and illuminating books on child psychology, and
these were avidly read by educators the world over. In the main, the influence of psychoanalysis can be seen in
the knowledge it provides of the harmful effects of repression and the fresh attitudes to sex, authority, the child's
attitude to authority. Besides, this branch of psychology also warned educators against the harmful effects of
threats, physical punishment and asserting oneself. Ross is of the opinion that the greatest benefit derived from
psychoanalysis is that it has helped to explain the causes of juvenile delinquency and also suggested ways and
means of curing it.

Emphasis upon free choice.

Naturalists contend that a predetermined pattern of education must never be foisted upon the child even when the
pattern is entirely scientific. Education must give the child an opportunity of making a free choice in everything
that he wants to study or play or even the manner in which he wants to behave. No external restraints should be
placed on his free choice. Some naturalists even object to the very institution of school education, because they
fear that the school is an obstacle in their normal and independent development. They also believe that the
atmosphere in the home is freer than the school environment but they are contradicted by others more conscious
of the constant interruptions made by parents in the child's activities. Apart from this naturalists, in general, are
opposed to all educands in one class being taught in the same manner, or by the same method of education.
They even object to the introduction of any kind of time-table. One example of a completely unrestrained
environment is to be found in Summerhill School established by A.S. Neil. It was taken for granted at this
institution that the child was not expected to be fit for school, but that the school had to prepare itself for the child.
Liberty was the first principle in the child's education, so much so that the children could play through the entire
day if they were so inclined. They were given no religious education because a child is not naturally religiously
inclined. No adult values were forced upon the children who were also taught none of the principles of culture.
Naturalists also believe that the child should not be made cultured unless he realises the need for culture. It was,
therefore, thought better to leave the child in his more primitive condition. The liberty granted to the children
even extended to their being allowed to roam naked if they so wished. It was found that no moral difficulty was
raised due to the sex instinct, and it was decided that a healthy attitude to sex could only be generated through
coeducation. Neil was of the opinion that undesirable behaviour is due to moral and unnatural repression, and that
no undesirable incidents take place due to co-education if the environment is completely free and liberal.

4. Place of the teacher. Naturalism grants to the teacher the place of the friend and the guide, not of the
administrator, for he is not to interfere in the child's activities, nor to make any attempt at influencing him. He is
there merely to observe them, not to give them any information or to fill their minds with facts or to form their
characters. It is for the child to decide what he wants to learn. He will learn from experience what he should learn
and when, what he should do and what he should avoid. His interests and instincts should be given an opportunity
to manifest themselves freely. All this does not imply that the teacher has no role at all in education, for he has a
definite role inasmuch as he is the one who will provide the educative material, create the opportunities for
learning, create the ideal environment and thus contribute to the child's development. For example, in the
Montessori method of education, the child is given many kinds of equipment to play with, while the teacher looks
on and observes.

Naturalism, thus, favours the concept of self-education. Norman Mancken has gone one step further and
suggested that children can even educate each other. Nothing should be done with a view to turning the child's
mind in any particular direction. He is not to be taught to read or write, to make use of the various parts of his
body, or be taught moral lessons, but merely to be left to himself so that he can develop independently. This is
what Rousseau implied by his concept of the educator's negative effort in the process of education. Negative
effort did not imply that the teacher was merely to pass his time, but to observe the child, avoid any interference
in his activities, to prevent or protect him from defects, to protect him from a defective environment. The educator
must be perfectly aware of all that he has not to do, but at the same time this negative attitude is to be
supplemented by the positive one of love and sympathy. He can love the child only when he himself has been a
child, that is, he has not completely forgotten his childhood. He should have the inclination to laugh and plays like
the child, to forget that he is an adult, to mix with the children and become one of them himself.
Only then can he give anything to them.At times, one finds children developing some bad tendencies and it
becomes necessary to guide them. But even this should be done in the form of an informal conversation with the
child. In such a dialogue the educator understands the difficulties of the educand, shows his love and sympathy
and encourages the educand to solve them himself. He makes the educand aware of the difficulties he is likely to
face. Neil called this re-education. He saw in his own school that many of the children often sought opportunities
for such informal dialogues. Whenever the children showed any disinclination for such dialogues, they were
immediately abandoned.

5. Direct experience of things. Naturalists believe Rousseau's dictum, "Give your scholar no verbal lesson; he
should be taught by experience alone." Hence, the naturalist lays stress on teaching through direct experience. The
child will learn more by coming into contact through the objects surrounding him than through books. He should
be allowed to examine these objects. Similarly the teaching of science should not take the form of verbal lectures,
but actual performance of experiments in the laboratory. Geometry should be taught not by the problems written
in books but by the actual measurement of the areas of the school and the height and other dimensions of the
school buildings and other objects. If geography is to be taught, the educand should be taken to the various parts
of the country, and not taught only through maps and charts produced on the blackboard. Thus naturalists insist
that the educand must learn from the things that exist in the school, not through the lectures of the educator.

6. Direct experience of social life. What is true of the natural environment of the child, is also equally true of the
social environment in which he lives. He should learn the various duties, obligations and responsibilities of social
life not through lectures of the educator but through the natural society of the school, of which the educand is a
member. Here, left to himself, he will learn to do those things which should be done and leave alone those which
should be avoided. In Neil's Summerhill School the children themselves decided upon the form of behaviour
which others found objectionable or which hindered their adjustment, and thus learnt to avoid it. This formed the
basis of the child's social education. The concept of co-education is also favoured by the naturalists because then
the society within the school resembles more closely the society outside school. Besides, it has been contended
that unnatural attitudes to sex are the inevitable result of segregated education of boys and girls.

This is a very controversial subject and many educationists fail to agree with the naturalists, although in many
cases the results of experiments in coeducation favoured the naturalists' thesis. It can undoubtedly be said,
however, that the child's experience of the social life within the school, forms the basis of his later social and
moral life.

7. Self-government. Another characteristic feature of the naturalist conception of education is the insistence on
self- government. Neil's Summerhill School experimented in this direction also by allowing the educands to form
their own government. They created a cabinet of five educands whose function it was to reflect on various
 difficulties, to give decisions in cases of indiscipline and even to inflict punishment for such acts. These five
cabinet members met every Saturday night, and one of them was elected to the chair. All problems were then
discussed.

The cabinet even had the authority to expel an educand from the school, if it so decided, although in fact this right was
never exercised. Neil states that this arrangement led to the development of highly democratic qualities in his
educands, and it was felt that this weekly meeting had a much greater influence and impact than an entire week of
traditional teaching.

And, in fact, no one can doubt that such an arrangement of self-government is very beneficial for training educands in
democratic living. The condition of self-government does impose certain restrictions on the educand's activities, but
because it is imposed through his own rules and regulations, it takes the form of self-government and self-discipline.
All kinds of self-control can be learnt through self-government, and it has none of the drawbacks of the method of
external control. There is undoubtedly no better way of teaching public morality. And it is only self-government
which teaches cultured behaviour and co- operation.

8. Play way of education. Of the many methods of education, naturalists prefer the play way. In this technique, all
that the child learns is through a sense of playing or indulging in sport. Psychologists contend that the child best
manifests his instincts and tendencies in an independent game, and his development can also be achieved through
sport.

Whatever the objectives of play—the recapitulation of man's primitive activities, the preparation for future life, or a
kind of safety valve for an individual's excessive energy—it is undoubtedly the most natural method of teaching.
Playing affords education not only during childhood, for people learn many things through playing even in adult life.
It also provides an opportunity for constructive activity. Games are an important medium of constructive or creative
education. Naturalists have, therefore, placed adequate stress on the value of games a fact which even modern
educationists accept without reservation. Nowadays the play way of education is adopted for the education of infants
and children, and thus the acquire all the advantages of a naturalist education. Montessori education, for example, is a
good instance of this because in this method of teaching the child learns even reading and writing through play.
Scouting is another activity in which the child is taught many things through the medium of play. In Neil's
Summerhill School, more stress was placed on character than on learning. Children were free to play from morning
till evening.

There was no system of examination, and books had less importance in the school than most other kinds of activities.
Some lessons were taught, but attendance was never compulsory because most of the work, in any case, was done
outside the classroom. On the other hand, educands favoured the crafts rooms much more, where they were taught to
make things out of wood, plastecine and metal. Educands and educators sat together to write plays. It was found that
drama writing is an important means of developing the creative imagination.

9. Development of the child according to its nature. Naturalists stressed the fact that the child must develop
according to his own nature, and educational pattern must be modified to suit the various needs of children, because
children differ from each other on account of their innate individual differences.

10. Importance of developmental psychology. By stressing the value of studying child development, naturalists made
contributions to the progress of developmental psychology which scientifically studies the various stages of man's
development.

11. Comprehensive curriculum. Naturalists have favoured the adoption of a multifaceted and comprehensive
curriculum, which reflects, apart from the scientific, sociological and psychological tendencies, the holistic tendency
in education. The holistic approach is, in fact, a synthesis of the scientific, sociological and psychological tendencies.
Schools make use of all kinds of modern audiovisual aids, and arrange for teaching of sciences and the various arts.
Extracurricular programmes and activities are also believed to be of considerable importance.

12. Development of democratic qualities. Naturalism is opposed to repression and vigorous discipline of any kind. It
seeks to replace the traditional by the modern, the dogmatic by the liberal and the progressive. It consequently helps
in the development of such democratic qualities as liberty, equality and fraternity. It favours a complete rejection of
the traditional modes of teaching and instead advocates greater dependence upon self-government.

13. Development of child psychology. Naturalists played a significant role in the development of child psychology
as a result of their insistence on education being oriented to the child's nature. As a result of this development in child
psychology, it was discovered that the child is not a young adult, but a distinct kind of human being possessed of a
different psychology. Naturalists insist that the child is born good, and that education must seek only to protect him
from evil.

14. Support of residential schools. Under the naturalist mode of teaching, the educator has the negative role of
protecting the educand from evil. For this reason, naturalists favour residential schools because the educand's
environment can be controlled much better if the educand lives in hostels attached to the school. They also favour the
pattern of co-education because this develops more natural attitudes in boys and girls.

15. Revolution in all fields of education. Finally, it can be said that naturalists were responsible for some of the most
revolutionary ideas in all spheres of education. As has already been pointed out, naturalists vigorously opposed all
traditional thinking on child psychology, educational techniques, curriculum, administration, coeducation, etc.
Although all their ideas are not found acceptable today, many of the principles propounded by the naturalists are still
being applied. For example, such educational principles as learning through activity, going from the simple to the
complex, from the concrete to the abstract, from the definite to the indefinite, from the easy to the difficult, and from
the known to the unknown, are all principles which were originally propounded by the naturalists. And all these have
been established as correct. Modern educationists now agree that the aim of education is not to provide education but
to encourage spontaneous development. The significance and efficacy of broad based and comprehensive curricula
have been almost universally accepted. Frustration and repression are held to be harmful everywhere. And the role of
the teacher is now universally seen as the guide and not the administrator.

Q#5 The limitations of natural knowledge? It is of any use to Muslims today?

ANS

The limitations of human knowledge .

In the chapter entitled Al-Isra (the Night Journey) of the Quran there is a verse which concerns the art
of thinking. The translation of this verse is as follows:
"They question you about the Spirit. Say, 'The Spirit is at my Lord's command, and you have been granted but little
knowledge'" (17:85).
This Quranic verse enshrines a very important principle regarding the theory of knowledge: that man was created with
certain limitations, due to which he cannot apprehend everything. To accept this limitation is the greatest wisdom, for
it opens the door to all possible knowledge.
Philosophy has a long history, but it has failed to provide any clear-cut knowledge about human life. In fact, all the
philosophers of the past and present have been purveyors of confusion. On the contrary, scientists have been able to
provide us with fruitful knowledge. Indeed, modern civilisation is a gift of the scientific community. Why is there this
difference between the two disciplines? The reason is that philosophers have failed to accept human limitations, while
scientists have accepted them. Acceptance of limitations opens the door to all kinds of genuine knowledge.
The wise man tries to gain knowledge about the things around him, but he refrains from jumping into those fields
where it is impossible to draw conclusions due to a lack of data. To differentiate between the two kinds of disciplines
is an important principle of knowledge. If you want to know about the physical world, that is something which is
comprehensible with the aid of telescopes and microscopes. But there is a world which is beyond all telescopes and
microscopes.
Taking a leap into the realm of these inaccessible phenomena is characterised by the well-known saying: "Fools rush
in where angels fear to tread."

ISLAMIC VIEW OF NATURE VERSUS WESTERN VIEW OF NATURE

In Islam the purpose of nature is for man ‘to study nature in order to discover God and to use nature for the
benefit of mankind’. Nature can be used to provide food for mankind and its bounty is to be equally
distributed among all peoples. All activities that cause harm to mankind and in turn destroy nature are
forbidden. Destruction of the natural balance is discouraged, for example, unnecessary killing of animals or
removal of vegetation may in turn lead to starvation due to lack of food. This view is an extension of the
idea that ‘Man’ has been placed on earth as God’s representative (Faruqi, 2006a; Zaidi, 1991; Said, 1989).
Modern-day Muslims scholars advocate that scientists and scholars are best motivated by these underlying
values when undertaking scientific endeavours. The Islamic view of nature has its roots in the Quran, the
very word of God and the basis of Islam. The following passages from the Quran illustrate the relationship
between nature and man and how this relationship inspires Muslim scholars to study natural phenomenon, in
order to understand God (Wersal, 1995). The following verses also show the way the Quran presents the
whole universe:
knowledge is the only source from which to learn how to make spiritual progress, while material progress is
based on a knowledge of nature.

So far as success or failure in the Hereafter is concerned, it rests entirely on the revealed knowledge passed
on to mankind by the Prophet (2:120). The Prophet Muhammad is enjoined to proclaim to mankind that
“God’s guidance is the only guidance.”

Principles of attainment of Salvation are derived solely from divine revelation.

Nevertheless, Islam holds that while the principles for the attainment of salvation in the Hereafter derive
solely from divine revelation, the attainment of material progress is influenced by knowledge of the laws of
nature as discovered and established by secular scientific research. By reason and by tradition Islam accords
to the secular sciences the status of an independent branch of learning.

In fact, the Quran repeatedly urges us to give serious thought to the natural phenomena of the heavens and
the earth, as being signs for men of sense — those who remember God when standing, sitting and lying
down, and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth, saying:

Lord, You have not created this in vain. (THE QURAN 3: 190). These verses clearly suggest that we should
proceed to our own conclusions on the basis of human reasoning in matters of the world. The difference
between the scientific and the religious approach to practical matters has been made clear in a Hadith. Fifty
out of the 63 years of the Prophet’s life were spent in Makkah, a desert town where there was no agriculture.
Later, he migrated to Medina where agriculture and horticulture were practiced — in particular, the growing
of date palms. Naturally, the Prophet had no experience of either farming or fruit growing.

One day, as the Prophet was passing through the outskirts of Medina, he noticed that some people, who had
climbed up the date palms, were engaged in some activity. On inquiring what they were busy with, they
explained that they were fertilizing the trees. Traditionally, they did this by the artificial pollination of the
date flowers, and this ensured a good crop. But when the Prophet asked, “What if you don’t do it?”, the
people, in deference to his judgement climbed down the trees without completing their task. That year the
yield was very low.

When the Prophet inquired why the yield was so low that particular year, the orchard keepers replied that
the yield depended on the pollination, which they had been carrying out when he had stopped them. On
hearing this, the Prophet replied: “Continue doing as you used to, since you know the matters of the world
better than I do.” This incident illustrates how the Prophet separated religious knowledge from a practical
matter such as horticulture. In fact, the principle evident in this was applicable not just to horticulture, but to
all natural matters governed by the laws of nature. The clear inference is that what is demonstrable in nature,
yielding itself to research and experiment, will be accepted by Islam as established, empirical knowledge.

Material progress is based on the knowledge of nature.

The same principle may be applied to all other scientific disciplines, for instance, to geology, astronomy,
engineering and so on. Islam is quite clear on this point that all of these are the subject matter not of religion
but of scientific research.
For instance, if experiment shows that water boils at 100ºC, it will be accepted as such without any dispute.
Only that will be held valid which has been proved by scientific research and experiment. All discoveries
must be verifiable. Nothing will be accepted on the basis of mere speculation.

Historically, this Islamic policy of the division of religion and science is extremely important, as it opened
the door to scientific progress for the first time in human history. Prior to the advent of Islam, this policy of
division had never been followed, so that science remained the mere handmaiden of religion.

Any attempt at true scientific research was generally hampered or stopped altogether by the forces of
dogmatism and superstition. Independent progress was an impossibility.

The division recognized by Islam was epoch-making precisely because it freed secular science from the grip
of religion. This opened the way to the open conducting of research and experiment without any fear of
interference. This process of liberation continued for a period of a thousand years, until that modern era
came into existence, which is now known as the scientific age.

What is demonstrable in nature, yielding itself to research and experiment, will be accepted by Islam as
established, empirical knowledge.

The believers, the Jews, the Christians, and the Sabaeans — all those who believe in God and the Last Day
and do good deeds — will be rewarded by their Lord; they shall have no fear, nor shall they grieve.
(THE QURAN 2: 62)

FOUR communities are mentioned in this verse: Muslims, who are the followers of the Prophet
Muhammad; Jews who follow the Prophet Moses; Christians, who follow the Prophet Jesus; and Sabeans,
who adhered to the teachings of John the Baptist (Prophet Yahya). The last-mentioned sect resided in Iraq in
ancient times, but is now extinct. They were people of the Book, and offered their prayers facing the Kabah
in Makkah.

No community is inherently superior to any other. Only true belief and righteous actions are

rewarded with salvation.

Here, the Muslims have not been mentioned separately, but have been grouped with other communities
associated with prophets. This means that all ethnic groups are equal in the sight of God; no community is
inherently superior to any other. Only true belief and righteous actions are rewarded with salvation. This is
the rule that applies consistently to every community. No one, whether he calls himself Muslim, Jew,
Christian or Sabaean, is exempt from this rule. Belonging to a particular community gives no special status
in the eyes of God. God elevates to a high rank only those who have sought to mould their own lives
according to His divine scheme.

The lives of those who associate with a prophet during his lifetime are based on true belief and righteous
actions. At that time certain people hear the Prophet’s call. Their spirits are moved by his message: an
intellectual revolution takes place within them, filling them with new resolve. Their whole pattern of life
changes. Where previously they had been guided by personal desires, they now base their lives on the
teachings of God, and may truly call themselves followers of the prophets; these are the ones to whom the
prophets gave good tidings of eternal blessings in the next world.
The situation changes, however, as time passes. For the generations that follow, religion becomes a kind of
national heritage. Tidings which had been given on the basis of faith and righteous actions come to be
considered to be the result of ethnic affiliations.

People reckon that they have a special relationship with God that others do not enjoy: one who belongs to a
particular community is sure, they begin to think, to be saved, notwithstanding the standard of his faith and
deeds. Paradise is for us, hell for them, they think. But God does not have a special relationship with any
particular community. He has regard solely for man’s thoughts and deeds. In the Hereafter, people will be
judged according to their deeds and character, and not on the basis of the group to which they belong.

SPIRITUAL UNITY

MAN’S greatest need today is to be shown the path of spiritual unity. There is no other way to eliminate the
disharmony existing in present-day society which has resulted in so many intractable problems. It is
generally said that in present times, the world has assumed the form of a global village. But this is only half
the truth. Modern technology and communications have, of course, greatly reduced distances across the
world. But the closeness thus produced is of a purely physical nature. Modern technology may have bridged
certain gaps, bringing the external world closer together, but the task of bringing unity into the internal
world of humanity has yet to be accomplished.

What is spiritual unity? Let us take a very simple example. When you live in a crowded settlement, the
walls all around give you a sense of limitation. You experience the friction of living in close contact with
others and you suffer from mental tension. Later, when you emerge from that dense human settlement into
open, natural surroundings you immediately feel that your tension has evaporated and you have once again
become serene. You feel that you have joined a limitless universality. The feeling of separateness is
replaced by an all-pervasive feeling of unity. You immediately become part of a world where there are no
boundaries. A sense of universality prevails.

Without spiritual unity, there is little hope of creating peace and harmony throughout the world.

We have all had this experience at one time or another. It shows us what spiritual unity is. It is, in fact, the
raising of one’s existence to a higher plane. The moment you achieve this, you feel you are emerging from a
limited world to become a citizen of an unlimited world. Disunity now disappears, giving way to unity all
around.

Although physically, all human beings appear to be different, spiritually they are one. It is as if spiritual
unity between human beings already exists, and that it does not have to be externally imposed. We have
only to make people aware of its existence. Once the outer, artificial veils are removed, what remains will
be pure spirituality.

In reality, the various sets of circumstances that confront man in this world lead to drawing of different veils
over man’s natural propensities. For instance, the veil of material greed produces self-centredness; the veil
of jealousy causes him to see himself as being separate from others; the veil of prejudice makes him
discriminate between human beings, and so on.

These veils, in fact, tend to block man’s natural urge towards spiritual unity. What is required is to remove
these artificial veils so that the true, inner reality of humaneness can be brought into focus.
 All human beings are God’s family.

The aim of all religions, basically, is to encourage this spiritual unity within man, and between man and
man. No religion is at variance with another so far as this goal is concerned. The language in which this is
set forth may vary from one religion to another, but, without doubt, the main concern of all religions is to
produce spiritual unity within and between all human beings. Without spiritual unity, there is little hope of
creating peace and harmony throughout the world. And where there is no peace and harmony, the dream of
human progress will forever remain elusive.

Now, what is Islam’s contribution to spiritual unity? The subject is too vast for more than just a few basic
points to be briefly touched on.

The Unity of God

The most important factor in Islam’s contribution is its concept of monotheism—of there being only one
God (THE QURAN 2: 163). According to Islam, God, or the ultimate reality of this universe is only one —
called Allah in Islam. It is implicit in the concept of the oneness of Godhead that differences and
multiplicity would appear to exist in reality, yet there is an underlying unity.

In this way the concept of divine unity engenders spiritual unity. All human beings are one, because they are
the servants of one God. All human beings are God’s family. God is indeed the greatest reality of the
universe. And when it is acknowledged that there is only one greatest reality, it is but natural that all other
creatures should acquire the character of unity.

The Unity of Nature

The Quran states that:

There is no changing in God’s creation.

(THE QURAN 30: 30)

According to the Prophet of Islam ‘every child is born with an upright nature.’ (Al-Bukhari) We learn from
this that unity is found among all human beings at the level of nature and creation. Nature forms the
common constituent in the creation of human beings, just as the atom forms the common constituent in all
the varied objects of nature in the physical world. That is to say that the same unity which exists in the
external world at the physical level has existed among human beings at the spiritual level from the outset.

The main concern of all religions is to produce spiritual unity within, and between all human beings.

But man tends at times to be oblivious of his own nature. This is no less true in the sphere of unity. Today
people are unaware of their spiritual potential. In such a situation, the easiest way to bring about spiritual
unity is to make men aware of that potential. The moment they became aware of it, spiritual unity will come
into existence of its own accord.

The Unity of Mankind

The Quran says:

O Men, have fear of your Lord, who created you from a single soul. From that soul He created its mate, and
through them, He scattered the earth with countless men and women.
(THE QURAN 4: 1)
This shows that men and women have been created from the same substance. Their being physically one, of
necessity, demands their spiritual oneness.

Making a similar point, the Prophet Muhammad said that all human beings are brothers (Abu Dawud). This
gives rise to the concept of a common brotherhood, and, without doubt, it is this sense of brotherhood which
generates the strongest feeling of oneness and togetherness among different people.

That is to say when all human beings in this world are virtually blood brothers, they must, as this concept
necessarily demands, live as brothers in spirit, too. Any other way of living is a deviation from reality.

Here is an incident which illustrates this point. In 1893, Swami Vivekananda went to Chicago to participate
in the Parliament of Religions. As the Encyclopaedia Britannica puts it, his was a ‘sensational appearance.’
(15/623) On that occasion all the speakers at the conference followed the common practice of addressing the
audience as 'Ladies and Gentlemen.' But when Swami Vivekananda took the stage, he addressed his
listeners as 'Sisters and brothers of America.' No sooner were the words out of his mouth than the hall
resounded with a long burst of applause. Of all the delegates at the conference, Swamiji received the
greatest ovation.

Men and women have been created from the same substance. Their being physically one, of necessity,
demands their spiritual oneness.

The reason for this was that the form of address, 'Ladies and Gentlemen' produces a sense of alienation and
strangeness, whereas the phrase 'Sisters and Brothers' introduces a note of closeness and familiarity. By
using this phrase, Swami Vivekananda touched a chord in the hearts of people of different creeds and
colours. Their natural feeling of unity was awakened, and then what ensued fulfilled the best of
expectations. All of a sudden, the gaps between them were bridged. They all began to feel themselves what
they really were, and for that moment, physical divisions disappeared and were replaced by a rare spiritual
unity.