WOMEN'S POLITICAL PARTICIPATION IN INDIA

Introduction
According to Mahatma Gandhi, the role of women in the political, economic and social
emancipation of the country was of overriding importance.

“When the history of India’s fight for independence comes to be written the sacrifice made
by the women of India will occupy foremost place” Mahatma Gandhi.

Politics basically involves representation, policy, power and position with Government as its
area. Participation is related to one's status, education, occupation, income and membership of
organization. Participation is the involvement and consultation of those affected by decisions .

H. McClosky defines participation as " the principal means by which consent is granted or
withdrawn in a democracy and rulers are made accountable to the ruled".

Political Participation refers to participation of individuals in the political process. It ensures

that individuals are able to take part in deciding the common goals of the society and the best
ways of attaining it. Political Participation enables individuals to participate in the decision-
making process and policy determination that affect their needs. Women's participation in the
political process is important not only because it strengthens democracy but also helps them to
represent their problems and negotiate a better deal . Participation of both men and women is
a key cornerstone of good governance.

Democracy was once described by Abraham Lincoln as a system “of the people, by the people
and for the people’. But, such a definition hardly mirrors the reality of politics. It implies,
ultimately, the existence of a system of government formed by the majority of the people".
Women participation in the political process is important for strengthening the democracy .

Democracy is a system of government where people participate either directly or indirectly in

the process of governance. In this context, the problem of low participation of women is of
special concern; women’s participation in decision-making system is essential for effective
governance. Therefore democracy implies equality for all citizens either men or women. As
against this basic notion of democracy what is normally seen is that women are generally
excluded from different walks of life, and more visibly in Politics. Democracy will fail in its
objectives if women lack equal opportunity to participate in the governmental decision making
process. They are to be equal partners in the nation building and political development .
India stands tall among democracies of the world, an old nation but comparatively young state,
with the constitution that incorporates the best features of the world . The Indian Republic had
started its journey with the ideals of liberty, equality and justice, making the Indian women feel
secure with promises of survival, equal treatment and gender justice. Their dreams of being
equal citizens, however, remains unfulfilled even today. The progressive vision of the
constitution has proved inadequate in addressing the complexities of gender discrimination.

Gender equity is one of the important challenges in the global development debate.

Today , the buzz word is "Empowerment ". It simply means the manifestation of redistribution
of power. It is aimed at decentralizing authority and getting the participation of the deprived
sections in the decision-making process.

Women’s political empowerment is premised on three fundamental and non-negotiable

principles:

• The equality between women and men.

• Women’s right to a full development of their potential.
• Women’s right to self representation and self-determination.
There is a gender gap in political decision-making, and women leaders need to come out
more in numbers to impact position decisions and inspire teenage girls to contribute to
nation-building.

India has seen an active participation of women in the country's struggle for independence
against the colonial power. The participation was recognized after independence when the
universal suffrage was introduced in the very first elections held in independent India.
However, in over 70 decades of independence, the country could see only a handful of
prominent female politicians, including Late Indira Gandhi also known as the Iron lady of India.
She was one of the most influential Prime Ministers of India(She was one of the most influential
Prime Ministers of India) , Pratibha Patil (She was the first women to serve as president of
India), Late Sushma Swaraj ( She was 7-times MP and 3-times MLA, and was a very powerful BJP
leader. She was also Union minister of external affairs of India), Late Jayaram Jayalalithaa was
the first Indian actress who served six times as the CM of Tamil Nadu for over 14 years between
1991 and 2016. Vasundhara Raje Scindia ( She was the first woman CM of Rajasthan). Sonia
Gandhi (She was the president of the Indian National Congress and chairperson of the United
Progressive Alliance). Nirmala Sitharaman ( She is India’s first full-time woman finance minister.
It was just in September 2017 that she was appointed the defence minister, marking one of the
swiftest ascents in Indian politics ).The are the few politicians who managed to penetrate
through the male dominance spectrum.

POLITICAL LEADERSHIP OF WOMEN : CONSTRAINTS AND

CHALLENGES

PRESENT SITUATION OF WOMEN IN INDIA:

POLITICALLY:

Status of women in politics can be defined as the degree of equality and freedom enjoyed by
the women in shaping and sharing of power. As of 2018-2019, some women have served in
various senior official positions in the Indian government, including that of the President of
India, the Prime Minister of India, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha.

One half of the country has less than 15 per cent presence in the political decision making at
the national level. In the upper house, Rajya Sabha, the number of women MPs is 27 (out of
245) which is just 11 per cent and in the lower house, Lok Sabha, there are 79 women (out of
542) - only 14.5 per cent.
The country has had only 617 women MPs since 1962 and about half (48.4 per cent) of the
constituencies in India have never voted a woman MP. Data by Inter Parliamentary Union (IPU)
shows that India ranks 147, when it comes to the percentage of women present in parliament.

Women's Reservations

Women's Reservation Bill:

The Women's Reservation Bill also known as the The Constitution (108th Amendment)
BillWomen's Reservation Bill was introduced on 9 th March, 2010, in the upper and lower
house, but is still pending in Lok Sabha, despite its reintroduction.
Women's Reservation Bill is a pending bill in the Parliament of India which proposes to amend
the Constitution of India to reserve 33 percent seats in the lower house of the parliament, Lok
Sabha, and in all state legislative assemblies for women.
At Panchayat level:
In 1993, a constitutional amendment was passed in India that called for a random one third of
village council leader, or Sarpanch, positions in gram panchayat to be reserved for women.
There is a long-term plan to extend this reservation to parliament and legislative assemblies.
73rd & 74th amendments to the constitution have ensured the participation of women in
PRIs with a reservation of 1/3rd for women. This was aimed at empowering women and
ensuring their participation in the political process and decision making at grass root level.
Panchayati Raj institutions (PRIs) have played a significant role in bringing women
representatives at grass-root level. Many States have granted 50% reservation for women
candidates in elections.

Recent Development:

In this regard the Government of India introduced various acts and policies so as to empower
the women in India politically. Through 1/3rd reservation of seats for women in Panchayats and
Nagar palikas, they have been able to make meaningful contributions and that the actual
representation of women in Panchayati Raj institutions .

Female Participation :

Impact of women voting

While universal suffrage came to India along with its independence, political parties did not
count women voters separately in their electoral strategies. In a strongly patriarchal society, it
was expected that women’s decisions would be driven by their male kin.
However, political pundits today say that women have their own mind and “Indian women are
a distinct and independent ‘vote bank’, on which political parties have already begun to focus in
order to win elections.” As women are coming out in large numbers, party policies and
campaigns have increasingly focused on winning over women voters. From free cooking gas to
bicycles for girls—many electoral promises have been made to lure women voters.
Despite such a huge and well demarcated vote bank, all major political parties did not put forth
an equal number of women candidates in the field for the 2019 election campaign. The BJP
with 12 per cent and Congress with 13.7 per cent fell short of even allocating a third of tickets
to women candidates.
CHALLENGES TO WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION

Status of women in Literacy:

Literacy in India is a key for social economic progress. Literacy of girls is vital not only on
grounds of social justice but also because it accelerates social transformation. Level of literacy
and educational attainment are important indicators of development of any given society.
Spread and diffusion of literacy is generally associated with essential trait of today’s civilization
such as modernization, communication and commerce. High level of literacy and educational
achievements leads to greater development, awareness and empowerment of women and
girls. Education leads to greater control over their lives and choice. World Bank studies have
established the direct and functional relationship between literacy and productivity on the one
hand and literacy and the overall quality of human life on the other.

Literacy among Indian women is 65.46%, which is much lower than literacy among men
reported at 82.14%.The differences in literacy rates among the states are also extreme.

Dowry system
In India, dowry refers to the durable goods, cash and real or movable property that the bride’s family
gives to the bridegroom his parents or his relatives as a condition of the marriage. The dowry system is
thought to put great financial burden on the bride’s family. Dowry system and other social act as main
causes of the neglect of the girl child and discrimination against girl child including the deprivation of
right to education. In some cases, the dowry system leads to the crime against women ranging from
emotional abuse, injury to even deaths.

Early marriage
Early or child marriage in India, according to Indian law, is a marriage where either the woman is below
age 18 or the man is below age 21. Most child marriage involves underage women, many of whom are in
poor socio-economic conditions. Jharkhand is the state with highest child marriage rates in India. Rural
rates of early marriages were three times higher than urban India rates in 2009. There is high association
of female literacy with female age at marriage. By and large the female age at marriage of 18 as
prescribed by various legislations not at all followed in India. It is very much ignored and neglected by
the families of parents with low literacy.
Priority to son’s education compared to daughter’s education
Many parents view educating sons as an investment because the sons will be responsible for caring for
aging parents. On the other hand parents may see the education of daughter a waste of money as
daughter will eventually live with their husband’s families and the parents will not benefit directly from
their education.

Poverty
Poverty happens to be the single biggest cause of illiteracy in India and a precursor to all other effects.
Women are found to be economically very poor all over the India. A few women are engaged in services
and other activities. So, they need economic power to stand on their own legs on per with men. Poverty
is considered the greatest threat to peace in the world. Sex slaves are a direct outcome of poverty. In a
poor family, girls are the main victims; they are malnourished and are denied the opportunity of better
education and other facility. If poverty were not a concern, then the girl child will be able to follow her
dreams without concerns of sexual exploitation, domestic abuse and any education or work. . Numerous
studies show that illiterate women have high levels of fertility, poor nutritional status, low earning
potential and little autonomy within the household.

Girl child denied timely interventions

Girl child denied timely interventions a in nutrition and healthcare, especially in rural areas.
Hence malnutrition and anemia among Indian girls is one of the highest in the world.

Unemployment
The unequal treatment of women has been a characteristic of provision for unemployment
throughout its existence. Even though women are generally paid less, they are not preferred in
many industries.

CULTURALLY:
Status of women in Patriarchal society:

Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power, predominate in the roles
of political leadership, moral authority, special privilege and control of the property.
They also hold power in the domain of the family, as fatherly figures.
Women are a victim of male domination in the respective sphere of life; especially
in economic life, over decision making on resources, on the utilization of her earnings
and her body.

Hence, a woman’s life lies between pleasures at one end and danger at another end.
Patriarchy leads to exploitation of women in the form of violence, economic
exploitation, educational deprivation etc.

Women Safety in India:

Women’s safety involves various dimensions such as Sexual harassment at the
workplace, rape, marital rape, dowry, acid attack, etc.

Sexual Harassment acts as a deterrent to women’s freedom and perpetuates the notion
that women are the weaker sex. The NCRB data highlights that sexual harassment is a
risk in all facets of life: in shelter homes, in the workplace, in the home, on public
transport.

Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal)

Act, 2013:

• It widens the definition of ‘aggrieved woman’ to include all women,

irrespective of age and employment status, and it covers clients, customers,
and domestic workers.
• It expands ‘workplace’ beyond traditional offices to include all kinds of
organizations across sectors, even non-traditional workplaces (for example
those that involve telecommuting) and places visited by employees for work.
• The most important feature of the Act is the establishment of the Internal
Complaints Committee (ICC) in establishments with 10 or more employees by
an order given in writing by the employer.
• A Local Complaints Committee (LCC) is a committee to receive complaints of
sexual harassment at the workplace from establishments that do not have an
ICC because they have less than 10 workers, or when the complaint is against
the employer himself.

Issues in implementation of the Sexual Harassment Act:

• As 70% of the women do not report sexual harassment by superiors due

to the fear of repercussions.
• According to a 2015 research study, 36% of Indian companies and 25% of
multinational companies had not yet constituted their Internal
Complaints Committee (ICCs) which is mandatory under the Act.
• The Cases remain pending in court for a long time enhancing the
suffering of victims.
 Suggestions for better implementation:

Ministry of WCD launched an online complaint management system titled Sexual

Harassment electronic–Box (SHe-Box) for the effective implementation of the SH Act,
2013 which will enable a monitorable and transparent system of grievance redressal
under the Act. The Ministry of WCD will set up an inter-ministerial committee headed by
a senior official of the WCD Ministry.

Female Labor Force Participation In India

India is a country where less than a quarter of women have joined the labour force and only a
fifth are employed. Female labour - force participation in India has declined from 34 per cent in
2006 to 24.8 per cent in 2020. According to the UNGC (United Nations Global Compact) India
study, India is the only country among the 153 surveyed countries where the economic gender
gap is larger than the p .According to World Bank estimates, India has one of the lowest female
labour force participation rate.

India has one of the lowest female labor force participation rates in the world: Less than a third
of women – 15 years or older – are working or actively looking for a job.

The country has also fallen to the 140th position out of 156 countries by sliding down 28 places
in the 2021 Gender Gap Index, which employs parameters such as economic participation,
political empowerment, health, survival, and education to determine the positions of various
countries on its list.

India has one of the worst labour force participation rates (LFPR) by women. The LFPR basically
tells what percentage of the total women within the working-age are seeking work; it includes
both those who are employed as well as those who are as yet unemployed but seeking work.
India has one of the lowest female participation rates in the world. In other words, 79% of
Indian women (aged 15 years and above) do not even seek work.

The study found that raising women's participation in the labour force to the same level as men
can boost India's GDP by 27 per cent. Gender stereotypes and lack of infrastructure has
traditionally sidelined women from core manufacturing functions. As a result, not many are
able to reach leadership roles.

Based on the educational background, men with a bachelor's degree earned on average 16
percent higher median wages than women in years 2015, 2016 and 2017, while master's degree
holders experience even higher pay gap. Men with a four- or five-year degree or the equivalent
of a master's degree have on average earned 33.7 percent higher median wages than women.
 While India passed the Equal Remuneration Act way back in 1976, which prohibits
discrimination in remuneration on grounds of sex. But in practice, the pay disparity still exist.

Low labour force participation of women in India:

1. According to the International Labour Organisation’s (ILO) Report, 2019, 1.3 billion women
were in work in 2018 as compared to 2 billion men– a less than 2% improvement in last 27
years. The report highlighted that women are paid 20% lower than men, as a global average.

2. Women remain underrepresented at the top, a situation that has changed very little in the
last 30 years. Less than one-third of managers are women.

3.The female labor force participation rate (FLFPR) in India has been one of the lowest among
the emerging economies and has been falling over time. This has resulted in a decrease in the
ratio of working females to the population of females in the working age group. The FLFPR in
India fell from 31.2% in 2012 to 23.3% in 2018. Further, the FLFPR for rural areas has declined
by more than 11% in 2018.

4. In rural areas, not only are women withdrawing from the labor force, they are also being
outcompeted by men in the existing jobs. This situation necessitates a deeper understanding of
issues that hinder female labor force participation.

Reasons for low labour force participation of women in India:

1. Lack of opportunities: In recent times, rural distress has affected women the most as income-
generating opportunities have disappeared. The problem of ‘labour demand constraints’ or the
lack of suitable job opportunities is acute for women in rural India, with a fall in the availability
of farm jobs and the lack of economic opportunities in non-farm employment. Mechanisation
of farm and non-farm activities has also reduced opportunities for work.

2. Women education: Data from the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) show that education
and employment have a U-shaped relationship (a rise and subsequent decline in employment
with the rise in education levels). Work participation drops sharply for women with primary and
secondary education and rises only with college-level education. Further, the non-availability of
white collar jobs, disproportionate long hours and lesser job security narrow downs the job
opportunities for educated women in India.
3. Unpaid work: A 2018 study has found that the time spent on unpaid economic activities
performed at the household and community levels by women is one of the important
determinants of the FLFPR. So, the time spent on unpaid work, especially on unpaid care and
domestic chores has hindered women’s participation in the labour force.
4. Gender bias: Constraints in form of casteist and patriarchal notions of purity and pollution
where women are prohibited from certain jobs, especially in the food processing, sericulture,
and garment industries has added to the low participation. Factors like income of other
members of the household, social background and place of residence also add to the lack of
women’s participation in the workforce. Moreover, rural societies are segregated rigidly on
gender basis dictated by patriarchal norms that are further perpetuated by religious taboos and
cultural biases.
5. Changing family nature: Of late, with a reduction in family sizes and distress migration of rural
males, the burden of unpaid work on women has been increasing disproportionately. The
burden of domestic work and unpaid care inhibits women’s ability to acquire skills for better
jobs, leading to a vicious cycle of women being kept out of the labor force.
6. Under-reporting: Finally, though most women in India work and contribute to the economy in
one form or another, much of their work is not documented or accounted for in official
statistics, and thus women’s work tends to be under-reported. Therefore, mis-measurement
may not only affect the level but also the trend in the participation rate.
7. Other factors: Like lack of sanitation, sexual harassment at workplace, unsafe travelling, poor
childcare facilities and care homes for the elderlyetc. has prevented women from working in
the industries.

Maternal Health:

Poor maternal health often affects a child’s health in adverse ways and also decreases a
woman’s ability to participate in economic activities.Therefore, national health programmes
such as the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and the Family Welfare Programme have
been created to address the maternal health care needs of women across India.

Female foeticide

Female foeticide refers to ‘aborting the female in the mother’s womb’; whereas female
infanticide is ‘killing the girl child after her birth’.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION

Women's Rights under Indian Constitution

Article 21 of Constitution of India: "No person except according to the procedure

established by law shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty. Fundamental right under
Article 21 of the object of personal liberty except according to the procedure established by
law is to prevent encroachment on and loss of life.” – Anyone, including women, can seek
protection under this.

Article 15 (1) This Article guarantees Right to Equality, “The State shall not deny to any
person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India
Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

According to Article 15(3) – State can make any special provision for women and children
without any hurdles or obligations.

Article 16(2)- According to Article 16(2), No citizen on grounds only of religion, race,
caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or any of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated
in respect of employment or office under the State.

Article 19 States as follows: This gives the citizens (which include both women, men and third
gender) the Right to Freedom, which among other things guarantees freedom of speech and
expression, freedom of movement, freedom of practicing, trade and profession etc.

Article 23(1) Prohibits the practice of human trafficking in India.

Article 32 - This Article gives the right to us to seek constitutional remedies through the
Supreme Court of India for violation of Fundamental Rights mainly.

Article 39(a)- As per Article 39(a), men and women have the right to an adequate means
to livelihood.

Constitutional Laws for women related to Panchayats & Municipality

Article 243D (3)- Not less than one third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct
election in every Panchayat shall be reserved for women.

Article 243D(4)- One-third of the total number of offices of chairpersons in the Panchayats at
each level shall be reserved for women.

Article 243T (3)- One-third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every
Municipality shall be reserved for women.

Article 243T (4)- Offices of chairpersons in the Municipalities shall be reserved for women in
such manner as the State Legislature may provide.
Legal safeguards to secure women’s rights

1. Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 (Women have a right to equal pay).

2. Sexual Harassment Of Women At Workplace Act, 2013 (Women have a right against
harassment at work).

3. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005) (Women have a right against
domestic violence).

4. Legal Services Authorities Act (1987) (Women have a right to free legal aid).

5. Code of Criminal Procedure (1973) (Women have right not to be arrested at night).

6.Women have a right to register their complaint virtually here she can lodge a complaint via
email or write her complaint and send to a police station from a registered postal address.

7. Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act (1986)

8.There are three laws in place in India that deal directly with domestic violence:

The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005.

The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961,

and Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code.

SPECIAL INITIATIVES FOR WOMEN

(i) National Commission for Women : In January 1992, the Government set-up this statutory
body with a specific mandate to study and monitor all matters relating to the constitutional and
legal safeguards provided for women, review the existing legislation to suggest amendments
wherever necessary, etc.

(ii) Reservation for Women in Local Self -Government : The 73rd Constitutional Amendment
Acts passed in 1992 by Parliament ensure one-third of the total seats for women in all elected
offices in local bodies whether in rural areas or urban areas.
(iii) The National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1991-2000) : The plan of Action is to ensure
survival, protection and development of the girl child with the ultimate objective of building up
a better future for the girl child.

(iv) National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001 : The Department of Women & Child
Development in the Ministry of Human Resource Development has prepared a “National Policy
for the Empowerment of Women” in the year 2001. The goal of this policy is to bring about the
advancement, development and empowerment of women.

CONCLUSIONS
If women are to be empowered, it is imperative for them to be in the corridors of powers so
that they can represent their problems in a better way and negotiate a better deal.
Empowerment of women in the political field is crucial for their advancement and for building a
gender - equal society. It will enable them to strengthen their struggle against marginalization,
trivialization, and exploitation.

Presence of women on a larger scale in politics would change the nature and contents of
debates in the corridors of power and help in building a democratic equal society. Women need
to be included and involved in the decision making process so that their demands can be
included in the national agenda . Only when they become the part of the process, restructuring
of institutions will become possible leading to potential solutions of women's issues.

Vishakha Kothari

SCM-224

Political Economy Of India (COMM-518)

2-Years M.A in Media &Communication Studies , Semester -II.