CHAPTER

1 Linear Wave Shaping

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Let us consider a transmission network consisting of linear elements. Sinusoidal signal
is applied to a network, the output signal is sinusoidal in the steady state conditions.
The influence of the network circuit on the signal may be completely specified by the
ratio of output to input amplitude and phase angle between output and input
waveform. No other periodic waveform preserves its shape. Generally when
transmitted through a linear network the output signal may have a little resemblance to
the input signal.
“The process whereby the shapes of non sinusoidal signals are shaped by passing the
signal through the linear network is called linear wave shaping”.

1.2 HIGH PASS RC CIRCUIT

FIGURE 1.1 High pass RC circuit

The high pass RC circuit is shown in Fig.1.1. The input is denoted by Vi(t), and the
output as Vo(t), ‘a’ is the charge of the capacitor.
At zero frequency the capacitor has infinite reactance and hence open circuited.
Therefore, the capacitor blocks the dc signal not allowing it to reach output. Hence the
capacitor is called blocking capacitor. The coupling circuit provides dc isolator
between input and output.
2| Analog and Pulse Circuits

Since the reactance of the capacitor decreases with increasing frequency the end
output increases.
Thus the circuit abstracts the low-frequency and it allows the high frequency to reach
the output. Hence this circuit is called high pass RC circuit.

1.3 SINUSOIDAL INPUT

The sinusoidal input Vi (t) is mathematically defined as Vi (t) = Vm sin wt

FIGURE 1.2 Laplace Network of high passe RC circuit

In the analysis of Network to sinusoidal input is obtained using Laplace transform as

shown in Figure 1.2 applying KVL around the circuit.
–1 / sc I (s) – I (s) R + Vi (s) = 0
Vi(s)
Is =
 1
 R + sc 

Vi(s)
Vo (s) = I(s)R = ×R
 1
 R + sc 

Vi(s)R Vi(s)R sc scRVi(s)

Vo (s) =  × =
scR + 1 1 (scR + 1) scR + 1
sc
Vo (s) 1
A= =  Transfer function
Vi (s) 1 + 1
scR
Numerator and De-numerator divided by SCR applying sinusoidal input varying its
frequency 0 to α, S = jw
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |3

Vo ( jω) 1 1
A= = = – j, j2 = –1
Vi ( jω) 1 + 1 j j
jωRC
ω = 2∏f
Vo ( jω) 1
A= = Frequency domain transfer function
Vi ( jω) 1 + j 1
2 ∏ fRC
V ( jω) 1 1
A = o = θ = – tan –1
Vi ( jω)  1 
2 2 ∏ fRC
1+  
 2 ∏ fRC 
At lower cut-off frequency f1,
1
A=
2
1 1
=
2  1 
2

1+  
 2 ∏ f1RC 
1 1
= 2
2  1 
1+  
 2 ∏ f1RC 
2
 1  Fig 1.3 0 to f1 – cut off Jone gain
2 =1+  
 2 ∏ f1 RC  frequency plot
Equating the Denominators 2nfRC = 1
1
f1 = = lower cut of frequency of high pass RC circuit
2 ∏ fRC
V ( jω) 1 1 f 
A= o = = θ = tan –1  1 
Vi ( jω)  1 
2
 f1 
2 f 
1+   1 + f 
 2 ∏ fRC   

1.4 STEP INPUT VOLTAGE

Let us consider that the step input voltage of Magnitude a voltage is applied as an input to
the high pass RC circuit. When the input step is applied to the circuit, the current starts
flowing instantaneously, then the capacitor changes exponentially and the current decays
exponentially. Due to which the output voltage also decays exponentially. When
4| Analog and Pulse Circuits

capacitor charges equal to the input voltage level of voltage, current stops and the output
voltage attains zero values in steady state conditions.
Let us mathematically analyse the output voltage as
Vo (t) = B1 + B2 e – t / τ
B1 B2 , constants
τ is the time constant of the circuit
τ = RC
The output voltage consists of two parts
1. B1 is the steady state value of the output voltage
t → ∞,
Vo ( ∞ ) → B1
2. The transient part represented by expression decaying term B2 e–t/T
The circuit is said to achieve steady state
When the transient part completely dies out i.e., t → ∞
Vo (t) lim
Limt t → α ( t ) = t →α(B1 + B2 e – t/ τ )
lim
= B1 as Lim t → e – t / τ = 0
Let the steady state value of output voltage vf
B1 = Vf
To determine the B2 (constant)
t = 0 consider initial output voltage
t = 0 be Vi
Vo (t) t =0  B1 + B2 = Vi
Vi = Vf + B2
B2 = Vi – Vf
Substituting the value B1 and B2
Vo (t) = Vf + (Vi – Vf )e – t / τ
Thus t → ∞ the capacitor blocks d.c, hence the final steady state output voltage is
zero
Vf = 0
The voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously
t = 0+ i.e., just after t = 0
The voltage across capacitor is zero. It can’t change. Hence the output voltage at t
= 0+ is same as the input voltage equal to A volt. When the capacitor is initially
unchanged then the output is same as of input t = 0+
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |5

Vi = A voltage
Vo (t) = Vf + (Vi – Vf) e–t/τ
= 0 + (A – 0)e–t/ τ
= A e–t/ τ

FIGURE 1.4 Step input FIGURE 1.5 Step input for different time constants

1.5 PULSE INPUT

An ideal pulse has the waveform shown in Figure (1.6). The pulse amplitude is V and
pulse duration is tp.
It has been mentioned earlier that the pulse is the sum of the two step voltages.

FIGURE 1.6 Pulse input waveform

So the response of the circuit 0 < t < tp for the pulse input is same for a step input given
by Vo1(t) = Ve–t/RC.
At t = tp Vo1 (t) = Ve–tp/RC = Vp
Now, consider the second part of the input for t > tp. At t = tp. As the input falls by V volts
suddenly and the capacitor voltages can’t change instantaneously, the output has to drop
by a V volts to Vp – V
6| Analog and Pulse Circuits

t = tp i.e, tp+
Hence the output drop by V from Vp at t = tpt the capacitor voltage changes the output
voltage decays exponentially to 0
For the second part of the pulse
t = tpt Vo2(tpt) = Vp – V
Vo2(tpt) = Ve– tp/RC – V
Vo2(tpt) = V (e– tp/RC – V)
This is the initial output voltage for the second part of pulse
Vi = V(e– tp/RC – 1)
The output voltage final value is zero
Vf = 0
Vo2(t) = Vf + (Vi – Vf) e– t/RC
Vo2(t) = V(e– tp/RC – 1) (e– (t–tp)/RC
The output waveform RC >>tp, RC comparable to tp, and RC << tp shown in figure 1.7,
1.8, 1.9

FIGURE 1.7 RC >> tp FIGURE 1.8 RC comparable to tp

FIGURE 1.9 RC <<tp

 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |7

The response with large time constant RC ie, RC/Tp >>1 is as shown in figure (1.7)
It can be observed that large time constant, the tilt is very small and undershoot also is
very small, both the linear destruction are small. However the negative portion
decreases very slowly
The response with small time constant RC/tp <<1 is shown in Fig. (1.9). The output
consists of a positive spike of amplitude V at the beginning of the pulse and a negative
spike of the same size at the end of the pulse. This process of converting pulse into
spikes using a circuit of small time constant is called peaking.

1.6 SQUARE-WAVE INPUT

FIGURE 1.10 RC Circuit

Consider the various voltages present in high pass RC circuit as shown in the fig 1.10
q = charge on the capacitor
q q
Apply Kirchhoff law c= V=
V c
Vi = Vc + Vo
q
Vi = + vo
c
Differentiating the equation
dVi 1 dq dvo dq
= + i=
dt c dt dt dt
dVi 1 dVo
= (i) +
dt c dt
v
Vo = iR i = o
R
8| Analog and Pulse Circuits

Substituting in equation
dVi Vo dVo
= +
dt RC dt
Both sides multiplied by the dt
V
dVi = o dt dVo
RC
Integrating the time period from 0 to T
T T T
1
 dVi = RC 0 o
V dt +  dVo
0 0
T
1
[Vi ]T0 = 
RC 0
Vo dt + [Vo ]T0

T
1
RC 0 o
Vi (T) – Vi (0) = V dt + Vo (T) – Vo (0)

Under steady-state conditions, the output waveform is repetitive with a time period T
Vi (T) = Vi (0) and Vo (T) = Vo (0)
T
Hence  vo (t)dt = 0. This integral represents this area under the output waveform over
0
one cycle i.e, the average value of output response, substituting the equations.
T
1
RC 0 o
V dt = 0

The average level of the steady state output signal is always zero
[1] The average level of the output signal is always zero irrespective of the average
level of the input. The output must extend in both positive and negative direction
with respect to the zero voltage axis and area of the part of the waveform above the
zero axis must equal the area below the zero axis.
[2] When input changes continuously by amount V, the output also changes by the
same amount in the same direction.
[3] During any finite time interval where the input maintains a constant level, the
output decays exponentially towards zero voltage.
They are in the limiting case, when the ratios RC/T1 and RC/T2 are both very large
with respect to unity, the output waveform is exactly same as the input.
Now, consider the extreme case when RC/T1 and RC/T2 are very small as
compared to unity.
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |9

FIGURE 1.11

FIGURE 1.12 The high pass RC circuit with small time constant producer spikes circuit

Under steady state condition the capacitor charger and discharges to the same voltage
level in each cycle.
For 0 < t < T1 the output is given by Vo1 = V1e–t/RC
At t = T1 Vo1 = V11 = V1e –T1 / RC
For T1 < t < T1 + T2 the output is Vo2 = V2 e ( 1 )
– t –T - / RC

At t = T1 + T2 , Vo2 = V21 = V2e –T2 /RC

V11 – V2 = V and V1 – V21 = V
Expression for the percentage tilt:
The Tilt is defined as the decay in the amplitude of the output voltage wave when the
input maintains its level constant.
Mathematically the percentage tilt p is defined as
V1 – V11
p= × 100
input amplitude
When the time constant RC of the constant is very large compared to the period of the
input waveform RC>>T
10| Analog and Pulse Circuits

FIGURE 1.13 Tip tilt of a symmetrical square wave when RC >>T

For a symmetrical square wave with zero average value

V1 = – V2, i.e, V1 = V2 , V11 = – V21 i.e, V11 = V2
and T1= T2 = T/2
RC >>T shown in figure 1.13
V11 = V1e –T/2RC and V21 = V2e –T/2RC
V1 –V21 = V
V1 +V11 = V [Note – V21 = V11 ]
V1 + V1e –T/2RC = V
V
V1 = or (a) V = V1(1+e–T/2RC)
1 + e –T/2RC
V1 – V11
% tilt p = ×100%
V/2
Input amplitude = v/2
V1 – V1e –T/2RC
= × 200%
V(1 + e –T/2RC )
1 – e – T/ 2RC
= × 200%
1 + e –T/2RC
When the time constant is very large T/2RC <<1
 1
1 – 1 + (–T / 2RC) + (–T / 2RC)2 
 2!
p= × 200%
1
1 + 1 + (–T / 2RC) + (–T / 2RC)2
2!
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |11

1 – (1 – T / 2RC) T
%p= × 200% e –T/2RC = 1 –
1 + (1 – T / 2RC) 2RC
T
p= × 200%
2RC
2
T πf
= × 100% = 1 × 100%
2RC f
1
f1 = is the lower cut off frequency of the high pulse RC circuit
2πRC

1.7 RAMP INPUT

A waveform which is zero for t < 0 and which increases linearly with the time for t > 0 is
called ramp (or) sweep voltage. Ramp input can be mathematically written as
0for t < 0
Vi(t) = 
αt to t > 0
Where α is the slope of the ramp
q q
Vi = + V0  Vi (t) = + V0 (t)
c c
Vi(t) = αt = input ramp
q
αt = + V0 (t)
c
Differentiating the equation both side w.r.t t
dq dVo
α= +
cdt dt
 dq dq Vo Vo 
 Note dt = i, dt = R , Vo = iR, i = R 
 
Substituting in the equation
V dV
α= o + o
RC dt
Initially capacitor is zero Vo (0) = 0
take Laplace form
dVo (t) Vo (t)
+ =α
dt RC
12| Analog and Pulse Circuits

1 α
Vo (s) S + Vo (s) =
RC S
 1  α
 S + RC  Vo (s) = S
 
α
Vo (s) =
1
S( S + )
RC
 1 
Vo (s) = αRC  1/S – 
 S + 1 / RC 
Vo (t) = αRC  1 – e – t /RC 

Vo (t) = 0 t=0

FIGURE 1.14 Deviation from linearity

  (–t) 2 (–t)3 

Vo (t) = αRC  1 – 1 + (–t / RC) + 2
+ 3
+ 
  (RC) 2! (RC) 3! 

 t 2  αt – αt 2  t 
= αRC  t/2RC– 2
= = αt  t – 
 2(RC)  2RC  2RC 
The falling away of output from input is called deviation from linearity
This departure of output from linearity is called the trangenmussion error denoted as et.
 t 
αt – αt  1 – 
Vi – Vo  2RC  = T = πf T
et = = 1
Vi t =T αt 2RC
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |13

FIGURE 1.15 RC << T

1.8 EXPONENTIAL INPUT (HPF)

FIGURE 1.16 HPF FIGURE 1.17 Exponential waveform

FIGURE 1.18 Output waveform

Let us consider the RC-high pass circuit and the exponential input denoted in the figure
(1.16, 1.17, 1.18)
The exponential input can be expressed as
Vi(t) = V(1 – e – t/ τ )
14| Analog and Pulse Circuits

Repeating similar steps of the previous sections

dVi (t) Vo (t) dVo (t)
= +
dt RC dt
Substituting the equation for exponential input w consider ‘w’
V – t /T Vo (t) dVo (t)
e = +
τ RC dt
The intial output is zero as the intial voltage on the capacitor is zero.
Vo(0) = 0 which makes the Laplace transform approach suitable to solve the above
differential equations the equation is rewritten as
dvo (t) vo (t) V – t / τ
+ = e
dt RC τ
Taking Laplace transform both sides
 1  V 1
S + RC  vo (s) = τ 1
  (s + )
τ
V 1
v o (s) =
τ (s + 1 ) (S + 1 )
τ RC
 
V 1  1 1 
Vo (s) =  – 
τ ( 1 ) –( 1 )  S + RC S + 1 
τ RC  τ
VRCτ
v o (t) =
τ(RC – τ)
(
e – t /RC – e – t / τ )
VRC – t /RC
vo (t) =
RC – τ
e ( – e– t / τ )
VRC
vo (t) = τ
RC (
e – t /RC – e – t/ τ )
–1
τ
x and n defined as
t RC
x= n=
τ τ
Do note that RC is the circuit time constant and τ is the input time constant
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |15

X may be Normalised time and n interpreted as the Normalised time constant

x t
=
n RC
The modified expression can be written as
V
(
vo (t) = n e – x /n – e – x ,
n –1
)
n =1

V
(
vo (t) = n e – x /n – e – x ,
n –1
)
n ≠1

it make use of L hospital rule

lim d
n →1  Vn (e – x/n – e – x ) 
vo (t) = dn  
lim d
n → 1 (n – 1)
dn
  –x  
 V(e – x /n – e – x ) + Vn (–e – x /n )  2  
lim
 n 
v o (t) = n → 1 
1
lim 
 –x  
vo (t) = n → 1  V(e – x /n – e – x ) + Vn (–e – x /n )  2  
  n 
vo (t) = Vxe – x
It conclude our derivation by starting that the response of the RC high pass circuit for as
exponential waveform is given by
Vn – x/n
vo (t) = (e – e– x ) for n ≠ 1
n –1
vo (t) = Vxe – x for n = 1
[1] When n is large the response has larger peak amplitude as well as a wider pulse
width.
[2] Similarly when the n response is smaller and has as smaller peak amplitude provided
the width of the pulse is narrow n has an effect on both peak value and the width of
the output pulse.

1.9 SINUSOIDAL INPUT

The analysis of the High pass RC circuit to sinusoidal input is obtained using Laplace
transform approach applying KVL to the circuit.
1
–I(s) – I(s)R + Vi(s) = 0
sc
16| Analog and Pulse Circuits

1(s)
Vi(s) = + I(s)R
SC
 1 
Vi(s) = I(s)  + R
 SC 
Vi(s)
I(s) =
SC + R
Vi(s)
Vo(s) = I(s)R = ×R
SC + R
Vo(s) R 1
= = = Tranfer function
Vi(s) R + 1 1
1+
SC S + RC
Frequency varies from 0 to ∞ s replaced by jω
Vo( jω) 1 1
= = –1 ω = 2 πf
Vi( jω) 1 + 1 j
jωRC
Vo( jω) 1
=
Vi( jω) 1 – 1
j2πfRC
1

j
1+ FIGURE 1.19 High pulse RC circuit
2πfRC
Frequency domain transfer function
Vo( jω) 1
A= =
Vi( jω)  1 
2
1+  
 2πfRC 

FIGURE 1.20 output waveform

 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |17

Frequency increases the gain A approaches to unity. Initially output increases as the
frequency increases and becomes equal to input at high frequency. As f → ∞,A → 1 . To
allow high-frequencies to pass.
A gain is 1 / 2 is called lower cout of frequency f1 of the circuit.
0 – f1 is cut off/zone
1 1
=
2  1 
2

1+  
 2πf1RC 
1 1
= 2
2  1 
1+  
 2πf1RC 
2
 1 
2 =1+  
 2πf1RC 
1
2πf1RC = 1 f1 = = lower cut off frequency
2πRC

1.10 HIGH PASS RC CIRCUIT AS A DIFFERENTIATOR

For high pass RC circuit of time constant is very small in comparison with the time
required for the input signal to make an appreciable change, the circuit is called
differentiator.
Under this case, the drop across R is negligible compared to drop across C. Hence the
total input vi(t) appears across C.
The current i is given
dvi(t)
i(t) = C
dt
Hence the output which drops across R is
Vo = iR
dvi(t)
Vo (t) = RC
dt
The output is proportional to the derivative of the input. A criteria for good
differentiation in terms of steady sate sinusoidal analysis is that if a sinusoidal is
applied to the high pass RC circuit, the output will be a sine wave shifted by a leading
αc 1
angle θ such that tan θ = the output will be proportional to sin (wt + θ). In
R wRC
18| Analog and Pulse Circuits

order to have true differentiation we must obtain cos wt. In other words θ must be
equal to 900. This result can be obtained only if R = 0 or C = 0. However if ω RC =
0.01, then 1/ωCR = 100 and θ = 89.40 and for some applications this may be close
enough to 900.
If the peak value of input is Vm, the output is
Vm R
Vo = sin(ωt + θ)
2 1
R + 2 2
w C
and if ωRC <<1, then the output is approximately VmωRC cosωt. This results agrees
dvi(t)
with the expected value RC . If ωRC = 0.01 then the output amplitude is 0.01
dt
times the input amplitude.
These facts prove that with a small time constant the high pass RC circuit behaves as a
differentiator.
The time constant RC of the circuit should be much smaller than the time period of the
input signal RC<<T.
Application: RC>>T is employed in R-C completely of amplifier where distortion
and differentiation of waveform is to be avoided, multi libratory, flip flap

1.11 LOW-PASS RC CIRCUIT

FIGURE 1.21 low pass RC circuit

Fig.1.21 shows a low pass RC circuit. The circuit passes the low frequencies readily, but
attenuates high-frequencies because the reactance of the capacitor C decreases with
increasing frequency. At very high frequencies the capacitor acts as virtual short-circuited
and the output fall to zero. Thus, the high frequencies get attenuated. At zero frequency
the reactance of the capacitor is infinity (capacitor is open circuit).
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |19

Sinusoidal input:

FIGURE 1.22 low RC circuit Laplace

If the input voltage is sinusoidal Vi(t) expressed as,
Vi(t) = Vm sin ωt
It can make use of the Laplace transform and analyse the circuit in s-domain. Since there
is no change on the capacitor.
Applying KVL to the circuit as shown in figure
We can write
1(s)
Vi(s) – I(s)R = =0
SC
1(s)
Vi(s) = I(s)R +
SC
 1 
Vi(s) = I(s)  R +
 SC 
Vi(s)
I(s) =
 1 
 R + SC 

1
Vo(s) = I(s) ×
SC
I(s) is substituting the Vo(s)
Vo(s) 1 1 1
== × =
Vi(s)  1  (SC) SC
 R + SC  (SCR +
SC
)

Vo (s) 1
= Transfer function
Vi (s) 1 + SRC
20| Analog and Pulse Circuits

For analysing frequency response replace S by jω

Vo ( jω) 1 1
= = Frequency domain of transfer function
Vi ( jω) 1 + jωRC 1 + j2πfRC
Vo ( jω) 1
A= = = gain of the circuit
Vi ( jω) 1 + (2πfRC) 2
1
At the upper is off frequency f2, A =
2
1 1
=
2 1 + (2πfRC)2
1 1
= Equating denominator
2 1 + (2πf 2 RC) 2
2 = 1 + (2πf 2 RC)2
1
f2 = = upper cut off frequency
2πRC
cut off zone and from f2 on wards

FIGURE 1.23 output wave form

The magnitude of the steady state gain A and the angle θ by which output leads the input
is given by
1 1
A= and A =
f  f 
2
1 + j  1+  
 f2   f2 
2
–1 
f  1
θ = – tan   f2 =
 f2  2πRC
It can explain output signal i Vo(t) = AVmsin (ωt + θ), hence the phase angle θ is Negative
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |21

1.12 STEP VOLTAGE INPUT

Consider the step input voltage of magnitude A is applied to the low pass RC circuit
having a time constant RC. A step voltage V (t) can be mathematically written as

0 for t > 0
V(t) = 
 V for t ≥ 0

FIGURE 1.24 Step input FIGURE 1.25 Step response Low pass RC current

If the capacitor is initially uncharged when a step input voltage is applied. The voltage
across the capacitor can’t charge instantaneously the output will be zero at t = 0. When
the capacitor charges the output, voltage rises exponentially towards the steady state
value V with.
Let V1 is the initial voltage across the capacitor
Writing KVL around loop

FIGURE 1.26 Low pass RC circuit

1
c
Vi (t) = i(t) R + i(t)dt
22| Analog and Pulse Circuits

Differentiating the equation

dVi(t) Rdi(t) 1
= + i(t) Note
dt dt c
dVi(t) di
Vi(t) = V, =0 = (final value-int ional value)
dt dt
L(t) = 1/s
Take Laplace transform both side L(1/t) = s
Rdi(t) 1
0= + i(t)
dt C
1
R[SI(s) – I(0+ )] + I(s) L(I(t)) = I(s)
c
 1   di(t) 
 = SI ( s ) – (I0 )s
+
I = Is s +  L
0+
 RC   dt 
Final Initial
The initial current I0+ is given by
V – V1 I(0 + ) V – V1
I0+ = I(s) = =
R 1 1
S+ R(S + )
RC RC
V0(s) = Vi(s) – I(s)R
(V – V1 ) V V – V1
= V/S– R = –
1 S S+ 1
R (S + )
RC RC
Taking Inverse Laplace transform both sides
V0(t) = V – (V – V1) e–t/RC
V is the final voltage (v final) when the capacitor is charged
V1 is the internal voltage across the capacitor
V0(t) = V final – (V final – V final)e–t/RC
The capacitor fanatically uncharged than
V0(t) = V(1 – e–t/RC)
Expression for rise time:
The rise time tr is defined as the time it take the voltage to rise from 0.1 to 0.9 of its
final value. It gives an indication of how fast the circuit can respond to a discontinuity
in voltage.
Assuming the capacitor is initially uncharged.
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |23

The time required for the output to achieve 10% of its final value can be obtained
Vo (t) = V (1 – e–t/RC)
at t = t1 Vo(t) = 10% (or) V = 0.1 V
0.1 V = V (1 – e–t/RC)
0.1 = 1 – e–t/RC
e–t1/RC = ln 0.9
–t1
= n (0.9) t1 = 0.1 RC
RC
Similarly the time required for the o/p to achieve 90% of its final value output
t = t2 Vo (t)  90% (or) V = 0.9V
0.9 V = V (1 – e–t2/RC)
0.9 = 1 – e–t2/RC
e–t2/RC = 0.1
–t 2
= n (0.1)
RC
t2 = 2.3 RC
tr = t2 – t1
rise time tr = 2.3 RC – 0.1 RC = 2.2 RC
Relation between upper 3 dB frequency and rise time
1 1
f2 = (or) RC =
2πRC 2πf 2
2.2 0.35 035
Rise time = 2.2 RC = = =
2πf 2 f2 BW
Rise time is inversely proportional to the upper 3 dB frequency and directly
proportional to the time constant RC.
τ = time constant = RC in RC circuits

1.13 PULSE INPUT VOLTAGE

Consider the pulse input voltage having pulse width tp, applied as input to the RC
circuit the pulse sum the two step voltages the response to a pulse for times less than
the pulse width tp is the same as that for a step input because pulse signal is same as
the step input for t < tp. However at the end of the pulse as the input become zero. The
24| Analog and Pulse Circuits

output also drops exponentially to zero as capacitor voltage falls exponentially to zero
as the input becomes zero.

FIGURE 1.27 RC >> tp FIGURE 1.28 RC < tp

FIGURE 1.29 RC <<tp

Output for pulse input is given by

Vout = V(1 – e–t/RC) t < tp
Vout = V(1 – e–t/RC) = Vp (say)
t = tp, input voltage becomes zero but the voltage across a capacitor can’t charge
instantaneously. Output remain the same as it is t = tp. After that capacitor starts
getting discharged through resistance R and voltage across it drops exponentially to
zero.
The output voltage t > tp
Vout = Vp e–(t – tp)/RC
The above equation, discharging equation of capacitor delayed by time tp. The output
voltage must be decreasing towards to zero.
The output voltage will always extend beyond pulse width tp. This is because charge
stored on capacitor during pulse cannot leak off instantaneously.
To minimize the distortion, the resistance must be small compared with the pulse
width tp.
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |25

1
f2 = t r = 0.35f 2
tp
The upper 3-dB frequency f2 is chosen equal to the reciprocal of the pulse width tp.

1.14 SQUARE WAVE INPUT

Consider a periodic waveform whose instantaneous value is constant at ‘V’ with
respect to ground for a V '' T1 and changes abruptly for time T2 at regular interval
T = T1 + T2. A reasonable reproduction of the input is obtained if the resistance tr is
small compared with the pulse width.

FIGURE 1.30 Different time constant of square output waveform

26| Analog and Pulse Circuits

The steady state response is drawn in fig (b)

If the time constant RC is comparable with the period of the input square wave, the
output will have the appearance shown in fig (c) if the time constant is very large
compared with the input wave period, the output is exponentially linear as illustrated
in fig (d).
In fig (c) rising portion of the equation
Vo1 (t)V '– (V '– V2 )e – t /RC
Where V2 is the voltage across the capacitor at t = 0 and V ' is the level of the
capacitor charge.
So, the output voltage for 0 < t< T1
Vo1 (t)V'+ (V1 – V' )e – t –/ RC
Similarly for T1 ≤ t ≤ T2 , if intial voltage across capacitor is V2 and input voltage is
constant at it V '' and output voltage = Vo2
Vo2 – V ''+ (V2 – V '' )e –(t –T1 )RC
t = T1, Vo1 = V2
t = T1 + T2, Vo1 = V2 = V1 + (V1 – V' )e –T1 /RC
then t = T1 Vo2 = V1
V2 = V'+ (1 – 0–T1 /RC ) + V1e –T/RC
V1 = V''+ (V2 – V'' )e –T2 /RC
For symmetrical wall
V1 = – V2, V ' = –V ''
T1 = T2 = T/2
–T/RC 2
V1 = – V ' + ( – V1 + V ') e

V1 = V'– V1e –T/RC2 + V'e –T/RC2

V1 = (1 + e –T/2RC ) = V' (e –T/RC2 – 1)
V ' (e –T/RC2 – 1)
V1 =
e –T/RC2 + 1
Input square wave of peak to peak voltage V
V'= V / 2
V (e –T/RC2 – 1)
=
2 (e –T/2RC + 1)
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |27

–V(e –T/ 2RC – 1)

V2 =
2(e –T/2RC + 1)
V 1 – e –T/2RC 
=  
2 1 + e –T/ 2RC 

1.15 EXPONENTIAL INPUT : (LPF)

(A) (B)

FIGURE 1.31 The exponential wave form (a,b)

FIGURE 1.32 The output of the RC low pass circuit

apply KVL to the circuit we can write

t
1
c 0
Vi(t) = i(t)R + i(t)dt

dVo
Vi (t) = RC + + Vo (t)
dt
28| Analog and Pulse Circuits

dvo (t)
V(1 – e – t/ τ ) = RC × + Vo (t)
dt
Apply Laplace transform both sides
V V
– = RCSVo (s) + Vo (s)
s s +1/ τ
1
Vo (s) =
RCτs(s + 1 / τ)(s + 1 / RC)
V V V
Vo (s) = + –
S ( RC 1 τ 1
– 1)(S + ) (1 – )(S + )
τ τ RC RC
t RC
X= and n =
τ τ
Substituting expression, we obtain the output waveform in both the cases.
V V V
Vo (t) = + –
S (n – 1)(S + ) (1 – )(S + 1 )
1 1
τ n RC
Taking in inverse Laplace transform on both side
 1 n 
Vo (t) = V 1 + e– t /τ – e – t /RC 
 (n – 1) (n – 1) 
 1 n 
Vo (t) = V 1 + e– x – e – x /n  for n ≠ 1
 (n – 1) (n – 1) 
This equation is not valid when n = 1
We can find the expression for output n = 1by using L' Hospital Rule
d
 V(n – 1 + e – x – ne – x /n 
Lim
dn  
Vo (t) = n → 1 Limt d
n → 1 (n – 1)
dn
   –x   
 V(1 – e – x / n ) – Vn  e – x /n  2   
Lim
  n  
Vo (t) = n → 1 
1
Lim    –x   
Vo (t) = n → 1  V(1 – e – x /n ) – Vn e – x /n  2   
   n  
Vo (t) = V(1 + (1 + x)e – x ) for n = 1
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |29

τ = is the input time constant

RC is the circuit time constant
x may be tread normalised time x may be interpreted as the normalised time constant
x t
=
n RC
 1 –x n – x /n 
Vo (t) = 1 + e – e  for n ≠ 1
 n –1 n –1 
(
Vo (t) = 1 1 + (1 + x)e – x ) for n = 1

If the time constant of this response is τ then the rise time of this exponential
waveform can be written as tr = 2.2τ.

1.16 LOW PASS RC CIRCUIT AS AN INTEGRATOR

For low pass RC circuit, if the time constant is very large when compared to the time
required by the input signal to make an appreciable change compared, the circuit acts
as an integrator. The voltage drops across C will be very small in comparison to the
drop across R and it may consider that the total input appears across R, then the
current is Vi(t)/R and the output signal across C is
1 1 vi(t) 1
Vo (t) =
C  i(t)dt = 
C R
dt =
RC 
vi(t)dt

Hence the output is proportional to the integral of the input

Vi(t) = αt, the result is αt 2 / 2RC
αt 2
Vo(t) =
2RC
As time increases, the drop across will not remain negligible compared with that
across R and the output will not remain the integral of the input. The output will
change from quadrate to a linear function of time.
Low pass RC circuit time constant is very large in compression with the time required
for the input signal the circuit acts as a integrator.
Integrator is almost invariably preferred over differentiation in analogue computer
application. These resource are given below.
(i) An integrator is less sensitive to noise voltage than a differentiator because of
its limited band with.
(ii) It is more convenient to introduce initial conditions in an integrator.
30| Analog and Pulse Circuits

(iii) The differentiator overloads the amplifier if the input changes rapidly. This is
not the case for an integrator.
(iv) The gain of an integrator decrease as the frequency. Hence easy to stabilise. The
gain of the differentiator increase as the frequency, hence suffers from the
problem of stability.

1.17 ATTENUATORS
It consider now the simple resistance attenuator which is used to reduce the amplitude
of single waveform the single resistance combination of fig (1.33) would multiply the
R2
input signal by the ratio a = independent of frequency.
R1 + R 2
The potential decoder consisting of two resistances R1 and R2, used as an attenuator.

FIGURE 1.33 Simple attenuator

If the output of the attenuator the input capacitance C2 of the amplifying will be the
stray capacitor and attenuator, the resistor R2 of the attenuator as shown in figure.1.31

FIGURE 1.34 Actual attenuator

Attenuator equivalent circuit as shown in Fig 1.3

 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |31

Thevenin voltage is A vi which attenuated voltage and R is equal to the parallel

combination of R1 and R2. Generally R1 and R2 are very large so that the nominal
input impedance of the attenuator may be large enough to prevent loading down the
input signal, the time constant RC2 of the circuit is large which is totally unacceptable.
Due to large time constant, resistance is also large which causes destruction. The high
frequency components get attenuated. Hence attenuator no longer remains
independent of the frequency.

FIGURE 1.35 Attenuator equal at circuit

The attenuator may compensate so that, its attenuation is once again independent of
frequency, by shunting R1 by a capacitor C1 as shown in figure 1.36.

Figure 1.36 (a) (b) Compensated attenuator

The circuit can be redrawn such that the two resistors and two capacitors act as four
across of a bridge figure (1.36 (b))
R1C1 = R2C2
Under the balanced condition no current can flow through the branched joining the
terminal x and y. Hence, for calculating output, the branch x-y can be omitted under
balanced bridge condition. This output is equal to vi independent of frequency.
32| Analog and Pulse Circuits

1.18 STEP INPUT RESPONSE

Let us find out the output waveform, when the step voltage is applied to the
compensated attenuator. The step input has amplitude V, applied at t = 0 so the input
change from 0 to V instantaneously at t = 0.
Now the voltage across C1 and C2 must change abruptly. But the voltage across
capacitor cannot charge instantaneously if the current remain finite. Infinite current
0+
exists at t = 0. For an infinitesimal time so the finite charge q =  i(t)dt is delivered to
0–
each capacitor. So just after t = 0 ie at 0+.
q q Q
A= + C=
c1 c 2 V
 C + C2  Q
A = q 1  V=
 C1C2  C
 C + C2 
q=A/ 1 
 C1C2 
Output voltage at t = 0+ is voltage across the capacitor C2 at t = 0+
q
V0 (0 + ) =
C2
AC1 C 2
V0 (0+ ) =
(C1 + C 2 ) C 2
AC1
V0 (0+ ) =
(C1 + C2 )
In the steady state as t → α both the capacitors act as open circuited. Hence, the final
value of the output voltage a totally by the resistor
AR 2
V0 (α) =
R1 + R 2
For the perfect compensation
V0 (0+ ) = V0 (α)
C2 R2
A = A
C1 + C 2 R1 + R 2
(R1+R2) C1 = R2 (C1 + C2)
R1C1 = R2C2
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |33

(A) (B)

(C)

FIGURE 1.37 Different compensator of output waveform a, b, c

1.19 HIGH PASS RC CIRCUIT

FIGURE 1.38 High pass RL circuit

34| Analog and Pulse Circuits

By applying KVL we can write that

Vi(t) = VR(t) + VC(t)
Ldi(t)
Vi(t) = i(t) R +
dt
Applying Laplace transform on both sides, we can write that
Vi(s) = RI(s) + SLI(s)
Vi(s)
I(s) =
R + LS
di(t)
Vo (t) + L we can write
dt
Vo (s) + LsI(s)
vi(s)
Vo (s) + Ls
R + LS
Vo (s) LS
+
Vi(s) R + LS
Vo (s) LS / R
G(s) = +
Vi(s) 1 + LS / R
G(s) as the transfer function of the circuit. Frequency function can be obtained G(f) by
replacing s = jω s = j2πf
1 1
G(f ) = =
R 1 – j(f1 / f )
1– j
2πfL
1
G(f ) =
1 – (f1 / f )
Hence f1 represents the lower cut off frequency
1
f1 = = G(f) in terms of f1
2πL / R
1
we can write A = G(f) = G(f ) G(f ) = A φ
1 + (f1 / f )2

φ = tan –1 (f1 / f )
Hence A is the magnitude; φ is the phase angle of the frequency function.
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |35

1.20 STEP INPUT VOLTAGE OF HIGH PASS RL CIRCUIT

FIGURE 1.39 Step wave form Fig 1.40 Out wave form RL HP circuit

Consider the RC high pass R2 circuit as shown in fig 39, 40 applied to the step input to
the high pass R2 circuit the step function of amplitude RL can be mathematically writ
written as Vi (t) = Vo(t) assume that the initial condition is over zero we know that the
Laplace transform of the function
V
Vi(s) =
s
The transfer function of the RC high pass circuit has been obtained
Vo(s) Ls S
G(s) = = =
Vi(A) R + Ls S + R
L
 
 V  S  V
Vo(s) = Vi(s) G(s) =    =
 S  S + R  S+ R
 L  L
V
Vo(s) =
R
S+
L
In time domain equation can be written as
Vo(s) = Ve –Rt /L
36| Analog and
d Pulse Circuitts

1.21
1 LOW PA
ASS RL CIR
RCUIT

FIGURE 1.41 Low

L pass RL circu
uit

By applyinng KVL we can write that

V = VR(t) + VL(t)
Vi(t)
L
Ldi(t)
V
Vi(t) = i(t)R +
dt
Applying Laplace
L transforrm on both side
V
Vi(s) = RI(s) + LSI(s)
L = Is(R+LLS)
Vi(s)
I(s) =
R + Ls
V
Vo(t) = i(t) R
We can wriite
V
Vo(s) = I(s)R
Vi(ss)
V
Vo(s) =R
(R + Ls)
L
Vo(s) R
G =
G(s) =
Vi(s) R + Ls
1
G =
G(s)  Transfer func
ction of the circcuit
LS
1+
R
S is replaceed by jw = j2 ∏ f
1
G =
G(t)
L
1 + j2πf ( )
R
1
G ==
G(t)
1 + j(f / f 2 )
 C
Chapter 1: Line
ear Wave Shaping |377

Hence f2 is representing thhe upper cut offf frequency

1
f2 =
2π(L / R)
The frequency function G((t) in terms of f2
G ) = G(f ) G((f ) = A φ
G(f
1
A=
1 + (f / f 2 )2

φ = tan –1 (f / f 2 )
Hence A iss the magnitude
φ is the phaase angle of the frequency funcction.

1.22
2 STEP IN
NPUT VOLTAGE OF LOW
L PASS RC CIRCU
UIT

FIGURE 1.42
1 Low pass RC
C circuit FIGURE 1.43
1 The step waaveform of input

FIGURE 1.44 Outp

put wave form off step
38| Analog and
d Pulse Circuitts

Consider thhe low pass RC circuit indicated in fig 42, 43, 44, step input voltage iss
applied to the RL low pass circuit. The T step functtion of amplituude V can bee
mathematiccally written as Vi(t) = Vo(t).
Assume thaat the initial condition is zero. So that we can n obtain the trannfer function off
the circuit. We know the Laplace
L transforrm of the this fu
unction
V
V
Vi(s) =
s
R
Vo(s) R
G =
G(s) = = L
Vi(s) R + LS S + R
L
V R/L
V
Vo(s) = Vi(s) G(s)
G = ( )×( )
s S+ R / L
 
 R/L  1 1 
  = V + 
 S(S + R / L)  S S+ R 
 L 
 
1 1 
V
Vo(s) = V + 
S S+ R 
 L 
In time dom
main this equatiion can be writtten as
V
Vo(t) = V(1 – e–Rt/L
–
)

1.23
3 RINGIN
NG CIRCUIT
T
The RLC circuit which produces nearrly undamped oscillations is called ringingg
circuit. Thhe RLC circuiit undamped ratio ξ reducees, the oscillaation responsess
increases.
When ξ tendst to zero the circuit
oscillationss for long time and
performes many cyycles, the
oscillationss reduces φ = is ringing
circuit vallue, N is the number of
cycles
Q = πN
Q
N= FIGURE 1.45 Ringing circcuit
π
 C
Chapter 1: Line
ear Wave Shaping |399

The ringingg circuit as show wn in figure 1.445

For initiallyy capacitance iss uncharged andd inductor carriees an initial currrent I.
When dam mping is made veryv small the output
o becomes undamped andd takes the form m
of sine wavve which on osccillated in magnnetic energy geets stored in an inductor duringg
one part off the cycle. It is converted into electrostatic energy stored in capacitor
c duringg
next part off cycle.
Then ampliitude of the osccillation is
1 2 1
cv max = LI2
2 2
L
Vmax = I
C
Applicationn: The ringing circuit
c is used too generate the sequence of pulsse.

1.24
4 RLC SER
RIES CIRCU
UIT

FIGURE 1.46 RLC series circuitt

RLC seriess circuit is show

wn in fig 1.46
The outputt taken across caapacitor ‘C’
Applying KVL
K Loop
Ldi(t) 1
V – i (t) R –
Vi(t) –  i(t))dt = 0
dt c
Take Lapllace transform of the above equation. Initiially capacitor is unchanged,,
inductor cuurrent is zero
1 I(s)
V
Vi(s) = I(s)R + LSI(s)
L +
c S
1
V
Vi(s) = I(s)(R + LS) +
cS
40| Analog and Pulse Circuits

Vi(s)
I(s) =
1
R + LS +
cS
From the circuit the output equation is
1
Vo (t) =  i(t)dt
C
I(s)
Vo (s) =
SC
I(s) substitutes the above of output equation
 
1  VI(s) 
Vo (s) =  
SC  R + LS + 1 
 SC 
Vo (s) 1
= 2
Vi(s) S LC + SRC + 1
1
Numerator and denominator divided by the
LC
1
Vo (s) LC
=
Vi(s) S2 + RS + 1
L LC
The ratio of Vo(s) to Vi(s) is called transfer function in the circuit.
The equation obtained by equating denominator polynomial of a transform function is
zero.
R 1
S2 + s+ =0
L LC

R R 2 4
– ±  –
L  L  LC b ± b2 – 4ac
S1, S2 = Note: ax2 + bx + c
2 2a
2
R  R2  1
= – ±   –
2L 2L
  LC
Critical resistance RCr:
This resistance of value which reduce square root term to zero. Giving real, equal and
negative roots.
 C
Chapter 1: Line
ear Wave Shaping |411

RC
C 1
=
2L
L LC
L
Cr = 2
RC
C
(i) Daamping ratio ( ξ ): b Greek letter zeta ( ξ )
) it is denoted by
T ratio of a duual resistance inn the circuit to th
The he critical resisttant.
R R
ξ= = C/L
RCr 2
(ii) Chharacteristic inndependence: the
t term L / C is calledd characteristicc
inddependence

FIGUREE 1.47 RLC Seriess circuit of curren

nt response

(iii) Naatural frequencyy w(n)

1
ω(nn) =
LC

1.25
5 RLC PA
ARALLEL CIRCUIT

FIGURE 1.48 RLC

R parallel circuit
42| Analog and
d Pulse Circuitts

SOLV
VED EXAMPLE
ES

EXAM
MPLE 1.1
An oscillosscope test probee is indicated inn the fig. 1.49. Assume
A that caable capacitancee
T input impeddance of the scoope is 2 M Ω in parallel with 100 pF. What is,
is 100 pF. The
a) Atttenuation of thee probe and
b) C for
f best responsse

Figu
ure 1.49

SOLU
UTION
Consideering the cablee capacitance and
a the scope input impedannces equivalentt
circuit can
c be obtained as shown in thee fig. 1.50.

Figu
ure 1.50

Combinning the resistannces in parallel and

a capacitors in
i parallel.

Figu
ure 1.51
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |43

0.28 × 2
R2 = = 0.2456 MΩ
0.28 + 2
C2 = 100 + 10 = 110 pF
R1 = 4.7 MΩ
a) The attenuation of the probe is,
R2
a=
R1 + R 2
0.2456 × 106
= = 0.04966
0.2456 × 106 + 4.7 × 106
b) C for best response is,
R
C = 2 × C2
R1
0.2456 × 106
= 6
× 110 × 18–12
4.7 × 10
= 5.748 pF

EXAMPLE 1.2
A step input of 10 V when applied to the low pass RC circuit produces the output with
a rise time of 200 μsec. Calculate the upper 3-dB frequency of the circuit. If the circuit
uses a capacitor of 0.47 μF, determine the value of the resistance.

SOLUTION
The rise time of the output is given by the equation,
2.2
tr = where f2 is upper 3-dB frequency
2πf 2
2.2 2.2
f2 = =
2πt r 2π200 × 10 –3
= 1.75 KHz
1
Now f2 =
2πRC
1
1.75 KHz =
2πR × 0.47 × 10 –6
R = 193.5 Ω
44| Analog and Pulse Circuits

EXAMPLE 1.3
A 10 KHz square wave is applied to high pass RC circuit which produces the output
with a tilt of 3.8%. Calculate the lower 3-aB frequency of the circuit. If the circuit uses
a capacitor of 0.47 μF, determine the value of the resistance.

SOLUTION
πf1
The % tilt in the output is given by the equation, % P = × 100 where f1 is lower 3-
f
dB frequency
πf1
0.038 =
10 × 103
10 × 103 × 0.038
f1 = = 120.95Hz
π
1
Now f1 =
2 πRC
1
120.95 =
2π × R × 0.47 × 10 –6
R = 2.8 K Ω .

EXAMPLE 1.4
A 1 KHz symmetrical square wave of ± 10 V is applied to RC circuit having 1 msec
time constant. Calculate and plot the output to the scale for RC configurations as,
(i) High pass circuit
(ii) Low pass circuit

SOLUTION
(i) High pass RC circuit
The general response of high pass RC circuit to square wave input is described
by the equations,
V1 = A1 e – T1 / RC
A2 = V11 – A
V21 = A2 e – T2 / RC
A1 = V21 + A
For symmetrical square wave,
 C
Chapter 1: Line
ear Wave Shaping |455

A1 = – A 2
V11 = – V21
T1 = T2 = T/2
g for A1 and V11 we get,
Subbstituting this innto above equatiions and solving
A
A1 =
1 + e –T/2RC
A
V11 =
1 + eT/2RC
For a given square wave,
1 1
T= = = 1 msec
f 1 × 103
RC = 1 msec
annd A = 10 – (– 10)
= 20 = peak to peeak of input
20
∴ A1 = = 12..45 V
1 + e –0.5
20
annd V11 = = 7.555 V
1 + e +0.5
∴ V21 = –V11 = –7.55 V
annd A2 = – A1 = – 12.45 V
Hennce the output can
c be shown ass in the fig. 1.52
2

FIGU
URE 1.52
46| Analog and
d Pulse Circuitts

(ii) Low
w pass RC circuuit
For symmetrical sqquare wave,
A e 2x –1
V2 =
2 e 2x +1
T
w
where x=
4RC
annd V1 = – V2
1× 10 –3
∴ x= = 0.25
0
4 × 1× 10 –3
20 e0.5–1
∴ V2 = = 7.45 V
2 e0.5+1
annd V1 = – 7.45 V
thhe response is shhown in the fig. 1.53

FIGU
URE 1.53

EXAM
MPLE 1.5
For the atteenuator circuit shown in the fig.
fi 1.54, calculate and plot thee output for thee
cases :
a) C1 50 pF and C1 = 150pF
The input Vi is a step of 10V.
 C
Chapter 1: Line
ear Wave Shaping |477

FIGU
URE 1.54

SOLU
UTION
From thhe circuit above
R1 = R2 = 1 M Ω
C2 = 100 pF
For briddge balance,
R2
C1 = C2 = 100 pF
p = Cp
R1
C1 = 150 pF
Case I
The cappacitor C1< Cp, hence it is undeer compensated
d.
The input step is of maagnitude A = 100
AC1 10 × 50
∴ ( +) =
V0 (0 = = 3.33
3 V
C1 + C 2 (50 + 100)
R1 1
While Vo (∞) = A= × 10 = 5 V
R1 + R 2 1+1
The risee from V0(0+) too Vo (∞ ) is expoonential in natu
ure.
R 1R 2
R= = 0.55 MΩ
R1 + R 2
C = C1 + C2 = 150 pF
∴ R = 75 μsec
t = RC
48| Analog and
d Pulse Circuitts

FIGU
URE 1.55

Caase II
C1 150 pF
p
The cappacitor C1> Cp, hence
h it is over compensated
AC1 10 × 150
∴ ( +) =
V0 (0 = =6 V
C1 + C2 (100 + 150)
and V0 (∞ ) = 5 V
R 1R 2
R= = 0.5MΩ
R1 + R 2
C = C1 + C2 = 250 pF
Output decays
d exponenntially from V0(0+)
( to V0( ∞ ) as
a shown in the fig 1.56

FIGU
URE 1.56
 C
Chapter 1: Line
ear Wave Shaping |499

EXAM
MPLE 1.6
The input to
t the attenuatoor shown in the fig 1.57 is a steep of 20 V. Callculate and plott
the output for
f i) perfect coompensation andd ii) over compeensation case.

FIGU
URE 1.57

SOLU
UTION
From the fiigure above
R1 = R2 = 1M Ω
C2 = 50 pF
(i) Perrfect compensattion
R2 1
C1 = C2 = × 50
5 = 50 pF
R1 1
T output will be
The b perfect step response
r
R2 1
a= = = 0.5
R1 + R 2 1 + 1
∴ V0 (∞) = aA = 0.5 × 20 = 10V
T response is as
The a shown in thee fig 1.58

FIGU
URE 1.58
50| Analog and
d Pulse Circuitts

R2
(ii) Noow Cp = C 2 = 50 pF
R1
Forr over compenssation C1> Cp
L
Let C1 = 100pF
AC2
∴ ( +) =
V0 (0 where A = 20
0
C1 + C2
20 × 1000
= = 13.33 V
100 + 500
AR 2 20 × 1
A
And V0 (∞) = = =10 V
R1 + R 2 (1 + 1)
T response is as
The a shown in thee fig 1.59.

FIGU
URE 1.59

EXAM
MPLE 1.7
For the atteenuator shown in
i the fig 1.60drraw the output wave
w forms forr C1 = 50 pF, C1
= 75pF andd C1 = 25 pF. Thhe input is a 20 V step

FIGU
URE 1.60
 C
Chapter 1: Line
ear Wave Shaping |511

SOLU
UTION
From the abbove figure
R1 = R2 = 1M Ω
C2 = 50 pF
Consider thhe various valuee of C1. But beffore that calculaate Cp
R2 1
Cp = C1 = × 50
5 = 50 pF
Rl 1
Case I C1 = 50 pF = Cp
Thiss is perfectly com
mpensated attennuator.
∴ ( +) = V0 (∞) = aVi
V0 (0
R2 1
a= =
Rl + R2 2
annd Vi = A = 20 V
1
∴ V0 (∞ ) = 20 × = 10r
2
The reesponse is as shoown in the fig 1.82
1

Figu
ure 1.61

Case II C1 = 75 pF > Cp
This is over
o compensatted attenuator
AC1 20 × 75
∴ ( +) =
V0 (0 = = 12 V
Cl + C2 75 + 50
52| Analog and
d Pulse Circuitts

1
V0 (∞ ) = 20 × = 10 V
2
The respponse is exponeential from V0(00+) to V0( ∞ ) as shown in the fig.
f 1.62.

FIGU
URE 1.62

Case III C1 = 25 pF < Cp

This undder compensateed attenuator
AC1 20 × 25
( +) =
V0 (0 = = 6.67 V
C1 + C2 25 + 50
V0 (∞) = 10 V
t V0 (∞) as shown in the fig..
The response is exponnentially rising from V0 (0+) to
1.62

FIGU
URE 1.63
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |53

EXAMPLE 1.8
A 10 Hz square ware is fed to an amplifier. Calculate and plot the output waveform
under the following conditions.
The lower 3 dB frequency is i) 0.3 Hz ii) 3 Hz iii) 30 Hz.

SOLUTION
The lower 3 dB frequency indicates that the amplifier acts as a high pass circuit.
F = 10 Hz and f1 = lower 3dB frequency
i.e., T = 1/f = 0.1 sec.
Let the amplitude of square wave input is A.
A
A1 = –T/ 2RC
and V11 = A1e –T/2RC
1+ e
(i) f1 = 0.3 Hz
1
∴ f1 = = i.e RC = 0.5305
2πRC
A
∴ A1 = = 0.5235 A
–0.1/2×0.5305
1+ e
∴ V11 = 0.5235A e–0.1/2×0.5305 = 0.4764 A
(ii) f1 = 3 Hz
1
∴ f1 = i.e., RC = 0.05305
2πRC
A
∴ A1 = = 0.7196 V
–0.1/2×0.5305
1+ e
∴ V11 = 0.7196 A e– 0.1/2×0.5305 = 0.2803 V
(iii) f1 = 30 Hz
1
∴ f1 = i.e., RC = 5.305×10 –3
2 πRC
A
∴ A1 = –3
= 0.999 V
1 + e –0.1/2×0.5305×10
∴ V11 = 0.999 A e–0.1/2×5.305×10–3 = 8.059×10–5 A
The wave forms are shown in the fig.1.64
54| Analog and
d Pulse Circuitts

FIGU
URE 1.64

EXAM
MPLE 1.9
For a low pass RC circuiit, with a pulse input, prove th hat the area undder the pulse iss
same as thee area under thee output wavefoorm across the capacitor.

SOLU
UTION
For a low pass
p circuit
Vo1(t) = A(1–e–t/RC).....0
) < t < tp
–(t–tp)/R
RC
Vo2(t) = Vp e .....t > tp
–tp/RC)
Where Vp = A (1– e
The wavefoorm is shown inn the figure 1.655

FIGU
URE 1.65
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |55

Area means to find integration

tp tp p t
 e – t /RC 
 Vo1 (t)dt =  A(1 – e
– t /RC
∴ A1 = )dt = A  t + 
0 0  (1 / RC)  0
= Atp + ARC e–tp/RC – ARC = Atp – ARC (1– e–tp/RC)
= Atp – Vp RC
∞ ∞ ∞
–(t – t p )/RC t p / RC  –e – t /RC 
And A 2 =  Vo2 (t)dt =  Vp e dt = Vp e  
tp tp  (1 / RC)  t p
= Vpetp/RC [0 + RC e–tp/RC] = Vp RC
Thus A1 + A2 = At–1p – VpRC + VpRC = Atp
= Area under the input pulse
= Area under the output curve.

EXAMPLE 1.10
An ideal 1 μs pulse is fed to an amplifier. Calculate and plot the output waveform
under the following conditions,
The upper 3 dB frequency is: (i) 10 MHz (ii) 0.1 MHz

SOLUTION
The upper 3dB frequency indicated that an amplifier is a low pass circuit. For pulse
input with low pass RC circuit,
Vo1(t) = A (1–e–t/RC)
Vo2 (t) = Vp e –(t – tp)/RC
where Vp = A (1 – e–tp/RC)
1
Given : tp = 1μs and f2 =
2πRC
(a) f2 = 10 MHz
1
∴ RC = = 1.5915 × 10 –8
2π × 10 × 106
∴ Vp = A [1 – e–1×6–10 / 1.5915 × 10–8] = A
The capacitor charges very quickly to A and then discharges. The waveform is shown
in the fig. 1.66 (a)
(b) f2 = 0.1 MHz
1
∴ RC = 6
= 1.591 × 10 –6
2π × 0.1 × 10
56| Analog and
d Pulse Circuitts

–66
∴ Vp = A [1– e –1×10 / 1.591×10–6] = 0.4665 A
From Vp1 capacitor
c dischaarges according to an equation,
–6 )
( = 0.4665 A [ e –(t –1×10
Vo (t) / 1.59 × 10–6]

FIGU
URE 1.66

EXAM
MPLE 1.11
The limitedd ramp shown in the fig. 1.677 is applied to a RC differentiator. Draw thee
wave formss for the case,
(i) T = 0.2 RC ii) T = RC and iii) T = 5 RC.
R

FIGU
URE 1.67

SOLU
UTION
The differenntiator is high paass RC circuit. The mp of slope α iss
T output equaation for the ram
given by,
Vo(tt) = α RC (1 – e–t/RC)
(i) T = 0.2 RC so outpput at t = T is,
Vo(tt) = α RC (1 – e–0.2RC/RC) α RC
C × 0.1812
V T
Buut α= and RC = = 5T
T 0.2
 C
Chapter 1: Line
ear Wave Shaping |577

V
∴ ( t =T =
Vo (t) × 5T
T × 0.1812 = 0.90
063 V
T
After t = T1 the output fallls exponentiallyy.
(ii) T = RC so output at t = T is,
V
( t =T =
Vo (t) × T × [1 – e –1 ] = 0.6321 V
T
(iii) T = 5 RC so outpput at t = T is,
V T
( t =T =
Vo (t) × × [1 – e –5RC/RC ] = 0.1986 V
T 5
The wavefoorms are shownn in the fig 1.68

FIGU
URE 1.68

EXAM
MPLE 1.12
The perioddic waveform shown
s is applieed to an RC inntegrating circuuit whose timee
constant is 10 μs. Sketch the output. Callculate the maximum and miniimum values off
the output voltage
v with resspect to ground under steady sttate conditions.

Figu
ure 1.69
58| Analog and
d Pulse Circuitts

SOLU
UTION
Let T1 = 100 μs and T2 = 1 μs
When inpuut is 100 V, capaacitor charges too 100 V from in
nitial voltage V2
∴ Vi = V2, Vf = 100 V
–6
∴ Vo1 = Vf = – (Vf – V1) e–t/RC = 100 – (100 – V2) e – t /10×10
–6 /10×10–6
At t = 10 μs,
μ Vo1 = 100 – (100
( – V2) e –10×10
1 μs, Vol = V1 up to capacitorr charges.
But at t = 10
∴ V1 = 100 –100e –1 + V2e –1
∴ V1 = –0.3678V2 = 63.212
During 1μss, the capacitor discharges from
m V1 to V2
∴ Vo2 = 0 – (0 – V1 )ee – t /RC
At t = 1μs; Vo2 = V2
–6 )/10×10 –6
∴ V2 – V1e –(1×10 = 0.9048V1
V1 = 94.742V,
V2 = 85.722 V.
The wave form
f is shown in the fig. 1.70

FIGU
URE 1.70

EXAM
MPLE 1.13
For a parallel RLC circuit,, an input Vi is applied.
a Derivee the Q factor off the circuit.

SOLU
UTION
The paralleel RLC circuit and
a its Laplace network
n is show
wn in fig.1.71
 C
Chapter 1: Line
ear Wave Shaping |599

1
SL ×
1 SC
Z'(s) = SL11 =
SC SL + 1
SC

FIGURE 1.71
1 (a, b, c)

Vi (s)
I(s)) = annd Vo (s) = I(s)Z
Z'(s)
R + Z'(s)
Vi(s) V
Vi(s)  SL 
∴ Vo(s) = × Z'(s) = × 2
R + Z'(s)  SL   S LC + 1 
 R +
S2 LC + 1 
 1 
S 
Voo(s) SL
L  RC 
∴ = 2 =
Vi(s) S RLC + SL + R S2 + 1 S + 1
RC LC
The characcteristic equationn is,
1 1
S2 + S+ =0
RC LC
2 2
1  1   1 
∴ S2 = –
S1 ,S ±   – 
2RC  2RC   LC
L 
60| Analog and Pulse Circuits

1 L
Rcr =
2 C
R R C
ξ = damping constant = = = 2R
R cr 1 L L
2 C
The Q factor of the parallel circuit is,
1
Q = WnRC where Wn = = natural frequency
L
C
RC C
∴ Q= =R
L L
C
∴ Q = 2ξ ..... from damping constant.

EXAMPLE 1.14
An ideal 1μs pulse is fed to an amplifier. Calculate and plot the output waveform
under the following conditions. The upper 3-dB frequency is (a) 8 MHz (b) 2 MHz
(c) 0.2 MHz

SOLUTION
The upper 3-dB frequency indicates that the amplifier acts as a low-pass circuit so the
pulse shown in fig 1.72 (a) is applied to the RC low pass circuit shown in fig 1.72 (b)
(a) When the upper 3-dB frequency f2 = 8 MHz
1 1
Time constant of the circuit RC = = = 0.0198 μs
2πf 2 2π × 8 × 106

FIGURE 1.72 (a) input wave form (b) circuit diagram

 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |61

Since tp = 1 μs and RC = 0.0198 μs

Since the time constant is very small in comparison with the pulse width, the capacitor
C charges rapidly with a rise time.
tr = 2.2 × 0.0198 = 0.043 μs
The output Vo is given by Vo – V (1 – e–t/RC) where V is the amplitude of the pulse
At t = tp
Vo = V (1– e–tp/RC) = V (1– e–1/0.0198) = V
The output waveform is shown in figure 1.73 (a)
(b) When f2 = 2 MHz
1 1
RC = = = 0.0795μs
2πf 2 2π × 2
tp = 1μs and RC = 0.0795 μs
∴ RC < t p
Since the time constant is small the capacitor charges fast
Rise time tr = 2.2 RC = 2.2 ×0.0795 = 0.17 μs
The output is given by Vo = (1 – e–t/RC)
At = t = tp, Vo = V (1–e–tp/RC) = V (1–e–1/0.0795)
=0.999 V
The output wave form in shown in figure 1.73 (b)
(c) When f2 = 0.2 MHz
1 1
RC = = = 0.0795 μs
2πf 2 2π × 0.2
So tp = 1μs and RC = 0.0795 μs. RC is comparable to tp since the time constant is
comparable to the pulse width, in the interval 0 < t< tp the capacitor charges
exponentially according to the equation
Vo = V (1– e–t/RC)
At t = tp the output voltage Vo = Vp
t /RC
Vp = V(1– e p )
Vp = (1– e–1/0.079) = 0.999 V
For t > tp, Vo decreases according to the equation
–(t /RC)
Vo = Vp e p
= 0.999 Ve–(t–1)/0.079
The output wave form is shown in figure 1.73 (c)
62| Analog and Pulse Circuits

FIGURE 1.73 (a), (b) and (c) output wave forms.

EXAMPLE 1.15
A symmetrical square wave of amplitude ± 4V and frequency 3 KHz is impressed on
an RC low pass circuit. If R = 4 KΩ, Χ = 0.1 μf. Calculate and plot the steady state
output with respect to time.

SOLUTION

FIGURE 1.74
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |63

FIGURE 1.75

1
Given f =3 KHz, T= = 0.3 ms
3 KHz
T 0.3 ms
∴ T1 = T2 = = = 0.15 ms
2 2
The time constant of the circuit T = RC = 4 ×103 × 0.1 ×10–6 = 0.4 ms
T
Since RC is comparable to the capacitor charges and discharges exponentially since
2
the input is a symmetrical square wave
V 1 – e –T/2RC 
V1 = = 
2 1 + e –T/2RC 
where V is the peak-to-peak value of the input
4  1 – e –0.4/1 
+ 
2  1 – e –0.4/1 
= 0.39 V
V2 = – V1
= – 0.39 V
∴ peak – to – peak wave of output
= 0.39 V – (– 0.39 V)
= 0.78 V

EXAMPLE 1.16
A 5 Hz square wave is fed to an amplifier. Calculate and plot the output wave form
under the following condition. The lower 3dB frequency is (a) 0.2 Hz (b) 2 Hz (c) 0
Hz.
64| Analog and Pulse Circuits

SOLUTION

Since the lower cut – off frequency is specified, the amplifier acts as an RC high pass
circuit shown in figure 1.75
Given input frequency f = 5Hz
1 1
T = = = 0.2 s
f 5
(a) When f1 = 0.2 Hz
1 1
Time constant RC = RC = = = 0.7957 s
2πf1 2π × 0.2
V
V1 =
1 + e –T/2RC
where Vo is the peak value of the input voltage
Substituting the values of T and RC
V
V1 = –0.2/(2×0.7957)
1+ e
1
= –0.2/(2×0.7957)
= 0.5313 V
1+ e
= V11 = V1 e–T1/RC = V1e–T/2RC
= (0.5789 V) e–0.25/2×0.7957
= 0.4947 V volts
V2 = – V1 = – 0.5789 V volts
V2 = – V1 = – 0.4947 V volts
Also
(b) When f1 = 2Hz
1 1
RC = =
2πf1 2π × 2
= 0.079 S
T/2 = 0.1 S
Since RC comparable to T, the output rises and decays exponentially as shown in
For 0 < t < T1, Volts = V1e–t/RC
At t = T1, Vo = V11 =V1e–T1/RC = V1e–T/2RC = V1e–0.1/0.7957 = 0.510 V1
T1< t < T1 + T2 , Vo2 = V2e ( 1 )
– t –T /RC
For
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |65

At t = T, V01 = V12 = V2 e –T2 /RC = V2 e–0.1/0.7957 = 0.510 V2

Since peak to –peak input is V Volts
V11 – V2 = V i.e 0.510 V1 – V2 = V
V1 – V21 = V i.e V1 – 0.510 V2 = V
0.510 V1 = V2 – V1 – 0.510 V2
V1 = – V2
V
V1 = = 0.6622V volts
1.510
V2 = – V1 = – 0.6622 V volts
V11 = 0.510 V1 = 0.510 × 0.6622 V = 0.337 V
V21 = – V11 = – 0.337 V
(c) When f1 = 10 MHz
1 1
RC = = = 0.0159 S
2πf1 2π × 10
RC << T

EXAMPLE 1.17

A 2 KHz symmetrical square wave of ± 5V is applied to an RC circuit having 1 ms

constant .Calculate and plot the output for the RC configuration as (a) high-pass
circuit.

SOLUTION

Given for f = 2 KHz

T = ms
ToN = 0.5 ms and Toff = 0.5 ms
RC = 1 ms, peak-to-peak amplitude Vpp = 5 – (–5) = 10 V
Since RC is comparable to T the capacitor charges and discharges exponentially
(a) High pass-circuit:- when the 2 KHz square wave shown by dotted lines in
fig (1.75 (a)) is applied to the RC high pass circuit shown in fig 1.76(a) under
steady state conditions, the output wave form will be as shown by the thick line in
fig 1.76 (b)
66| Analog and Pulse Circuits

Figure 1.76 (high pass circuit) (a) circuit diagram and (b) output wave forms

The input signal is a symmetrical square wave,

V1 = – V2 and V11 = – V21
V11 = V1e–T2 /RC = V1e–0.5/1 = 0.6065 V1
V21 = V2e–T2 /RC = V2 e–0.5/1 = 0.6065 V2
V11 + V2 = 0
0.6065 V1 + V1 = 10
10
V1 = = 6.224 V
1.6065
V2 = –V1 = –6.224 V
= 3.776 V
V21 = –V1 = –3.776 V
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |67

EXAMPLE 1.18
If a square of 4KHz is applied to an RC high-pass circuit and the resultant waveform
measured on a CRO was tilled from 14V to 9V, find out the lower 3-dB frequency of
the high pass circuit.

SOLUTION
The input and output wave form of the RC-high-pass circuit
f = 4KHz
V1 = 14V
V11 = 9V
f1 = ? (lower 3dB frequency)

FIGURE 1.77 (a), (b)

68| Analog and Pulse Circuits

peak-to-peak value of input V = V1 + V2 = 14 + 14 = 28 V

V1 – V11
P= × 100
V
2
14 – 9
P=
28
2
5
= = 0.357 %
14
Also % tilt
πf1
P= × 100
f
3.141f1
0.357 = × 100
4 × 103
0.357 × 4 × 103
f1 = = 4.546 Hz
3.141 × 103

EXAMPLE 1.19
A 1 KHz square wave output from an amplifier has rise time tr = 350 ns and tilt = 5%.
Determine the upper and the lower 3-dB frequencies.

SOLUTION
The amplifier has upper and lower 3-dB frequency so it acts as a combination of low-
pass and high-pass filters, that is, as a band-pass filter. The upper cut-off frequency of
a low-pass filter can be determined from the information about the rise time can we
put t as ‘t’. The lower cut-off frequency of a high filter can be determined from the
information about % tilt.
0.35
Rise time tr = = 2.2RC = 350 ns
f2
∴ The upper 3-dB frequency
0.35 0.35
f2 = = = 1 MHz
tr 350 × 10 –9
1
Percentage tilt = × 100
2RC
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |69

πf1
= × 100 = 5
f
∴ The lower 3-dB frequency
sf
f1 = = 15.92 Hz
π × 100

EXAMPLE 1.20
A symmetrical square wave is applied to a high pass circuit having R = 10 KΩ and c
= 0.04 μf
(a) If the frequency of the input signal is 2 KHz and the signal swings between ± 4 V
draw the output waveform and indicate the voltages.
(b) What happens if the frequency of the signal is reduced to 200 Hz? Show the output
waveform.

SOLUTION
The square wave shown in figure 1.78 (b) is applied to the RC high pass circuit shown
in figure 1.78 (a).
(a) The time constant of the circuit RC = 10 × 0.04 = 0.5ms f = 2 KHz
1
T= = 0.5 ms T/2 = 0.25;
2 KHz
As the input is a symmetrical square wave
V 20 10
V1 = –T/2RC
=
–0.25/1
= = 12.44V
1+ e 1+ e 1 + e –0.25
V2 = – V1 = – 12.44 V
V 20
V11 = –T/2RC
= = 8.75V
–0.25/2(0.5)
1+ e 1+ e
V12 = – V11 = – 8.75 V
(b) If f is reduced to 200Hz when
1 1
T= = = 20ms
f 200
V 20
V1 = – –T/2RC
= –0.25/2(0.5)
= 11.24V
1+ e 1+ e
V2 = – V1 = – 11.24 V
V 20
V11 = – T/2RC
= –0.25/2(0.5)
= 8.1756V
1+ e 1+ e
70| Analog and Pulse Circuits

EXAMPLE 1.21
The limited ramp show in fig 1.56 is applied to an RC differentiator draw the output
wave form for cases (a) T = 0.1 RC (b) T= RC and (c) T = 4RC.

FIGURE 1.78 (a) circuit diagram and (b) input waveform

When the input signal frequency is reduced from 2 KHz to 200 Hz the circuit as
differentiator as RC 10 S < T (0.25 ms).

SOLUTION
The limited ramp shows the dotted line in 1.56 (b) is applied to the RC high-pass
circuit shown in figure 1.56 (a) for the ramp input slope α = V/T, where T, is the
duration of ramp and V, the amplitude of ramp at t = T. The output for a ramp.
Vo(t) = α RC (1– e–t/RC)
(a) For T = 0.1 RC, the output at t = T is
V
= × 0.1T(1 – e – T / 4T )
T
(b) For T = RC the output at t = T is
V
= × T(1 – e – T /T )
T
(c) For T = 4 RC, the output at t = T is
V
= × 4T(1 – e – T /(T/ 41) )
T

EXAMPLE 1.22
A 200Hz triangular wave with peak-to-peak amplitude 8 V is applied to a
differentiating circuit with R = 2 MΩ and c = 200. PF Calculate and sketch the wave
form of the output.
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |71

SOLUTION
The triangular wave shown by the dotted line in figure 1.80 is applied to the RC high-
pass circuit shown in figure 1.80. The time constant of the RC circuit is
RC = 2 × 106 × 200 × 10–12 = 400 μs
Frequency of the triangular wave f = 200 Hz
T = 1/f = 1/200 = 20 ms
Since the time constant of the circuit is very small compared to the period of the input
wave form, the circuit acts as a differentiator and the output waveform is in the form
of a square wave having excursion from a RC (when slope is positive) to – dRC (when
slope is negative) i.e.,
8
αRC = × 200 × 10 –6 = 0.16V
10
Vo(t) = αRC = + 0.16 V when α is positive
= – αRC = – 0.16 V when αis negative
The output is a square wave with levels + αRC and – αRC as show in figure 1.80

Figure 1.79

EXAMPLE 1.23
A pulse with a rise time tr = 400 ns and a fall time tf = 1 μs, pulse amplitude = 10 V
and pulse width = 10 μs is applied to differentiating circuit with C = 100 pF and R =
400 Ω. Determine the amplitude of the differentiated output. Sketch the wave forms
across R and C.

SOLUTION
The pulse shown in fig 1.81 (b) is applied to the RC high pass circuit shown in figure
1.81 (a). The input is exponential. The time constant of the ring waveform is
400 ns
T= = 181.81ns
2.2
72| Analog and Pulse Circuits

FIGURE 1.80 Output wave form (a) circuit diagram (b) voltage across R and voltage across C.

Time constant of the circuit RC = 400Ω × 200PF = 90ns

RC 90
n= . = 0.4950, n < 1
T 181.81
The output is in the form of a pulse
Pulse amplitude (i.e. peak value during rise) is
Vn'(1– n ) = 10 × 0.49501(1–0.4950) = 2.48 V
Let the time at which the maximum output occurs be t1. Then
t n 0.4950
x= 1 = ln n = ln 0.4950 = 0.689
T n –1 0.4950 – 1
Or t1 = 0.689 T = 0.689 × 181.81 = 125.26 ns
The fail time tf = 1 μs = 2.2 T1
1 μs
Fall time constant T1 = = 0.4545 μs
2.2
RC 450 Ω × 100 PF
n= = = 0.99
T1 0.4545 μs
Peak value during fall is
Vo (max) = – 10 × 0.991(1 – 0.99) = – 9.9 V
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |73

Let the time at which negative peak occurs be t2

t n 0.99
x= 2 = 1n n = 1n0.99 = 0.99
T1 n – 1 0.99 – 1
t2 = xT1 = 0.99 × 0.4545 = 0.4499 μs

EXAMPLE 1.24
Prove that for the same input, the output from the two differentiating circuits shown in
fig 1.80 will be the same if RC = L/R1. Assume Zero initial conditions.

Figure 1.81

SOLUTION
(a) The RC high pass circuit shown in figure 1.81 (a)
1
Vi =
C idt + Ri

Vo = iR
V
i= o
R
1
Vi = Vo +
RC 
= Vo dt

(b) For the RC high-pass circuit shown in figure 1.81 (b)

di
Vi = R11 + L
dt
di
Vo = L
dt
74| Analog and Pulse Circuits

di Vo
=
dt L
On integrating both sides
1
i=
L 
= Vo dt

∴ from the above equations for Vi if RC = L/R’, the output from the differentiator
circuits are the same.

EXAMPLE 1.25
Compute and draw to scale the output waveform for (a) C1 = 45 PF (b) = C1 = 70 PF,
and C1 = 20 PF respectively for this circuit shown in figure 1.65. the input is a 10V
step.

SOLUTION
In the circuit shown in figure 1.65 (a) for respect companion
R C 1 MΩ
C1 = 2 2 = × 45PF = 45 PF
R1 1 MΩ

FIGURE 1.82 (a) circuit diagram and (b) output waveform

(a) Therefore, when C1 = 45 PF the attenuator would be perfectly compensated. The

rise time of the output waveform tr = 0 the output would be an exact replica of the
input but with reduced amplitude.
R2 1
The attenuation constant α= = = 0.5
R1 + R 2 1 + 1
Vo(0+) = Vo( ∞ )= 0.5 × 10 = 5 V
(b) When C1 = 70 PF, the attenuator is over compensated. Hence Vo(0+) > Vo ( ∞ )
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |75

C1 70
Initial response Vo(0+) = Vi = 10 × =6 V
C1 + C2 70 + 45
R1 1
Final response Vo( ∞ ) = Vi = 10 × =5 V
R1 + R 2 1+1
Final time constant
 RR   1×1  6 –12
RC =  1 2  (C1 + C2 ) =   × 10 × (70 + 45) × 10 = 57.5 μs
R
 1 + R 2  1 + 1 
Fall time, tf = 2.2RC = 2.2 × 57.5 = 126.5 μs
(c) When C1 = 20 PF the attenuator is under compensated.
C1 20
Initial response Vo(0+) = Vi = 10 × = 3.07 V
C1 + C2 20 + 45
R2 1
Final response Vo( ∞ ) = Vi = 10 × =5 V
R1 + R 2 1+1
Rise time constant
 RR   1× 1  6 –12
RC =  1 2  (C1 + C2 ) =   × 10 × (20 + 45) × 10 = 32.5 μs
R
 1 + R 2  1 + 1 
Rise time tr = 2.2 RC = 2.2 × 32.5 = 71.5 μs

EXAMPLE 1.26
For the circuit shown in figure 1.91 (a) the input is a 10 V step. Calculate and plot to
scale the output voltage.

SOLUTION
In the circuit shown in figure 1.91(a) for perfect compensation the required value of
RC 1 × 50
C1 = 1 2 = = 50 PF
R1 1
Though the input is a step it is not impressed on te attenuator network due to source
resistance. The input to the attenuator is therefore, given by.
R1 + R 2 1+1
V11 = Vi = 10 = = 9.09V = 10 V
R1 + R 2 + R s 1 + 1 + 0.2
This input step exhibits a rise time
76| Analog and Pulse Circuits

 CC   0.2 × 2   45 × 45 
t r = 2.2[R s (R1 + R 2 )]  1 2  = 2.2    = 9 μs
 C1 + C2   0.2 + 2   45 + 45 
Since the attenuator is perfectly compensated, the output is a perfect replica of the
input with reduced amplitude
R2 1
Vo = αVi1 = Vi1 = × 9.09 = 4.545 V
R1 + R 2 1+1
The rise time of the output = α × the rise time of the input =1/2 × 9 = 4.5 μs.
The input and output of the attenuator as shown in figure 1.71 (b)

Figure 1.83

EXAMPLE 1.27
For the circuit and the input waveform shown in figure 1.92 (a) draw roughly the
output waveform Vo. Make reasonable approximations and estimate the rise time of
the waveform, the magnitude of the overshoot and the time constant of the decay to
the final value.

Figure 1.84
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |77

SOLUTION

In the circuit shown in fig 1.92 (a) for perfect compensation, the required value of
R C 1 × 40
C1 = 2 2 = = 40 PF
R1 1
The input to the attenuator therefore will be
R1 + R 2 1+1 2
Vi1 = Vi = 1× = = = 0.9876 V
R1 + R 2 + R 2 1 + 1 + 0.025 2.025
The rise time of the input
 CC   0.025 × 2   50 × 40 
t r = 2.2[R s11(R1 + R 2 )]  1 2  = 2.2    = 1.20 μs
 C1 + C2   0.025 + 2   50 + 40 

C1 0.9876 × 50
Initial response ( )
Vo 0+ = Vi1
C1 + C2
=
50 + 40
= 0.548 V

R1 0.9876 × 1
Final response Vo ( ∞ ) = Vi1 = = 0.493 V
R1 + R 2 1+1
R2
Rise time of the output = × rise time of input = 0.5 × 1.20μs = 0.6 μs
R1 + R 2
 RR 
Fall time of output tf = 2.2 RC = 2.2  1 2  (C1 + C2 ) = 99 μs
 R1 + R 2 
Overshoot = Vo(0+) – Vo ( ∞ ) = 0.548 – 0.493 = 0.055 V
The input and output waveform of the attenuator are shown in figure 192 (b).

Multiple Choice Questions

1. How does a capacitor behave to sudden changes in voltage?
(a) Offers reactance (b) Open circuit
(c) Short circuit (d) Offers attenuation

2. When a sinusoidal wave = form is transmitted through a linear waveform circuit, the
following feature does not change:
(a) Time constant (b) Amplitude
(c) Phase (d) Frequency
78| Analog and Pulse Circuits

3. The expression for the lower cut off frequency of RC-high pass filter is
1
(a) (b) 2 / RC
2πRC
(c) RC (d) 0.707 RC
4. The function of a blocking a capacitor is
(a) It allows dc component (b) It does not allow the dc component
(c) It does not allow the dc and (d) It allow both dc and ac component
ac component
5. The gain of a passive low pass filter at its lower cut off frequency is
(a) 3 dB up (b) 2
(c) Unity (d) 3 dB down
6. At high frequencies inductor behaves like a
(a) Short circuit (b) Open circuit
(c) Ordinary wave (d) Offers negligible reactance
7. A sinusoidal waveform is very useful in determining the following features in of a circuit
(a) Spectrum (b) Time constant
(c) Bandwidth (d) Linearity
8. The lower cult off frequency of any ideal high pass filter is
(a) f1 (b) Zero
(c) Infinity (d) Cannot be determined
9. The average value of a output of a high-pass filter is
(a) Same as the input (b) Zero
(c) Depends on the waveform (d) Depends on the time constant
10. At high frequencies a capacitor behaves like a
(a) Short circuit (b) Open circle
(c) Behaves normally (d) Gives rise to a spike
11. The phase angle φ in an RC high-pass filter is
(a) Always lagging (b) Always leading
(c) Always out-of phase (d) In the same phase
12. Theoretically, a transient in a circuit reaches its final value at
(a) Zero (b) After one time constant
(c) After two time constants (d) infinity
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |79

13. When RC<<T, the output of a high-pass filter is

(a) Constant (b) Proportional to the input
(c) Derivative (d) Average value of the input
14. The expression for rise time tr of a low pass filter is
(a) tr = 1 + 0.35/f2 (b) tr = 1 – 0.35/f2
(c) tr = 0.35/f2 (d) tr = 0.75/f2
15. In an RLC circuit, when K = 1, the circuit is
(a) Over damped (b) Critically damped
(c) Under damped (d) Undamped
16. In the case of the RLC circuit, popularly known as ringing circuit
(a) K<<1 and K ≠ 0 (b) K<<1
(c) K>> 1 and K ≠ 0 (d) K>>1 & K = 0
17. In an ideal attenuator, the output voltage
(a) Depends on frequency (b) Remains constant
(c) Don’t depend on frequency (d) Depends on the time constant
18. A square wave is transmitted through an RC low-pass filter when RC = T, then
(a) The output and input have identical shape
(b) The output is a series of spikes
(c) The output is the integration of the input waveform
(d) The output is a square wave with a tilt
19. The gain of a passive high-pass filter at its lower cut off frequency is
(a) + 3 dB (b) 1
(c) 1/ 2 (d) 1.14
20. In the case of an uncompensated attenuator with resistors, R1 and R2, the capacitance C2
at the output terminals is neutralized when
R1 R 2
(a) = (b) R1C1 = R2 C2
C1 C2
(c) R1C2 = R2C1 (d) R1C1 ≠ R1C2
21. The delay time td is defined making use of an exponentially raising waveform
(a) Time interval to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value
(b) Time interval to rise from 10% to 50% of its final value
(c) Time interval to rise from 0% to 90% of its final value
(d) Time interval to rise from 0% to 50% of its final value
80| Analog and Pulse Circuits

22. When RC>>T, the output of a high pass filter is

(a) Constant (b) Proportional to the input
(c) Derivative of the input (d) Average value of the input
23. In RLC circuit, when K < 1, the circuit is
(a) Over damped (b) Critically damped
(c) Under damped (d) Undamped
24. Condition for good differentiation of RC high-pass filter is
(a) RC = 10T (b) RC >>T
(c) RC = T (d) RC <<T
25. Condition for good integration of RC low-pass filter is
(a) RC = 10T (b) RC >>T
(c) RC = T (d) RC<<T
26. When RC <<1, the output of a low-pass filter is
(a) Constant (b) Proportional to the input
(c) Derivation of the input (d) Average value of the input
27. Condition for good differentiation for RL high pass filter is
(a) L/R = 10T (b) 4L/R >>T
(c) L/R = T (d) 4L/R <<T
28. In an RLC circuit, when K>1, the circuitis
(a) Over damped (b) Critically damped
(c) Under Damped (d) Undamped
29. Condition for good integration of RL low-pass filter is
(a) L/R = 10T (b) L/R >>T
(c) L/R = T (d) L/R <<T
30. The phase angle φ in a RC high-pass filter at its lower cut off frequency f1 is
(a) Zero (b) 90o
(c) 45 (d) π radians
31. The expression for delay time td of a low-pass filter is
(a) td = 0.35/2 (b) td = 0.11/f2
(c) td = 2 / f2 (d) td = π / f 2
32. When RC >>T, the output of a low pass filter is
(a) Constant (b) Proportional to the input
(c) Derivative of the input (d) Integration of the input
 Chapter 1: Linear Wave Shaping |81

33. The frequency functions G(f) of an first order low pass filter is
1 1
(a) G(f) = (b) G(f) =
1 – j(f 2 / f ) 1 – j(f / f 2 )
1 1
(c) G(f) = (d) G(f) =
1 + j(f / f 2 ) 1 + j(f 2 / f )
34. The phase angle φ of an RC high-pass filter is expressed as
(a) φ = – tan–1 (f/f1) (b) φ = – tan–1 (f1/f)
(c) φ = tan–1(f1/f) (d) φ = tan–1 (f/f1)
35. The series capacitor in an RC high-pass filter is called
(a) By-pass capacitor (b) Stabilization capacitor
(c) Filter capacitor (d) Blocking capacitor
36. A ramp waveform Vi(t) = αt during the interval 0<t<T, is transmitted through an RC low-
pass filter with RC<<T. The output waveform is
αt 2
(a) Vo(t) = (b) Vo(t) = α(t – RC)
2RC
(c) Vo(t) = αt (d) Vo(t) = αRC
37. A symmetrical square wave is transmitted through a RC high pass filter with RC<<T. The
% tilt P in the output waveform can be given by
f
(a) P = π ( 1 ) ×100
f
(b) The tilt P is same as that suffered by a ramp waveform
T
(c) P = × 100
2RC
(d) It is not possible to find P
38. An RC high-pass filter acts as a good differentiator when
(a) RC = T (b) RC<<T (c) RC = 20T (d) RC>>T
39. A sinusoidal waveform is transmitted through an RC low pass filter and the phase angle φ
is found to be – 45o. What is the expression for the frequency of the sine wave when this
condition is satisfied?
1 1
(a) f1 = (b) f2 =
2πRC 2π RC
1 1
(c) f1 = (d) f2 =
2π RC 2πRC
82| Analog and Pulse Circuits

40. The gain of the RC high-pass filter is always

(a) Around 1.414 (b) Lies in the range 0.707 and 1.41
(c) Around 0.707 (d) Less than unity
41. A ramp waveform Vi(t) = αt during the interval 0<t<T, is transmitted through an RC high
pass filter with RC>>T. The output wavefrom is
αt 2
(a) Vo(t) = (b) Vo(t) = αt
2RC
(c) Vo(t) = α(t – RC) (d) Vo(t) = αRC
42. The frequency function G(f) of a first-order high pass filter is
1 1
(a) G(f) = (b) G(f) =
1 – j(f1 / f ) 1 – j(f / f1 )
1 1
(c) G(f) = (d)
1 + j(f / f1 ) 1 + j(f1 / f )
43. A ramp waveform V1(t) = αt during the interval 0<t<T is transmitted through an RC high
pass filter with RC <<T. The output wave form is
(a) Vo(t) = αRC (b) Vo(t) = αt
αt 2
(c) Vo(t) = α(t – RC) (d) Vo(t) =
2RC
44. A symmetrical square wave is transmitted through a RC high-pass filter RC>>T.
Percentage tilt P in the output waveform can be given by
(a) P = π (f1/f) × 100
(b) The tilt P is same as that suffered by a ramp waveform
(c) P = π (f/f1) × 100
(d) It is not possible to find P
45. The RC low-pass filter acts as a good integrator when
(a) RC = T/20 (b) RC << T
(c) RC = T (d) RC >> T