Transformers and Their Performance

Defenition:
A transformer is defined as a static electromagnetic device which transforms an AC
electrical power from one electrical circuit to another with a desired change in the voltage
level without any electrical connection between the circuits.

Classifications of Transformer based on:

1. Change in voltage level
a. Step-up Transformer b. Step-down transformer
2. Construction
a. Core type transformer b. Shell type transformer
3. Number of phases
a. Single phase transformer b. Three phase transformer
4. Method of cooling
a. Natural oil cooled transformer
b. Forced oil cooled transformer

Principle of Operation :
i. Schematic Arrangement

I2

AC Supply I1 V2
Load

V1

Flux→

Above figure shows the schematic arrangement of a Single phase transformer. It consists of a
laminates rectangular magnetic core and two windings wound on it. One winding is
connected to the AC supply and is known as the Primary winding (P). The other winding is
connected to the load and is known as Secondary winding (S). There is no electrical
connection between the Primary and Secondary windings. The number of turns of Primary
and secondary windings is denoted be N1 and N2 respectively.
ii. Working principle

a. The transformer works on the principle of Electromagnetic induction (mutual

induction). It is according to the Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
b. The two windings of the transformer are electrically separated but they are linked by a
common mutual flux because they are wound on the same magnetic core of very low
reluctance. These windings are highly inductive so they have a very high mutual
inductance.
c. When an AC supply of alternating voltage V1 is given to the primary winding,
alternating current I2 is produced in it. The current sets up an alternating flux ф in the
core. The flux is linked with the secondary winding to produce mutually induced emf
E1 in it according to the Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
d. When a load is connected across the secondary, the secondary induced emf E2
circulates current I2 through it. Thus the electrical power is transferred magnetically
or inductively from primary circuit to the secondary circuit without any electrical
connection between them.

iii. Primary and secondary emf:

The common alternating flux is linked with both the windings and hence the emfs E1
and E2 are statically induced in the primary and secondary windings respectively. E1 is self
induced emf which opposes the primary supply voltage V1 according to the Lenz’s law. E2 is
mutually induced emf, their frequency is same.
If the impedance of load connected to Secondary is ZL, the secondary emf E2
circulates secondary current I2 through it and produces voltage V2 across the load. V2 is
slightly less than E2 by impedance voltage drop. Similarly the primary emf E1 is slightly less
than primary supply voltage V1 by the impedance voltage drop in primary winding.

iv. Unsuitability of Transformer on DC supply

The transformer works only on AC supply because it needs alternating (time varying)
flux for electromagnetic induction of emfs in the transformer windings. The alternating
mutual flux can be produced only by alternating voltage. Such alternating flux and alternating
current can produce emfs for the functioning of the transformer. So, AC supply is must for
the transformer to function.
If instead of AC, DC supply is given to the transformer, it produces direct current in
the primary and steady flux in the core. Such secondary flux cannot induce any emf in
primary and secondary by mutual induction. So secondary cannot deliver electric power to
the load. Due to the absence of primary emf E1 which normally opposes the primary voltage
V1, the primary current I1 becomes excessively high due to the high value of V1 and low value
of primary resistance R1. This heavy primary current may burn the primary winding
insulation and damage the transformer. So the transformer is never operated on DC supply.
Transformer Construction:

1. Magnetic core 6. Bushes

2. Windings 7. Output leads
3. Oil 8. Input leads
4. Tank 9. Conservator
5. Radiator 10. Breather

1. Magnetic Core:
The purpose of the core is to provide a magnetic path at low reluctance between the
two windings, so that whenever one winding is excited, the flux established by the winding
will link fully with the other winding withous any appreciable leakage. The permeability of
the material used for the coremust have high value (µr > 1000), since the reductance of the
magnetic path is inversely proportional to µ. Core is made up of silicon steel or sheet steel
with 4% of silicon. The sheets are laminated and coated with an oxidew layer to reduce the
iron losses.

2. Windings:
A conventional transformer has only two windings. The winding which receives the
electrical energy is called the primary winding and the winding which delivers the electrical
energy is called Secondary winding. Windings are generally made up of high grade copper.
For carrying higher currents standard conductors are used. For large power and distribution
transformers an oil filled tank is necessary for providing cooling for the windings and core.
Heat generated ∝ volume of the conductors and core
Heat Dissipated ∝ surface area of the conductors and core.
Radiators are used to increase the surface area and also to provide the path for the
circulating of the cooling oil.

3. Bushings:
The purpose of the bushings is to provide proper insulations for the leads to be taken
from the transformer tank.

4. Breather:
Transformer oil should not be exposed directly to the atmosphere because it may
absorb moisture and dust from the environment and may lose its electrical properties in a
very short time. The breather completely prevents the moisture and dust from coming into
contact with the oil in the conservator tank.

Working Principle of a transformer:

 A core type transformer consisting of a primary winding with N1 turns and a Secondary
winding with N2 turns.
 The two windings are insulated from each other as well as from the core
 The primary winding is connected across an AC voltage of frequency of ‘f’ Hz., which
causes an alternating current to circulate through the winding
 The AC current I1 flows through the winding produces an mmf and sets up an
alternating flux ф in the magnetic core.
 Due to this an induced emf will be developed in the primary winding.
 As secondary winding is wound on the same core, the mutual alternating flux linking
with winding S would also induce an emf in the coil whose frequency f and magnitude
is proportional to the number of turns N2 of the winding.
 E1 = induced emf in P = N1 x emf per turn
E2 = induced emf in S = N2 x emf per turn
E2 N 2
=
E1 N 1
 When the secondary winding terminals are open the terminal voltage V2 is same as the
emf induced in it.
 The current drawn by the primary winding from the supply is very small and induced
emf in the primary winding can be taken as almost equal to the applied voltage V1.
V 2 N2
∴ ≅
V 1 N1
 If the load is connected to the secondary winding, power flows from the primary
winding to the secondary winding load circuit. In this case some losses will occur.
 If the losses are neglected then the total power can be taken from the source by the
transformer is transferred to the load side.
∴ V1I1 x Primary power factor = V2I2 x Secondary power factor
 AT full load operating condition primary power factor is approximately equal to the
secondary power factor, then
I V
V 1 I 1=V 2 I 2 ⇒ 1 = 2
I2 V 1
 When the secondary circuit is open, the primary winding withdraws a very small
current I1 and mmf in primary winding F1= N1I1 AT., produces the flux in the core. The
flux induces emf E1 in primary winding that is equal and opposite to the applied voltage
V1.
 Primary current is called magnetizing current or no-load current of the transformer and
3-5% of full load primary current. AT → AmpereTurns
 When load is connected across the secondary terminals, the secondary current I2 flows
to the load, this will cause mmf F2=N2I2 at in the magnetic circuit.
 According to the Lenz’s Law the current I2 in the secondary winding will produce flux
in the opposite direction to the main flux фm.
 Thus the secondary ampere turns have demagnetizing effect on main flux.
Consequently the flux and emf induced in the primary E1 both are slightly reduced.
 The difference between the fixed applied voltage V1 and the reduced value of emf E1
caused an increase in primary current and counter mmf is generated to oppose the mmf
produced by the secondary coil.

Ideal Transformer
Assumptions:
An ideal transformer is impossible to obtain in practice. It has no loss. So it is a loss-
less or loss-free transformer and its efficiency is 100%. Its primary and secondary copper
losses are zero. Its core losses such as hysteresis loss and eddy current loss are assumed to be
zero. So there is no heating of the core and windings on load.
 Its output power is equal to input power i.e. secondary power P2 =Primary power P1
i.e. V2I2 cos ф2 = V1I1 cos ф1
Secondary and primary power factors are equal i.e. cos ф2 = cos ф1, ф2 = ф1.
I1 V2
∴ V2I2 = V1I1 i.e. = =K
I2 V1
Core loss is zero. So core loss current is zero. The permeability of the core is very
high so that the magnetizing current Im required to set up the flux in the core is negligible.
Thus on no load, the primary current I1 = Im and secondary current I2 = 0.
There is no magnetic leakage flux i.e. all the flux ф set up in the core completely links
with the primary as well as the secondary.
The primary and secondary resistances are zero. Their leakage reactances are also
zero due to leakage flux i.e. the primary and secondary impedences are zero.
Primary mmf (I1N1) + Secondary mmf (I2N2) i.e. primary and secondary ampere turns
are balanced.
I1 V2
∴ = =k
I2 V1
There are no voltage drops in the primary and secondary windings.
∴ Primary voltage V1 = Primary emf E1 and
Secondary voltage V2 = Secondary emf E2.
V 2 E2 N 2
∴ = = =K
V 1 E1 N 1
The emf ration and voltage ratio are both equal to the turns ratio i.e. primary and
secondary emfs or voltages are directly proportional to their respective turns and primary and
secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.
V 2 E2 N 2 I 1
∴ = = = =K
V 1 E1 N 1 I 2
In short, the ideal transformer can be imagined as the assembly of two purely
inductive windings wound on the loss less core.
For the ideal transformation, voltage regulation us always zero.
There is no temperature rise on load due to the absence of losses. So, cooling
arrangements are not necessary.

Ideal Transformer on no load:

When no load is connected on the secondary circuit of an ideal transformer, secondary
circuit is open and I2 = Zero.
Primary side supply voltage V1 circulates a current I1 through the primary and
produces a flux ф in the core. Flux ф links with the primary winding P if N1 turns and induces
self-induced emf E1 in it. Similarly the flux ф links with the secondary winding S of N2 turns
and induce mutually induced emf E2 in it.
The primary current I1 is completely utilized to produce the flux i.e. to magnetize the
core. So it is called magnetizing current Im.
According to the Lenz’s law, the primary emf E1 opposes the primary voltage
V1which is the real cause of its production.
 Thus for ideal transformer, V1= -E1.
By the property of the ideal transformer, secondary voltage is equal to
secondary emf
V 2 E2 N 2
i.e. V2 = E 2 = = =K
V 1 E1 N 1

Phasor Diagram:
The mutual flux ф which is responsible for the transformer action may be taken as the
reference phasor or positive xaxis. The current I1 (=Im) produces flux ф. So I1 is in phase with
ф.
The primary and secondary emfs E1 and E2 lag behind the flux by 90°. Assuming step-
down transformer, the transformation ratio k<1.
V 2 E2 N 2
∴ = = =K <1 ∴ E2 < E1
V 1 E1 N 1
∴ Secondary voltageV2 lags the flux by 90°. As primary voltage V1 = -E1, phasor V1
is drawn reverse to E1 i.e. V1 leads flux by 90° and V2 < V1.
The lengths of the phasors should be such that E2 = KE1 and V2 = KV1 and V1 = E1
and V2 = E2.

Ideal Transformer on load:

A load of impedance ZL is connected across the secondary. The secondary voltage V2
(=E2) circulates a secondary current I2 through the load.
Assuming inductive load, the current I2 would lag the voltage V2 by angle ф2 where
cos ф2 lagging would be the power factor of the load.
The magnetizing current Im is in phase with the flux ф and emfs E1 and E2 lag the flux
ф by 90°. V2=E2 and V1= -E1.
So V1 leads flux by 90°. V2=KV1 and E2=KE1.
Initially the primary takes magnetizing current Im from the supply to produce flux ф in
the core. During the on load operation of the transformer, the secondary current I2 produces
opposing mmf I2N2 to oppose flux ф according to Lenz’s law. So the flux momentarily
decreased and hence the primary induced emf E1 is momentarily decreased below the value of
primary voltage V1. The vector difference (V1-E1) causes additional current I2ˈ to flow in the
primary. The magnitude of I2ˈ is such that it produces additional mmf I2ˈN1 to increase the
flux back to its original value ф in the core is always kept constant. In this way the
transformer is a constant flux machine. There is ampere turn balance on primary and
secondary sides, i.e. primary mmf and secondary mmf. In short, the secondary ampere-turns
are always balanced by the primary ampere-turns. ∴ I2ˈN1 = I2N2

The secondary current I2 is shown to be lagging

V2 by an angle ф2 assuming the power factor cos ф2 of
the load. The counter balancing primary current I2ˈ is
given by: I2ˈN1 = -kI2.
The –ve sign indicates that I2ˈ produces the flux
which opposes the flux produced by I2. So I2ˈ is drawn
reverse to I2.
The total primary current I1 is the phasor sum of
the magnetizing component Im and the counter balancing
loading componenu I2ˈ. Current I1 lags voltage V1 by
phse angle ф1. Thus the primary power factor is cosф1
lagging.
As the magnetizing current Im is very small, I1 ≅ I2
ˈ = KI2 and ф1 = ф2 i.e. primary power factor cos ф1 =
secondary power factor cos ф2.

Practical transformer on NO load:

On no load condition, the secondary is open i.e. I2=0
∴ Secondary voltage V2 = Secondary emf E2.
The primary takes very small no load current I0 from the supply. Therefore the
impedance voltage drop I0Z1 in the primary is negligible and hence primary emf E1 is nearly
2
equal to the primary voltage V1. The no load primary copper loss I0 R1 is very small and
hence neglected.

Components of no load current I0:

It has two components as follows:
 i. Magnetizing component (Im): The primary takes magnetizing component Im of the
current to magnetize the core i.e. to produce the flux in the core Im is in phase with the
flux ф and lags the voltage by 90°. It is the purely reactive or inductive current. It is also
known as wattles component.
ii. Core loss component (Ic): The primary takes core loss component Ic of the current to
supply the core losses viz. hysteresis loss and eddy current loss in the core. Ic is the active
current and it is in phase with the voltage V1. It is also known as wattful component.

Phasor Diagram :

In the phasor diagram, E1 and E2 or V2

lag the flux ф by 90° and V1(= -E1) leads flux by 90°.
Im is in phase with the flux ф but lags voltage V1 by 90° and Ic is in phase
with V1. The phasor sum of Im and Ic gives no load current I0 which lags voltage V1 by
phase angle фo.
2 2
Im
I0 = √ I C + I m and фo = tan-1 ( )
Ic
Ic = Io cos фo and Im = Io Sin фo
The no load primary power factor is given by
Ic
cos фo = ………lagging
I0
The power factor of the transformer at no load is always very poor and lagging
because the no load current Io lags the voltage V1 by the large angle фo due to the large value
of the magnetizing current Im relative to the small value of core loss current Ic.

Practical transformer on load:

The effect of loading on the transformer operation can be studied by referring the
below figures. The winding resistance and the leakage flux are neglected. Therefore winding
reactances and impedances are not considered here.
 When transformer is on no
load, the secondary side is opened so
the secondary current I2 is zero. The no
load primary current I0 produces mmf
I0N1 and sets up flux ф in the core as
shown in (A).
When the transformer
is loaded as shown in (B), the a
secondary emf E2 (=V2)
circulates current I2 in the
secondary circuit such that I2
V2
= where ZL is the load
ZL
impedance. The phase angle
ф2 between the voltage V2
and current I2 depends on the
nature of the load. I2 lags V2
by angle ф2 if the load is
b
inductive, I2 is in phase with
the voltage V2 if the load is
purely resistive and I2 leads
V2 by angle ф2 if the load is
capacitive.

So the momentary voltage difference (vector) V1-E1 Circulates

additional current I2ˈ in the primary. This additional current is known as the load component
of the primary current. It is in phase opposition to secondary current I2. So it is also known as
counter balancing primary current. This current produces additional mmf I2ˈN1 to set the flux
ф1 such that ф1 is equal to and in opposition to the secondary flux ф2. The total primary
current I1 is given by I1= I0+I2ˈ as shown in (C).Thus primary current varies with the
secondary load current.
 As the secondary current I2 and the load component I2ˈ of the primary current are in
phase and opposite in direction,their mmfs are balanced i.e. I2ˈN1 =I2N2.

The fluxes ф1 and ф2 produced by the mmfs I2ˈN1 and I2N2

respectively are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. So they get cancelled
and the resultant flux in the core is the same flux ф which is produced at no load
condition. This is shown in (D).
Thus when the transformer is loaded from no load to full load, the common
mutual flux ф in the core remains approximately constant. Therefore the transformer
is said to be in constant flux machine.
At full load condition, the no load component I0 is negligible in comparision with the
full load component I2ˈ. Hence I0 is neglected and the total primary current I1 (vector) is taken
as I2ˈ.
i.e. vectorially I1 = I0 + I2ˈ ≅ I2ˈ But I2ˈ = KI2 ∴ I1 ≅ KI2 But I2ˈN1 =I2N2
∴. I1N1 =I2N2.
i.e. the primary ampere turns are balanced by the secondary ampere turns. As the core flux ф
is practically constant from no load to full load, the core losses of the transformer are always
constant for all conditions of the load.

Phasor diagram:

As the winding resistances and reactances

are neglected, the phasors of flux, emfs, voltages
and no load current are same as that for the no load
phasor diagram. I0 lags V1 by phase angle ф0.

For inductive load i.e. for lagging power

factor load, I2 lags V2 by phase angle ф2. The load
component I2ˈ of primary current is KI2 and it is in
phase opposition to the current I2. So the phase
angle between I2ˈ and V1 is ф2. The resultant primary current is the phasor sum of no load
component I0 and load component I2.
The phase angle between I1 and V1 is ф1 and hence the primary power factor is cosф1.

Equivalent Circuits:
Primary and Secondary Parameters:

1. Primary Parameters:
N1= Number of primary turns
V1=Primary Supply Voltage
E1 = Primary emf
I0 = No load current = Ic+Im
Ic = Core loss current
Im = Magnetising current
I1 = Primary current = I0+I2ˈ = I0+KI2
Rc = Core loss resistance
Xm = Magnetising reactance
R1 = Primary Winding resistance
X1 = Primary leakage reactance
2. Secondary Parameters
N2= Number of secondary turns
V2=Secondary load terminal Voltage
E2 = Secondary emf
I2 = Secondary load current
R2 = Secondary winding resistance
X2 = Secondary leakage reactance
ZL = Load impedance = RL± jXL
RL = Load resistance
XL = Load reactance

Transformation ratio : K = N2/N1

Equivalent Resistances:

1. The primary and secondary windings of

the transformer have their own individual
resistances R1 and R2 respectively. For
simplicity, they are shown external to the
 windings in the figure. They carry the respective winding currents I1 and I2 and produce
copper losses.
2. Secondary resistance R2 carries current I2 and produces copper loss I22R2. Suppose R2
is transferred to primary, then its equivalent resistance R2ˈ referred to primary must produce
the same copper loss while carrying primary current I1.
i.e. I12R2ˈ = I22R2
∴ R2ˈ = (I22R2)/ I12 = (I2/I1)2 . R2 = (N1/N2)2 .R2 = R2/K2
This resistance R2ˈ is known as the secondary resistance referred to primary and is given
by:
R2ˈ R2/K2

3. Now primary resistance R1 carries current I1 and produces copper loss I12R1. Now
suppose R1 is transferred to secondary, then its equivalent resistance R1ˈ referred to
secondary must produce the same copper loss while carrying secondary current I2.
i.e. I22R1ˈ = I12R1
∴ R1ˈ = (I12R1)/ I22 = (I1/I2)2 .R1 = K2 R1
∴ R1ˈ is known as the primary resistance referred to secondary and is given by R1ˈ =K2R1 .
4. Equivalent resistance referred to
primary: After transferring secondary
resistance R2 to the primary, the total
equivalent resistance of transformer
(referred to primary) becomes the sum of
R1 and R2 and it is denoted by R01.
∴ R01 = R1 + R2ˈ = R1 + (R2/K2 )

5. Equivalent Resistance referred to

secondary: Similarly the total resistance of
the transformer (referred to secondary) is
denoted by R02 and is obtained by
transferring the primary resistance R1 to the secondary and then adding it into the secondary
resistance R2.
i.e. R02 =R2+R1ˈ = R2+K2R1
6. Copper losses: The total copper losses of the transformer can be expressed as:

Pcu = Pcu1+Pcu2 = I12R1+I22R2

i.e. Pcu = I12R1+I12R2ˈ = I12(R1+R2ˈ) = I12R01
or Pcu = I22R2 + I22R1ˈ = I22(R2+R1ˈ) = I22R02
∴ R01/R02 = (I2/I1)2 = I/K2 ∴R01 = R02/K2 and R02 = K2R01

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer:

 An equivalent circuit of the transformer can be developed by considering the basic
primary and secondary electrical circuit coupled magnetically. R1, X1 and Z1 are the primary
winding parameters and R2, X2 and Z2 are the secondary winding parameters.
Shunt branch of RC and Xm represents core parameters to accounts for core loss and
magnetization of core.

Exact Equivalent Circuit:

1 Basic Magnetically Coupled Circuit

The secondary circuit of the above figure may be combined with the primary
circuit by transferring all secondary parameters to the primary side. The resulting
circuit is known as the exact equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the
primary side. That is shown in the below figure:

2 Exact equivalent circuit referred to the primary

 In the similar way, the primary circuit of the first figure can be combined with the
secondary circuit by transferring all the primary parameters to the secondary side. The
resulting circuit is called as the exact equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the
secondary of the transformer referred to secondary. That is shown in below figure:

3 Exact equivalent circuit referred to the Secondary

Simplified equivalent circuit:

4 Simplified equivalent circuit referred to the Primary

The exact equivalent circuit is difficult to analyze due to the central shunt
branch of Rc and Xm. So this branch is shifted to the supply side without loosing much
accuracy. Now the primary and secondary winding parameters can be added together.
Thus a simplified equivalent circuit is derived for the primary and secondary winding
parameters.
 The shunt branch of Rc and Xm of second figure is shifted to the supply side to get a
simplified equivalent circuit referred to primary as shown in the below figure:

Now, the voltage across Rc and Xm is V1 instead of E1 and V1 ≅ E1. Similarly,

the current in R1 and X1 or Z1 is I2 instead of I1 and I2≅ I1. So this approximation is
tolerated.

Approximate Equivalent Circuit:

The series parameters of primary and secondary windings of the simplified equivalent
circuit of the fourth figure may be added together to derive the approximate equivalent circuit
of the transformer referred to primary as shown in below figure:

Approximate equivalent circuit referred to the Primary

Total winding parameters referred to primary are given by

R01 = R1 +R2ˈ, X01 = X1 + X2ˈ and Z01 = Z1 + Z2ˈ (vectorially)
Similarly approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to secondary may
be derived by following same procedure, transferring all the primary parameters to the
secondary. This is shown in the below figure:

Approximate
equivalent circuit
referred to the
Secondary

The total
winding
parameters referred to secondary are given by:
R02 = R2 + R1ˈ, X02 = X2 + X1ˈ and Z02 = Z2 + Z1ˈ (vectorially)
Losses in A Transformer:
A practical transformer has very smack power losses due to absence of moving parts
and friction loss. So it is a highly efficient device. The total power losses of the teansformer
are classified as below:

Core losses:
 In core, the cyclic flux density variations are caused due to je sinusoidal current.
 The cyclic flux density variations give rise to losses which appear in the form of heay.
 These losses are referreds to as core losses or iron losses.
 Iron losses are of two types:
1. Hysterisis Losses
2. Eddy current losses
 In all electromagnetic equipment, core losses play a significant role in determining the
equipment rating, efficiency and temperature rise.
1. Hysterisis losses :
a. When core is energized from an AC source, the magnetizing current varies
sinusoidally with the time. Hence the magnetizing force H applied on the
magnetic circuit is also alternating.
b. The variation of B when plotted against H for one cycle of AC extraction is in
the form of a loop.
c. In each cycle hysteresis losses appears as heat.
Ph = KhvfBm16 watts
Kh – Steinmetz constant, depends on the material of the core and range of
the flux density. It lies between 1.5 – 2.0 (generally taken as 1.6)
 v – Volume of the core in m3
Bm – Maximum flux density
d. Hysteresis losses reduced by using core materials that have a narrow hysteresis
loop. Eg: iron alloys, silicon steel

2. Eddy Current losses:

a. The time varying flux in core induces emf in it and causes circulating currents in
closed paths within the body of the material.
b. These currents are called Eddy currents and gives rise to i2R losses.
c. These losses are called Eddy current losses.
d. It is dependent upon the effective résistance and length of the eddy current
paths.
e. If the magnetic circuit is made up of solid iron, then circulating currents are high
where as resistance is small. Hence the power loss is appreciable.
Pe = Kef2Bm2t2v watt
t – Thickness of the core in meters.
v – Volume of the core in m3
f. Finally core losses are minimized by using high steel silicon content for the
core.
g. The input of the transformer when on no load measures the core losses.

Copper losses:
1. This is due to the ohmic resistance of the transfgormer windings.
2. Total Copper losses = I12R01+I22R02
3. It is clear that copper losses are proportional to square of the current or kVA2.

Efficiency (η):
The efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of the output power to the
ratio of the input power at a specified load and its power factor.

The input power is the primary power taken from the supply and output power is the
secondary power delivered to the load. Due to the power losses in the transformer, output
power is less than input power.

∴ %η < 100%.

Output power P0 = Secondary power P2

= Input power Pi – Losses PL
= Primary power P1 – Losses PL
Input power Pi = Primary power P1
= Output power P0 + Losses PL
= Secondary power P2 + Losses PL
Condition for maximum efficiency :
Considering primary winding :

Primary input = V1I1cos ф1

input−losses losses I 21 R1−ω i I 1 R1 ωi

η= input
= 1- input
= 1- = 1- −
V 1 cos φ1 V 1 I 1 cos φ 1
V 1 I 1 cos φ1

Differentiating on both sides by I1

dη R1 ωi
=0− +
d I1 V 1 cos φ1 v 1 I 21 cos φ1

For maximum η,
dη
=0
d I1

R1 ωi
∴ = 2 ⇒ ω i=I 21 R1
V 1 cos φ1 v 1 I 1 cos φ1