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Chapter 11: File System

Implementation
 Chapter 11: File System Implementation

 File-System Structure
 File-System Implementation
 Directory Implementation
 Allocation Methods
 Free-Space Management
 Efficiency and Performance
 Recovery
 Log-Structured File Systems
 NFS
 Example: WAFL File System

Operating System Concepts 11.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Objectives

 To describe the details of implementing local file systems and

directory structures
 To describe the implementation of remote file systems
 To discuss block allocation and free-block algorithms and trade-offs

Operating System Concepts 11.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 File-System Structure

 File structure
 Logical storage unit
 Collection of related information
 File system resides on secondary storage (disks)
 File system organized into layers
 File control block – storage structure consisting of information
about a file

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 Layered File System

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 A Typical File Control Block

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 In-Memory File System Structures

 The following figure illustrates the necessary file system structures

provided by the operating systems.

 Figure 12-3(a) refers to opening a file.

 Figure 12-3(b) refers to reading a file.

Operating System Concepts 11.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 In-Memory File System Structures

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 Virtual File Systems

 Virtual File Systems (VFS) provide an object-oriented way of

implementing file systems.

 VFS allows the same system call interface (the API) to be used for
different types of file systems.

 The API is to the VFS interface, rather than any specific type of file
system.

Operating System Concepts 11.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Schematic View of Virtual File System

Operating System Concepts 11.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Directory Implementation

 Linear list of file names with pointer to the data blocks.

 simple to program
 time-consuming to execute

 Hash Table – linear list with hash data structure.

 decreases directory search time
 collisions – situations where two file names hash to the same
location
 fixed size

Operating System Concepts 11.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Allocation Methods

 An allocation method refers to how disk blocks are allocated for

files:

 Contiguous allocation

 Linked allocation

 Indexed allocation

Operating System Concepts 11.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Contiguous Allocation

 Each file occupies a set of contiguous blocks on the disk

 Simple – only starting location (block #) and length (number

of blocks) are required

 Random access

 Wasteful of space (dynamic storage-allocation problem)

 Files cannot grow

Operating System Concepts 11.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Contiguous Allocation

 Mapping from logical to physical

LA/512

Block to be accessed = ! + starting address

Displacement into block = R

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 Contiguous Allocation of Disk Space

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 Extent-Based Systems

 Many newer file systems (I.e. Veritas File System) use a modified
contiguous allocation scheme

 Extent-based file systems allocate disk blocks in extents

 An extent is a contiguous block of disks

 Extents are allocated for file allocation
 A file consists of one or more extents.

Operating System Concepts 11.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Linked Allocation

 Each file is a linked list of disk blocks: blocks may be scattered

anywhere on the disk.

block = pointer

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 Linked Allocation (Cont.)

 Simple – need only starting address

 Free-space management system – no waste of space
 No random access
 Mapping

Q
LA/511
R

Block to be accessed is the Qth block in the linked chain of

blocks representing the file.
Displacement into block = R + 1
File-allocation table (FAT) – disk-space allocation used by MS-DOS
and OS/2.

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 Linked Allocation

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 File-Allocation Table

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 Indexed Allocation

 Brings all pointers together into the index block.

 Logical view.

index table

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 Example of Indexed Allocation

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 Indexed Allocation (Cont.)

 Need index table

 Random access
 Dynamic access without external fragmentation, but have
overhead of index block.
 Mapping from logical to physical in a file of maximum size
of 256K words and block size of 512 words. We need only
1 block for index table.

Q
LA/512
R

Q = displacement into index table

R = displacement into block

Operating System Concepts 11.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Indexed Allocation – Mapping (Cont.)

 Mapping from logical to physical in a file of unbounded

length (block size of 512 words).
 Linked scheme – Link blocks of index table (no limit on
size).

Q1
LA / (512 x 511)
R1
Q1 = block of index table
R1 is used as follows:
Q2
R1 / 512
R2

Q2 = displacement into block of index table

R2 displacement into block of file:

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 Indexed Allocation – Mapping (Cont.)

 Two-level index (maximum file size is 5123)

Q1
LA / (512 x 512)
R1

Q1 = displacement into outer-index

R1 is used as follows:
Q2
R1 / 512
R2

Q2 = displacement into block of index table

R2 displacement into block of file:

Operating System Concepts 11.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Indexed Allocation – Mapping (Cont.)

outer-index

index table file

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 Combined Scheme: UNIX (4K bytes per block)

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 Free-Space Management

 Bit vector (n blocks)

0 1 2 n-1
…


0  block[i] free
bit[i] =
1  block[i] occupied

Block number calculation

(number of bits per word) *

(number of 0-value words) +
offset of first 1 bit

Operating System Concepts 11.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Free-Space Management (Cont.)

 Bit map requires extra space

 Example:
block size = 212 bytes
disk size = 230 bytes (1 gigabyte)
n = 230/212 = 218 bits (or 32K bytes)
 Easy to get contiguous files
 Linked list (free list)
 Cannot get contiguous space easily
 No waste of space
 Grouping
 Counting

Operating System Concepts 11.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Free-Space Management (Cont.)

 Need to protect:
 Pointer to free list
 Bit map
 Must be kept on disk
 Copy in memory and disk may differ
 Cannot allow for block[i] to have a situation where
bit[i] = 1 in memory and bit[i] = 0 on disk
 Solution:
 Set bit[i] = 1 in disk
 Allocate block[i]
 Set bit[i] = 1 in memory

Operating System Concepts 11.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Directory Implementation

 Linear list of file names with pointer to the data blocks

 simple to program
 time-consuming to execute
 Hash Table – linear list with hash data structure
 decreases directory search time
 collisions – situations where two file names hash to the same
location
 fixed size

Operating System Concepts 11.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Linked Free Space List on Disk

Operating System Concepts 11.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Efficiency and Performance

 Efficiency dependent on:

 disk allocation and directory algorithms
 types of data kept in file’s directory entry

 Performance
 disk cache – separate section of main memory for frequently
used blocks
 free-behind and read-ahead – techniques to optimize
sequential access
 improve PC performance by dedicating section of memory as
virtual disk, or RAM disk

Operating System Concepts 11.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Page Cache

 A page cache caches pages rather than disk blocks using virtual
memory techniques

 Memory-mapped I/O uses a page cache

 Routine I/O through the file system uses the buffer (disk) cache

 This leads to the following figure

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 I/O Without a Unified Buffer Cache

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 Unified Buffer Cache

 A unified buffer cache uses the same page cache to cache both
memory-mapped pages and ordinary file system I/O

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 I/O Using a Unified Buffer Cache

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 Recovery

 Consistency checking – compares data in directory structure with

data blocks on disk, and tries to fix inconsistencies

 Use system programs to back up data from disk to another storage

device (floppy disk, magnetic tape, other magnetic disk, optical)

 Recover lost file or disk by restoring data from backup

Operating System Concepts 11.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Log Structured File Systems

 Log structured (or journaling) file systems record each update to

the file system as a transaction

 All transactions are written to a log

 A transaction is considered committed once it is written to the
log
 However, the file system may not yet be updated

 The transactions in the log are asynchronously written to the file

system
 When the file system is modified, the transaction is removed
from the log

 If the file system crashes, all remaining transactions in the log must
still be performed

Operating System Concepts 11.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 The Sun Network File System (NFS)

 An implementation and a specification of a software system for

accessing remote files across LANs (or WANs)

 The implementation is part of the Solaris and SunOS operating

systems running on Sun workstations using an unreliable datagram
protocol (UDP/IP protocol and Ethernet

Operating System Concepts 11.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 NFS (Cont.)

 Interconnected workstations viewed as a set of independent

machines with independent file systems, which allows sharing
among these file systems in a transparent manner
 A remote directory is mounted over a local file system directory
 The mounted directory looks like an integral subtree of the
local file system, replacing the subtree descending from the
local directory
 Specification of the remote directory for the mount operation is
nontransparent; the host name of the remote directory has to
be provided
 Files in the remote directory can then be accessed in a
transparent manner
 Subject to access-rights accreditation, potentially any file
system (or directory within a file system), can be mounted
remotely on top of any local directory

Operating System Concepts 11.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 NFS (Cont.)

 NFS is designed to operate in a heterogeneous environment of

different machines, operating systems, and network architectures;
the NFS specifications independent of these media

 This independence is achieved through the use of RPC primitives

built on top of an External Data Representation (XDR) protocol
used between two implementation-independent interfaces

 The NFS specification distinguishes between the services provided

by a mount mechanism and the actual remote-file-access services

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 Three Independent File Systems

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 Mounting in NFS

Mounts Cascading mounts

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 NFS Mount Protocol

 Establishes initial logical connection between server and client

 Mount operation includes name of remote directory to be mounted and
name of server machine storing it
 Mount request is mapped to corresponding RPC and forwarded to
mount server running on server machine
 Export list – specifies local file systems that server exports for
mounting, along with names of machines that are permitted to
mount them
 Following a mount request that conforms to its export list, the server
returns a file handle—a key for further accesses
 File handle – a file-system identifier, and an inode number to identify
the mounted directory within the exported file system
 The mount operation changes only the user’s view and does not affect
the server side

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 NFS Protocol

 Provides a set of remote procedure calls for remote file operations.

The procedures support the following operations:
 searching for a file within a directory
 reading a set of directory entries
 manipulating links and directories
 accessing file attributes
 reading and writing files
 NFS servers are stateless; each request has to provide a full set of
arguments
(NFS V4 is just coming available – very different, stateful)
 Modified data must be committed to the server’s disk before results
are returned to the client (lose advantages of caching)
 The NFS protocol does not provide concurrency-control
mechanisms

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 Three Major Layers of NFS Architecture

 UNIX file-system interface (based on the open, read, write, and

close calls, and file descriptors)

 Virtual File System (VFS) layer – distinguishes local files from

remote ones, and local files are further distinguished according to
their file-system types
 The VFS activates file-system-specific operations to handle
local requests according to their file-system types
 Calls the NFS protocol procedures for remote requests

 NFS service layer – bottom layer of the architecture

 Implements the NFS protocol

Operating System Concepts 11.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005

 Schematic View of NFS Architecture

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 NFS Path-Name Translation

 Performed by breaking the path into component names and

performing a separate NFS lookup call for every pair of component
name and directory vnode

 To make lookup faster, a directory name lookup cache on the

client’s side holds the vnodes for remote directory names

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 NFS Remote Operations

 Nearly one-to-one correspondence between regular UNIX system

calls and the NFS protocol RPCs (except opening and closing files)
 NFS adheres to the remote-service paradigm, but employs
buffering and caching techniques for the sake of performance
 File-blocks cache – when a file is opened, the kernel checks with
the remote server whether to fetch or revalidate the cached
attributes
 Cached file blocks are used only if the corresponding cached
attributes are up to date
 File-attribute cache – the attribute cache is updated whenever new
attributes arrive from the server
 Clients do not free delayed-write blocks until the server confirms
that the data have been written to disk

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 Example: WAFL File System

 Used on Network Appliance “Filers” – distributed file system

appliances
 “Write-anywhere file layout”
 Serves up NFS, CIFS, http, ftp
 Random I/O optimized, write optimized
 NVRAM for write caching
 Similar to Berkeley Fast File System, with extensive modifications

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 The WAFL File Layout

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 Snapshots in WAFL

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 11.02

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End of Chapter 11