A review Of Photovoltaic/Thermal Collector

A Report Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering at Salahaddin

University-Erbil in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of
Master of Science in Electrical Engineering

Prepared by:
Tana Taher Azeez
(MSc Student)

Supervised by:
Dr. Soorkeu
(PhD)

Erbil-Kurdistan
December, 2017
Abstract
In this paper, a thorough review of the available literature on
photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) systems is presented. The review is performed in a
thematic way in order to allow an easier comparison, discussion and evaluation
of the findings obtained by researchers, especially on parameters affecting the
electrical and thermal performance of PV/T systems. The review covers a
comprehensive historic overview of PV/T technology, detailed description of
conventional flat-plate and concentrating PV/T systems, analysis of PV/T
systems using water or air as the working fluid, analytical and numerical
models, simulation and experimental studies, thermodynamic assessment of PV
and PV/T systems and qualitative evaluation of thermal and electrical outputs.
Furthermore, parameters affecting the performance of PV/T systems such as
glazed versus unglazed PV/T collectors, optimum mass flow rate, packing
factor, configuration design types and absorber plate parameters including tube
spacing, tube diameter and fin thickness are extensively analyzed. Based on the
thorough review, it can be easily said that the PV/T systems are very promising
devices and PV/T technology is expected to become strongly competitive with
the conventional power generation in the near future.

Keywords: PVT collector thermal; performance; modeling; Flat-plate

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 1. INTRODUCTION

Energy is a thermodynamic measure that is often accepted as the capacity of

a physical system to do work. Besides its physical meaning, energy is vital for
our relations with the environment. Since life is directly affected by energy and
its consumption, research to resolve problems related to energy is quite
important (Sahin, Dincer et al. 2007)[1]. Energy resources based on fossil fuels
are still dominant with the highest share in global energy consumption but clean
energy generation becomes increasingly crucial due to the growing significance
of environmental issues. solar power is a key item since it provides an
unlimited, clean and environmentally friendly energy (Cuce and Cuce 2014)[5].
Moreover, the other forms of renewable energy primarily depend on the
incoming solar radiation. The Earth absorbs _3.85 million EJ of solar energy per
year(Johansson and Burnham 1993) [6].

Hybrid photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) systems are quite attractive in order to

harness the available solar energy resource at a particular location. A PV/T
collector is a combination of photovoltaic (PV) and thermal (T) components and
it enables to produce both electricity and heat simultaneously. PV/T collectors
can be designed as flat-plate or concentrating and are classified according to the
type of heat-removal fluid used. (Zondag, de Vries et al. 1999)[1] the electrical
and the thermal performance of PV/T collectors is lower than that of separate
PV panels and conventional thermal collectors. However, they emphasized that
two PV/T collectors together produce more energy per unit surface area than
one PV panel and one thermal collector next to each other. This is particularly
important in applications where surface area availability is very significant.
PV/T systems are reliable and work on a noiseless environment. Furthermore,
lifespan of these systems is around 20–30 years and maintenance costs are
negligible. Depending on these attractive features and the impressive growth in
3
the PV solar electricity industry(Hoffmann 2006) [10], PV/T technology is
expected to expand significantly in the near future.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF PV AND PV/TTECHNOLOGY

The history of PVs goes back to the nineteenth century. In 1839, French
physicist Becquerel discovered the photo galvanic effect in liquid electrolytes
allowing light–electricity conversion(Luque and Hegedus 2011) [11]. The
photoconductivity of solid selenium was found by Smith in 1873.Then, Adams
and Day discovered the photo generation of current in selenium tubes in 1876.
In 1900, Planck presented the quantum nature of light. Thereafter, Wilson
proposed the quantum theory of solids in 1930. After a decade, Mott and
Schottky developed the theory of solid-state rectifier (Gupta and Tiwari 2016)
[12]. In 1954, Chapin et al., while working on silicon semiconductors,
developed the first high power silicon PV cell achieving 6% efficiency, and
after 4 years, these PV cells were used to power radios on the Vanguard I space
satellite . Sharp Corporation developed the first efficient PV module from
silicon PV cells in 1963. After the OPEC oil embargo in 1973, resulting in a
massive increase in oil prices, many governments created a strong stimulation
of research into renewable energy including PVs (Zondag 2008)[14]. As a result
of the intensive efforts, terrestrial applications of PV technology became
widespread in the1970s. In the same decade, researchers discovered the PV/T
concept and the first projects concerning the PV/T collectors were launched.
(Böer and Tamm 2003) [15] proposed the work on the air-type PV/T systems
which was called as Solar One House. It was the first house which enables to
directly convert sunlight into both electricity and heat for domestic use. The

4
liquid type PV/T collectors were first investigated by (Wolf 1976)[16] in
1976.He analyzed the performance of a combined solar PV and heating system
for a single-family residence over a full year. Ventilated PV fac¸ades started to
become important in the early 1990s and especially in Switzerland several
projects were carried out on building-integrated PVs (BIPV) (Posnansky, Gnos
et al. 1994)[17]. In recent years, extensive researches have been carried out all
over the world to improve the PV/T performance and reduce the cost. Today,
PV/T technology is very promising with its potential in order to narrow the gap
between renewable and conventional power sources.

3. PV/T COLLECTORS

Hybrid PV/T collectors are extremely helpful devices which enable to

produce electricity and heat simultaneously as shown in Fig.1. Simply, PV/T
systems consist of PV modules coupled to heat extraction units
(Tripanagnostopoulos, Nousia et al. 2002)[19]. Although PV modules convert
sunlight directly into electricity, most of the absorbed solar radiation is dumped
to the PV modules as waste heat. The heat generated is transferred to the heat
exchanger in thermal contact with PV modules in order to supply the heat
demand. PV/T collectors can be designed as flat-plate or concentrating and are
classified according to the type of heat-removal fluid used.

5
Figure 1Structure of different types of PV/T collectors (a) sheet-and-tube PV/T, (b) channel
PV/T, (c) free-flow PV/T and (d) two-absorber PV/T .

3.1 FLAT-PLATE PV/T COLLECTORS

The fundamental ideas of flat-plate PV/T collectors were first presented

by (Kern Jr and Russell 1978) [21] in 1978. Then, presented a theoretical model
for PV/T systems using conventional solar thermal collector techniques.
(Florschuetz 1979)[23] extended the well-known Hottel–Whillier model
developed for the thermal analysis of flat-plate collectors to the analysis of
hybrid PV/T collectors.

Flat-plate PV/T collectors can be categorized according to the type of working

fluid used: water type, air type or combined (water/air) type flat-plate PV/T
collectors.(Zondag, De Vries et al. 2003)[24] analyzed the different types of
PV/T collectors (sheet and tube, channel, free flow and dual absorber) as shown
in Fig. 2. The best efficiency was observed for the channel-below-transparent-
PV design. Air PV/T collectors are not efficient enough compared with the
liquid ones. Although the manufacturing costs of air PV/T collectors are quite
low, their applications are relatively few .Flat-plate PV/T collectors can be

6
utilized as either grid connected or standalone systems. (Talavera, Nofuentes et
al. 2007) [26] presented a study to estimate the internal rate of return of PV
systems and indicated that grid-connected systems are more profitable
investments when some economic conditions are met. Shown in Figure. 2

Figure 2 Flat-Plate collector

3.2 CONCENTRATING PV/T COLLECTORS

In spite of the considerable developments in PV technology, the cost of

electricity produced by PV modules is still much more expensive than
conventional power (Kribus, Kaftori et al. 2006)[27]. Concentrating sunlight is
a key technique in order to reduce the system cost. By concentrating, the area of
the PV modules required decreases, and therefore payback time becomes
shorter. However, PV module temperature increases with concentration and it
should be kept as low as possible in order to achieve higher efficiency.

The drawback of the concentrating PV/T collectors is that because of the

high temperatures, stable cooling is necessary and the system may create
problem if thermal load (cooling) decreases. These systems requires tracking for
finer performance and due to their bulky shape; they are less suitable for
creating addition compared to flat plate PV/T collectors(Zondag 2008)[1].
Because of the high operating temperatures, increased deterioration of the

7
materials is detected when compared to other types of PV/T collectors. Finally,
the performance of concentrating PV/T collectors is covered comparatively
more when exposed to sand and dust. Their performance is altered more than
flat plate PV/T collectors in sandy and dusty environments.

3.3 WATER PV/T COLLECTORS

In this type of PVT collectors, water or a mixture of water (i.e. water-

ethylene-glycol) is circulated through the collector to extract heat from it. Using
a PVT water collector is advantageous if there is a demand for hot water. Flat
structure of the collector allows simple design and convenient integration on a
building, usually rooftops; therefore PVT flat water collectors are more popular
compared to concentrating PVT water collectors. Furthermore, in PVT water
collectors, hot water may be stored in an external tank for a period of time
which imposes drawback of leakage and freezing that may occur in extreme
conditions, .(Hasan and Sumathy 2010) (2010). However, these can be
prevented by robust construction and by using water-ethylene-glycol mixture.
PVT water collectors may either be glazed or unglazed. An extra layer of glass
on top of the PV cells results in less heat losses and greater thermal
performance, whereby reducing electrical performance by some extent due to
the reason that PV cells perform worse in higher temperatures. Unglazed PVT
collectors have higher electrical performance and lower thermal performance
compared to glazed ones because of greater heat losses resulting in lower
operating temperatures.

8
 Figure 3 Cross-sections of some common PVT water collector designs

3.4 Air PV/T collectors

In PVT air collectors, air is circulated through the collector instead of

water. This type of collectors is attractive for applications where heated air is
required. PVT air collectors provides some advantages such as they are cheaper
and less complex compared to PVT water collectors(Bambrook and Sproul
2012), where a simple fan can be used instead of a water pump. Moreover, there

9
is no risk of freezing, or boiling at extreme weather conditions. On the other
hand, PVT air collectors suffer from some major disadvantages such as having
lower thermal performance characteristics compared to water types due to lower
heat capacity and thermal conductivity of air compared to water.

Figure 4 Single pass PVT air collector

Furthermore, low density of air causes the transfer volume to be

significantly higher than that of PVT water types. Thus, pipes with higher
volume and greater bulk are needed which is not suitable for applications with
low available area and is not aesthetically likable. Despite these disadvantages,
PVT air collectors are suitable choices for hot air applications thanks to their
lower cost. Fig.3 shows a single pass flat plate PVT collector, where the air is
circulated in a duct at the back of PV modules to extract the heat.

Ventilated PV with heat recovery

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3.5 Combination of liquid/air PV/T collector

The combination of more than one system in a single system is one of the
modern techniques and applications in the field of solar energy, especially in the
PV/T, which would open horizons and new areas, will directly add to increasing
the amount of the spread of their applications on a greater scale. According to
the flow impression of the water or air, Combination of water and/or air type
collectors’ can be distinguished. In water type PV/T collectors, the main
parameters that are necessary to be taken under consideration such as sheet and
tube, channel, medium (fluid) flow and the absorber collector types. Show in fig
5

Figure 5 PV/T concentrator collector system

4. DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF PV/T

COLLECTORS

Design of hybrid PV/T collectors has important impact on performance

parameters. In the literature, various system configurations of water and/or air
PV/T collectors were investigated in detail. The most common designs analyzed
by researchers are illustrated in Figure 18a–d. In the first design, a PV module is
attached on an absorber plate with metallic elements as shown in Figure 18a. In
11
the second design, the working fluid flow over the PV module as it is clear in
Figure 18b. The third design consists of multiple channels beneath the PV
module as shown in Figure 18c. In the fourth configuration, transparent PV
modules are utilized with multiple working fluids as it is illustrated in Figure
18d. The last design is preferable since it provides a lover PV cell temperature
but the complexity of the dual absorber geometry makes the module difficult to
manufacture (van Helden, van Zolingen et al. 2004)[178]. investigated a PV/T
system with dual heat extraction operation, either with water or with air
circulation.(Tripanagnostopoulos, Nousia et al. 2001) [180] analyzed the
performances of two types of air PV/T collectors. In the first system, a
commercial pc-Si PV module was combined with a black tedlar. The second
system composed of a transparent tedlar on the front and the glass on the rear
surface of the PV module.

Figure 6 Different configurations of a hybrid PV/T collector

12
the different configurations of hybrid air PV/T collectors which are considered
as unglazed and glazed PV/T air heaters, with and without a(Joshi, Tiwari et al.
2009) [182] analyzed two types of PV/T collector which are called as glass-to-
glass PV/T system and glass-to-tedlar PV/T system. It was observed that the
glass-to-glass PV/T system gives better performance in terms of overall thermal
efficiency. the performance analysis of a hybrid PV/T double-pass fac¸ade for
the composite climate. Further research is needed to improve the efficiency and
to reduce the cost of PV/T systems.

4.1 THEORY OF FLAT-PLATE THERMAL COLLECTORS

A hybrid PV/T collector is basically a combination of a flat plate thermal

collector and a PV module. Therefore, theory of flat-plate thermal collectors
and theory of PV modules will be investigatend separately. The useful heat gain
of a flat-plate thermal collector is given by:

Qu= ṁC p (T fo −T fi )

Where and Tfo and Tfi are the fluid outlet and the fluid inlet temperature,
respectively. The steady-state thermal efficiency of a flat-plate thermal collector
is calculated as follows:
Qu
❑th =
G

Where G is the illumination intensity level. Equation (1) can be rewritten

in terms of the absorber plate temperature as follows:

Qu= A c ¿)]

13
 where Ac, S, U, Tap and Tamb are the area of the PV/T collector, absorbed
solar energy, overall heat loss coefficient, absorber plate temperature and
ambient temperature, respectively. (Sciubba and Toro 2011) [187] simplified
Equation (3) since it includes difficulties to calculate:

Q u= A c F r [S−U ( T fi −T amb ) ]

Where Fr is the heat removal factor of the PV/T collector. Fr is calculated

by the following equation:

ṁ C p Ac U F c
F r=
Ac U
{1−exp (
ṁ C p
} )

In Equation (5), Fe is the collector efficiency factor given by:

1
U
F e=
1 1 1
W[ [ D 0+ ( W −D 0 ) F fe ]+ + ]
U C b π Di h fi

Where W, Do, Di, Cb, hfi and Ffe are the tube spacing, outside tube
diameter, inside tube diameter, thermal conductivity of the bond between the fin
and tube, heat transfer coefficient of fluid and fin efficiency factor, respectively.
The fin efficiency factor is calculated as follows:

tanh ( x)
F fe=
x

U W −D 0
Where: x=
√ kδ
(
2
)

In Equation (8), represents the fin thickness. The system details of a

conventional solar thermal collector are illustrated in Figure 20.

4.2 THEORY OF PV MODULES

Using the TRNSYS program, Kalogirou modeled a pump operated

domestic PVT/w system complete with water tank, power storage and

14
conversion, and temperature differential control). Later on, Kalogirou and
Tripanagnos to poulos further examined domestic PVT/w applications working
with either thermos syphon or pump circulation modes (Kalogirou 2001).
constructed prototypes of thermos electric collector (first generating heat and
subsequently electricity) and PVT/w collector (with solar cells on aluminum-
absorber and copper-tubing combination); the TRNSYS simulation results
showed that the electrical output of the PVT/w collector is significantly higher
than that of the thermoelectric collector(Rockendorf, Sillmann et al. 1999) He
performed an extensive investigation of the thermal, electrical, hydraulic and
overall performance of four types of flat-plate PVT/a collector. These included:
channel above PV as Mode 1, channel-below PV as Mode 2, PV between
single- pass channels as Mode 3 and finally the double-pass design as Mode 4.
The numerical analysis showed that while Mode 1 has the lowest performance,
the other three have comparable energy yields.

EFFECTIVE PARAMETERS ON PV/T PERFORMANCE

A number of parameters have been identified to affect PV/T performance.

These include mass flow rate, inlet temperature of working fluid, number of
covers, absorber to fluid thermal conductance and absorber plate design
parameters such as tube spacing, tube diameter and fin thickness. An analysis of
these parameters follows:

1 Glazed and unglazed PV/T collectors

Sadness and Rekstad explained that the effect of adding a glass cover to
the PV/T collector is to reduce the heat losses to the surroundings. However, the
energy absorptance is also reduced by reflection (around 10%) from the glass.
They found that the simulated total electrical energy output over a day for the
plain PV module was 306.9 Wh, for the PV/T without glass cover was 339.3
Wh and for the PV/T with glass cover was296.2 Wh (Sandnes and Rekstad
2002). Analyzed the factor of a glass cover on a hybrid water PV/T system from

15
the viewpoint of thermodynamics. It was found that the glazed PV/T system is
always suitable for maximizing the thermal or the overall energy output. In
terms of exergy analysis, the increase in PV cell efficiency, packing factor and
wind velocity was found favorable for an unglazed system, whereas the increase
in illumination intensity and ambient temperature was favorable for a glazed
system. They also emphasized that if the design target is to acquire either more
electrical energy or more overall energy output in ‘quality’, the exergy
efficiency will be more appropriate for assessment.

The exergy analysis performed by Fujisawa and Tan indicated that the
exergy output density of the uncovered designs slightly higher than the single-
covered design, taking the fact that the thermal energy contains much
unavailable energy(Zondag, De Vries et al. 2003) [24] analyzed nine types of
PV/T collectors and compared their performances. The results indicated that the
single coversheet-and-tube design is the most promising of the examined
concepts for domestic hot water production. On the other hand, the uncovered
PV/T collector will be better for a low temperature application since the
reflection losses at the cover are foregone.

16
2 Mass flow rate

Chow showed that as mass flow rate in the tube increases from 0.002 to
0.016 kg/s, for a 2 m2 PV/T collector area (i.e.0.001 to 0.008 kg/sm2), the
thermal and electrical efficiencies also increase(Chow 2003) . Garg and
Agarwal carried out simulations for different solar cell areas, mass flow rates
and different water masses by solving the governing equations using an iterative
finite difference method. The system was composed of a PV/T collector, storage
tank, pump and differential control. The optimum flow rate was found to be
0.03 kg/s, for a 2 m2PV/T collector area (i.e. 0.015 kg/sm2), for maximum
thermal collector efficiency. However, electrical efficiency was found to
decrease at 0.03 kg/s and was minimum when solar insolation was maximum
(which is expected as at this time absorber temperature is maximum) (Morita,
Fujisawa et al. 2000). Determined that maximum exergetic efficiencies for
single cover (of 13.36%) and coverless (of 11.92%) PV/T collectors occur at
optimum flow rates of 0.0014 and 0.0049 kg/respectively, for a PV/T collector
area of 0.61 m2 (i.e. 0.002 and0.008 kg/sm2, respectively)

3 Absorber plate parameters

Bergene and Lovvik elaborated on the effect of tube spacing to tube

diameter ratio (W/D). It was found that:

a) The thermal efficiency is approximately halved when W/D increases from 1

to 10, by keeping W constant. It was also emphasized that different results are
expected when increasing W whilst keeping D constant.

b) The fact that the speed of cooling liquid increases when tube diameter is
decreased does not compensate for losses from the fin.

c) Increasing W/D from 1 to 10, decreases outlet fluid temperature.

17
d) Even though electrical efficiency is not heavily affected by fin size,
combined efficiency is largely dependent on fin size.

e) If thermal efficiency is of any importance, its dependence on the relative tube

diameter should be weighed against the cost of the tubes ((Bergene and Løvvik
1995)

MODELING AND SIMULATION

(Kalogirou 2001) [69] studied the modeling and simulation of a hybrid
PV/T system for the environmental conditions. The system was modeled using a
well-known transient system simulation program (TRNSYS). The results
indicated that the optimum flow rate of the system is 25 l/h. It was also
observed that the hybrid PV/T system increases the mean annual efficiency of
the PV system from 2.8 to 7.7% and meets49% of the hot water demand of a
house. (Zhao, Song et al. 2011)[206] presented the design optimization of a
hybrid PV/T system for both concentrated and non-concentrated solar radiation.
The system consisted of a PV module employing silicon solar cells and a
thermal unit based on the direct absorption collector concept. The results
showed that the optimum system can effectively and separately use the visible
and infrared part of the solar radiation. The thermal unit absorbs 89% of the
infrared radiation for photo thermal conversion and transmits 84%of the visible
light to the PV cell for photoelectric conversion. It was also observed that when
the illumination intensity level increases from 800 to 8000 W/m2, the system
generates 1968Cworking fluid with a constant thermal efficiency around 40%,
and the exergetic efficiency increases from 12 to 22%. (Shahsavar and Ameri
2010) [207] carried out theoretical and experimental studies on a direct-coupled
air PV/T collector. The results indicated that there are an optimum number of
fans to obtain the maximum electrical efficiency. It was also noted that the glass
cover on PV panels leads to an increase in thermal efficiency and decrease in
electrical efficiency due to the increase in cell temperature.

18
Numerical models of PV/T collectors

(Zondag, de Vries et al. 2002) [11] developed and run four numerical
models predicting the performance of PV/T collectors. The models prepared
included, one 3D (three dimensional) dynamic and three steady state (3D, 2D
and 1D) models. The simple 1D steady state model performed almost as well as
the much more time consuming 3D dynamic model. However, the 2D and 3D
models could be used to provide more detailed information required for
collector optimization. All models followed the experiments to within 5% of
accuracy. The useful collected heat of the dynamical model was found to be
54.4% and for steady state was found to be 54.2% of the incoming solar
radiation. The loss caused by ignoring dynamical effects was therefore only
0.2%. It was thus reported that for inaccurate calculation of the annual
efficiency the dynamical effects do not have to be taken into account. The
results of the 1D and 2D model were found to differ by roughly 1%. 2D and 3D
models have 2% difference inefficiency due to the absence of heat resistance in
the glass in the 3D model (Fig. 3).It was therefore concluded that for the
determination of the efficiency curves the simple steady state 1D model
performs satisfactorily and for the calculation of daily yield the error made by
ignoring dynamical effects is very small. Since the 3D dynamic model
developed by (Zondag, de Vries et al. 2002).[11] was an extensive one
(typically uses 2.5 h simulation time for 1 h real life equipment operation),
(Chow 2003)[12]developed an explicit dynamic model, based on a control
volume finite difference approach fora single glazed PV/T collector. The model
can generate results for hourly performance analysis, including instantaneous
thermal/electrical gains and efficiencies.

19
FUTURE POTENTIAL OF PV/TCOLLECTORS

(Hasan and Sumathy 2010)[2], the feasibility of the hybrid PV/T systems
is conditional on their technical and economic competitiveness with respect to
the alternatives. Fossil fuel-based energy resources are still dominant with the
highest share in global energy consumption but clean energy generation
becomes increasingly crucial due to the growing significance of environmental
issues. It is expected that the viability of the hybrid PV/T systems will be more
pronounced when the environmental costs of conventional electricity production
are difficult to be compensated. The researches carried out on PV/T systems
both theoretically and experimentally indicate that PV/T systems have a great
potential in order to have a higher percentage in the renewable market in the

20
near future. But, it is also noted that further research is needed to meet the
expectations.

A review of the available literature on liquid and air PV/

T collectors which covers the work of the last 25 years was
presented. The following conclusions have been reached:
It was found from analytical and numerical models that
PV/T efficiencies could range from over 70% for a perfect
collector and to less than 60% for a low quality collector.
Air PV/T collectors are generally less efficient than
liquid ones. Moreover, since the sheet and tube design is
the easiest to manufacture and is only 2% less efficient, it
is the most promising of design concepts.

21
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