CORROSION, FIRE PROTECTION AND FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS OF STEEL STRUCTURES

cycles and hence time taken to reach a pre-defined or a threshold failure criterion.
Fatigue failures are classified into two categories namely the high cycle and low cycle
fatigue failures, depending upon the number of cycles necessary to create rupture. Low
cycle fatigue could be classified as the failures occurring in few cycles to a few tens of
thousands of cycles, normally under high stress/ strain ranges. High cycle fatigue
requires about several millions of cycles to initiate a failure. The type of cyclic stresses
applied on structural systems and the terminologies used in fatigue resistant design are
illustrated in Fig. 16.

5.1 S-N Curves and fatigue resistant design

The common form of presentation of fatigue data is by using the S-N curve, where the
total cyclic stress (S) is plotted against the number of cycles to failure (N) in logarithmic
scale. A typical S-N curve is shown in Fig. 17.

290
Stress range in MPa (S)

260 S-N Curve

230
200
Endurance Limit
170
140
103 104 105 106 107
Cycles of stress for failure (N)

Fig. 17 S-N diagram for fatigue life assessment

log N = log C − m log S (5)

where ‘N’ is the number of cycles to failure, ‘C’ is the constant dependant on detailing
category, ‘S’ is the applied constant amplitude stress range and ‘m‘ is the slope of the S-
N curve. For the purpose of design it is more convenient to have the maximum and
minimum stresses for a given life as the main parameters. For this reason the modified
Goodman diagram, as shown in Fig. 18, is mostly used. The maximum stresses are
plotted in the vertical ordinate and minimum stresses as abscissa. The line OA represents
alternating cycle (R = -1), line OB represents pulsating cycle (R = 0) and OC the static

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load (R = 1). Different curves for different values of fatigue life ‘N’ can be drawn
through point ‘C’ representing the fatigue strength for various numbers of cycles. The
vertical distance between any point on the ‘N’ curve and the 450 line OC through the
origin represents the stress range. As discussed earlier, the stress range is the important
parameter in the fatigue resistant design. Higher the stress range a component is
subjected to, lower would be its fatigue life and lower the stress range, higher would be
the fatigue life.

5.2 Fatigue resistant design of structural steel work

It is seen from practical experiences that most of the fatigue failures are due to improper
detailing rather than an inadequate design of the member for strength. Let us consider a
lap joint using fillet weld as shown in Fig. 19. From the schematic stress diagram it is
seen that the fillet weld toe becomes a point of stress concentration. As a result, if the
joint is subjected to cyclic loads, the weld toe experiences a variation of larger stress
range compared to the parent member. Hence, a crack may be initiated at the weld toe
where there is stress concentration. This stress concentration can be eliminated by using
a butt welded joint, ground flush with the plate surface.

Fig.18 Modified Goodman diagram for fatigue resistant design of steel structures

It becomes very important to avoid any local structural discontinuities and notches by
good design and this is the most effective means of increasing fatigue life. Where a
structure is subjected to fatigue, it is important that welded joints are considered
carefully. Indeed, weld defects and poor weld details are the major contributors of
fatigue failures. The fatigue performance of a joint can be enhanced by the use of
techniques such as proper weld geometry, improvements in welding methods and better
weld quality control using non-destructive testing (NDT) methods. The following
general points are important for the design of a welded structure with respect of fatigue
strength: (a) use butt welds instead of fillet welds (b) use double sided welds instead of
single sided fillet welds (c) pay attention to the detailing which may cause stress
concentration and (d) in very important details subjected to high cyclic stresses use any
non-destructive testing (NDT) method to ensure defect free details. From the point of

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view of fatigue design, the codes of practice classify various structural joints and details
depending upon their vulnerability to fatigue cracks. For example, IS: 1024 classifies the
detailing in the structural steel work in seven classes viz., A, B, C, D, E, F and G
depending upon their vulnerability to stress concentrations. A typical detailing classified
as ‘E’ is shown in Fig. 20. This class ‘E’ applies to members fabricated with full
cruciform butt welds. Similarly, the class ‘F’ is applicable for members with ‘ T’ type
full penetration butt welds, members connected by transverse load – carrying fillet
welds and members with stud shear connectors in composite sections. Such a typical
detailing is shown in Fig. 21. The IS: 1024 (1968) provides allowable stress tables for all
the classifications from A-G for different stress ratios of R = Fmin/Fmax and different life
(number of cycles N). Using these tables the allowable stress for a given life time may be
linearly interpolated and the life time for a given allowable stress could be
logarithmically interpolated. The accuracy of any fatigue life calculation is highly
dependent on a good understanding of the expected loading sequence during the whole
life of a structure. Once a global load pattern has been developed, then a more detailed
inspection of particular area of a structure where the effects of loading may be more
important called the ‘hot spot stresses’ which are basically the areas of stress
concentrations.
Fillet Weld
Point of stress
concentration

σ
σ
>σ

Schematic stress diagram

Fig. 19 Stress concentration at the weld toe

Class E Stress
x refers to this
member

Load is transmitted
y directly through the
central plate

Fig. 20 Class ‘E’ detailing according to IS: 1024 (1968)

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Direction of applied stress

Weldement

Fig. 21 Class ‘F’ detailing according to IS: 1024 (1968)

In this chapter the three important aspects of structural steel work viz. the corrosion, fire
protection, fatigue behaviour have been reviewed. Aspects of corrosion, its mechanism
and means of protection of structural steel work have been discussed briefly. It was
shown that the risk to structural steel work by corrosion could be effectively handled
using the presently available technology. Aspects of fire resistant design of steel
structures were also reviewed. Finally the fatigue failure of structural steel work and the
importance of detailing in its prevention have been discussed.

7.0 FURTHER READING

1. Adams P.F., Krentz H.A. “Limit State Design in Structural Steel – SI Units”,
Canadian Institute of Steel Construction (1979).
2. Doran D.K., “Construction Materials Reference Book”, Butterworth Heinemann
(1995).
3. Graham W. Owens and Peter R. Knowles, “Steel Designer’s Manual”, ELBS fifth
Edition (1994).
4. Jack C. McCormac, “Structural Steel Design”, Harper & Row Publishers, NY (1981).
5. John H. Bickford , “ An introduction to the design and behaviour of bolted
joints”,(Second Edition), Marcel Dekker Inc., NY,(1990)
6. Radaj D, “Design and analysis of fatigue resistant welded structures”, Abington
Publishing, (1990).
7. IS: 1024 – 1968, Code of Practice for use of welding in bridges and structures
subjected to dynamic loading, Bureau of Indian Standards.

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