Chapter 4

Analog-to-digital converter (ADC),

Digital-to-analog converter (DAC)

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 Sampling
• Data conversion from analog to digital form or digital to
analog form is generally done continuously and
periodically.
• Sampling—process of picking one value of a signal to
represent the signal for some interval of time.
• Because ADC data conversion is generally a periodic
process, we will first analyze what happens when an
analog signal, x(t), is periodically and ideally sampled.
• The ideal sampling process generates a data sequence
from x(t) defined only at the sampling instants,
when t = nTs , where n is an integer and − ∞ < n < +∞ .

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 Sampling

•Ideal sampling process ADC. Ts—period between successive samples.

• Impulse modulation equivalent to ideal sampling

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 Aliased Signal
• If the sampling rate is not high enough, aliased
signal comes out.

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 Nyquist’s Theorem
• To avoid aliasing, the sampling rate must
be greater than twice the maximum
frequency component in the signal to be
acquired.

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 Quantization
• Once the analog signal sample has been
converted to digital form, it is represented by a
digital (binary) number of a finite number of bits
(e.g. 12), which limits the resolution of the
sample (one part in 4096 for 12 bits). This
rounding-off of the digital sample is called
quantization.

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 Quantization
• E.g. an analog signal whose values range from
0 to +10V. We wish to convert this signal to
digital form and the required output is a 4-bit
signal.
• We know that a 4-bit binary number can
represent 16 different values, 0 to 15. Then, the
resolution of this conversion = 10 V/15 = 2/3 V.
So, an analog signal of 0 V will be represented
by 0000, 2/3 V will be represented by 0001.

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 Quantization
• From the above assumption, all the
sample numbers were multiples of the
basic increment—2/3 V.
• There is a question raised—what is the
treatment when the conversion of numbers
that fall between these successive
incremental levels.

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 Quantization
• E.g. there is a 6.2 V analog level. This falls
between 18/3 and 20/3, which are
multiples of 2/3 V. Since 6.2 is closer to
18/3, which is 9 times of 2/3, we treat it as
if it were 6 V and code it as 1001. This
process is called quantization.

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 Quantization
• While sampling is done in the time domain,
quantization is performed in the amplitude
domain.
• The process of digitization is not complete until
the sampled signal is reduced to digital
information.
• The sampled signal is still in analog form.
Therefore, an ADC quantizes it by picking one
integer value from a predetermined, finite list of
integer values to represent each analog sample.

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 Quantization
• Normally, an ADC chooses the value
closest to the actual sample from a list of
uniformly spaced values. This rule gives
the transfer function of analog input-to-
digital output a uniform “staircase”
characteristic.

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• The ideal 3-bit quantizer has 8 possible digital outputs. The bottom
graph shows the ideal transfer function (a st. line) subtracted from
the staircase transfer function. 12
Analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
• An analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
converts real-world signals (usually
voltages) into digital numbers so that a
computer can:
– acquire signals automatically,
– store and retrieve information about the
signals,
– process and analyze the information,
– display measurement results.
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•The comparator—the essential building block of all ADCs.
(a) Comparator symbol. (b) Comparator I/O transfer function.
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 Types of ADCs
• There are 5 major types of ADCs:
– Flash (parallel) converters,
– Dual-slope, integrating converters,
– Successive-approximation converters,
– Tracking (servo) types,
– Dynamic range, floating point converters.
• The fastest ADCs are the flash converters. They
can convert 8 bits with a sampling period of less
than 1 ns. Such fast speed is useful for
measuring transient phenomena. E.g. Transient
events in particle physics and lasers.
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 Flash (parallel) converter
• Since Flash ADCs (FADCs) is simple-structured, they
are fast.
• A string of resistors between two voltage references
supplies a set of uniformly spaced voltages that span the
input range, one for each comparator. The input voltage
is compared with all of these voltages simultaneously.
• Comparator outputs = 1 for all voltages below the input
voltage
• Comparator outputs = 0 for all the voltages above the
input voltage.
• The resulting collection of digital outputs is called a
“thermometer code”.

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• A flash converter has 2n-1 comparators operating in parallel. 17
Flash converter (More Complicated example )

•3-bit flash ADC

with binary output.
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 Integrating converter
• Integrating converters are used for low-
speed, high-resolution applications such
as voltmeters. They are conceptually
simple, consisting of an integrating
amplifier, a comparator, a digital counter,
and a very stable capacitor for
accumulating charge.

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 Integrating converter
• The most common integrating ADC in use
is the dual-slope ADC. Its action is
illustrated in the next slide.

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 Integrating converter

• A dual-slope integrating converter uses a comparator to

determine when the capacitor has fully discharged.

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 Integrating converter

• At time 0, the input is switched to analog input and the switch across
the capacitor opens. After the capacitor is integrated, the input is
switched to the voltage reference to discharge the capacitor, and the
counter begins counting a known clock. The comparator turns off the
counter at time T2.

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 Integrating converter
• Dual-slope integrating ADCs (DSI-ADCs)
have the advantages of high inherent
accuracy (up to 22 bits output), excellent
high-frequency noise rejection. They are
widely used in inexpensive DC digital
instruments.

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 Digital-to-analog converter (DAC)
• A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) is an
integrated circuit (IC) device which converts an
N bit digital word to an equivalent analog voltage
or current. It allows digital information which has
been processed and/or stored by a digital
computer to be realized in analog form.
• After digitalization, a staircase waveform can be
smoothed by a low-pass filter. In this way, an
analog output signal is reconstructed.

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 Digital-to-analog converter (DAC)
• At sampling instants, the difference between
DAC output and the analog input signal is called
a quantization error.
• The quantization error of an ADC is equivalent
to ± ½ least significant bit (LSB).

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 Digital to Analog Conversion

A D/A Converter produces an analog voltage proportional

to the digital input.
Example:
 D/A designed to output 0 to 10 volts.
•  Input to D/A is an 8 bit digital value.
•  Digital value 0 produces a 0 volt output.
•  Digital value 1 produces a 1 x 10/256 volt ouput.
•  Digital value 2 produces a 2 x 10/256 volt output.
•  Digital value 255 produces a 255 x 10/256 volt output.
Typical 4-bit D/A Converter
 Parameters Affecting D/A
Converter Performance
 Output Range
•  The voltage difference between the max and
min output voltages of the D/A.
 Accuracy
•  Expressed as a percentage of the maximum
output voltage
•  Or as an error of the least significant bit
(e.g.,+1/2 LSB).
•  Expected amount of accuracy in actual output
based on digital input.