Section-24

Simple Bending Theory OR Theory of Flexure for Initially Straight Beams

(The normal stress due to bending are called flexure stresses)

When a beam having an arbitrary cross section is subjected to a transverse loads the beam will bend.
In addition to bending the other effects such as twisting and buckling may occur, and to investigate a
problem that includes all the combined effects of bending, twisting and buckling could become a
complicated one. Thus we are interested to investigate the bending effects alone, in order to do so,
we have to put certain constraints on the geometry of the beam and the manner of loading.

Assumptions:

1. The constraints put on the geometry would form the assumptions:

Let us consider a beam initially unstressed as shown in fig 1(a). Now the beam is subjected to a constant
bending moment (i.e. ‘Zero Shearing Force') along its length as would be obtained by applying equal
couples at each end. The beam will bend to the radius R as shown in Fig 1(b)

As a result of this bending, the top fibers of the beam will be subjected to tension and the bottom to
compression it is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that some where between the two there are points
at which the stress is zero. The locus of all such points is known as neutral axis . The radius of curvature
R is then measured to this axis. For symmetrical sections the N. A. is the axis of symmetry but what
ever the section N. A. will always pass through the centre of the area or centroid.

The above restrictions have been taken so as to eliminate the possibility of 'twisting' of the beam.
Concept of pure bending:

Loading restrictions:

As we are aware of the fact internal reactions developed on any cross-section of a beam may consists
of a resultant normal force, a resultant shear force and a resultant couple. In order to ensure that the
bending effects alone are investigated, we shall put a constraint on the loading such that the resultant
normal and the resultant shear forces are zero on any cross-section perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the member,

That means F = 0

since or M = constant.

Thus, the zero shear force means that the bending moment is constant or the bending is same at every
cross-section of the beam. Such a situation may be visualized or envisaged when the beam or some
portion of the beam, as been loaded only by pure couples at its ends. It must be recalled that the couples
are assumed to be loaded in the plane of symmetry.

When a member is loaded in such a fashion it is said to be in pure bending. The examples of pure
bending have been indicated in EX 1and EX 2 as shown below :
When a beam is subjected to pure bending are loaded by the couples at the ends, certain cross-section
gets deformed and we shall have to make out the conclusion that,

1. Plane sections originally perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the beam remain plane and
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis even after bending , i.e. the cross-section A'E', B'F' ( refer Fig
1(a) ) do not get warped or curved.

2. In the deformed section, the planes of this cross-section have a common intersection i.e. any time
originally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam becomes an arc of circle.
We know that when a beam is under bending the fibres at the top will be lengthened while at the
bottom will be shortened provided the bending moment M acts at the ends. In between these there
are some fibres which remain unchanged in length that is they are not strained, that is they do not
carry any stress. The plane containing such fibres is called neutral surface.

The line of intersection between the neutral surface and the transverse exploratory section is called
the neutral axisNeutral axis (N A) .

Bending Stresses in Beams or Derivation of Elastic Flexural formula :

In order to compute the value of bending stresses developed in a loaded beam, let us consider the two
cross-sections of a beam HE and GF , originally parallel as shown in fig 1(a).when the beam is to
bend it is assumed that these sections remain parallel i.e. H'E' and G'F' , the final position of the
sections, are still straight lines, they then subtend some angle q.

Consider now fiber AB in the material, at adistance y from the N.A, when the beam bends this will
stretch to A'B'

Since CD and C'D' are on the neutral axis and it is assumed that the Stress on the neutral axis zero.
Therefore, there won't be any strain on the neutral axis
Consider any arbitrary a cross-section of beam, as shown above now the strain on a fibre at a
distance ‘y' from the N.A, is given by the expression

Now the term is the property of the material and is called as a second moment of area of the
cross-section and is denoted by a symbol I.

Therefore

This equation is known as the Bending Theory Equation.The above proof has involved the
assumption of pure bending without any shear force being present. Therefore this termed as the pure
bending equation. This equation gives distribution of stresses which are normal to cross-section i.e.
in x-direction.

Section Modulus:

From simple bending theory equation, the maximum stress obtained in any cross-section is given as
For any given allowable stress the maximum moment which can be accepted by a particular shape of
cross-section is therefore

For ready comparison of the strength of various beam cross-section this relationship is some times
written in the form

Is termed as section modulus

The higher value of Z for a particular cross-section, the higher the bending moment which it can
withstand for a given maximum stress.

Theorems to determine second moment of area: There are two theorems which are helpful to
determine the value of second moment of area, which is required to be used while solving the simple
bending theory equation.

Second Moment of Area :

Taking an analogy from the mass moment of inertia, the second moment of area is defined as the
summation of areas times the distance squared from a fixed axis. (This property arised while we
were driving bending theory equation). This is also known as the moment of inertia. An alternative
name given to this is second moment of area, because the first moment being the sum of areas times

their distance from a given axis and the second moment being the square of the distance or .

Consider any cross-section having small element of area d A then by the definition

Ix(Mass Moment of Inertia about x-axis) = and Iy(Mass Moment of Inertia about y-axis) =

Now the moment of inertia about an axis through ‘O' and perpendicular to the plane of figure is
called the polar moment of inertia. (The polar moment of inertia is also the area moment of inertia).

i.e,
 J = polar moment of inertia

The relation (1) is known as the perpendicular axis theorem and may be stated as follows:

The sum of the Moment of Inertia about any two axes in the plane is equal to the moment of inertia
about an axis perpendicular to the plane, the three axes being concurrent, i.e, the three axes exist
together.