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tr[uf,d
Maahflmery

Jose R. Francisco
 Table of Comtemts

Lesson I
 Problems """ 43

Studentb Self-test """""'47

Lesson 2 HEAD LOSSES IN THE PIPELINE..."""""""""""" 51'

Introduction ................ """""""""""' 51
Lesson Obiectives """""52
Classifications of Losses """"""""""'52
1. Major Head Losses.."""""""' """""""""52
2. Minor Head Losses...""""""" """""""""52
Due to Friction """ 53
Equations for the computation of Major Head Losses
Lines ....-.....""""' 58
Equations for the computation of Minor Losses in Pipe
Determination of Major Loss and Minor Loss Combined """""""""""""'
60

flf" Sir" Specifications ...'...'.""' """"67

Problems """'71
Student s Self-test (Set A) """"'-""""73
Student's Seif-test (Set B) """""""""78

Lesson 3 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS .....................""""""""""""' 583I

Introduction ...'............ """""""""""'
Lesson Obiectives """"" 83
Definitions of Terms and Useful Information """" M
Kinds of Pumps """""""':"' """""""' M
1. Dynamic Pumps """"""""""' 84
2. Displacement Pumps """"""" 84
Classes of iynamic Pumps """""""" 84
Classes of Displacement Pumps """"' 84
nr,riJcoupfirg '...'........... """"""""""' 86
Categories ofltuia Coupling """""""' 87
TypilalPumpinglnstallation .."""""" """""""""" 87
iut.go.i", of PumPs """" 87
ip".Lf Classificati,on of Pumps Based on Suction Lift """""""""""""""' 88

Centrifugal PumPs """""' 89

Basic Parts of Centrifugal Pumps """ 89

Pump Brake Power urd Po*.' Losses """""""" 89

Power Losses """""""""m
Pump EfficiencY """"""" 90
Ct #"t".i.tics tf Centrifugal Pumps """""""""" 90
Types of Centrifugal Pumps """""""' 90
SuctionTypes """""""""' 91
Types of tmpeller for a Single-suction, Single-stage'
Volute-type Centrifugal Pump """"' 91

ClassificationofCentr'ifugalPumpsBasedonImpellerType.........'...,,.,.,,,92
Specific Speed of Centrifugal Pumps " ::""""""" """"""""""92
93
Derivation of Specific SpeJa Equation (English Unit) """"""""""""""""'
Derivation of Specific Speed Equation (SI Unit) """"""""""" 95
Characteristic Curves """n
Pump Basic Laws """""" 98

Relation of Pump Characteristics for Similar Pumps """""""' 98

'
 Affinity Laws.......... .........99
Pump Combinations andArrangements ............... 104
l. Pumps in Series ...................... 104
2. Pumps in Parallel .....,.............. lM
Key krms and Concepts to Remember ,............ .................. 107
Problems ..... 111
Student's Self-test ........ 115

Lesson 4 CAVITATION AI\D NET POSTTIVE

sucTIoN HEAD ......................................................... 119
Introduction .........-.-.... ..................... I 19
Lesson Objectives ....... 119
,zDefinition of Cavitation ..................... 120
Causes of Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps .........120
Bad Effects of Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps .................... 120
Factors Affecting Cavitation ...............20
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) ................. ......................121
Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA).... . .. ....121
Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR) ............. ... ....122
Solution for Cavitation Problem ........123
Cavitation Parameter .....123
Cavitation Limits of Centrifugal Pumps in Terms of SA ......... ..................124
Key Terms and Concepts to Remember ............. .......,.......... 131
Problems ..... 133
Studentb Self-test (Set A) ................ 135
Student s Self-test (Set B) ................ 137

Lesmn 5 RECIPROCATING PUMPS....................................... 143

Introduction................ ............,........143
Lesson Objectives .................:. ........143
Definitions of Terms and Other Useful Information ...............144
Types of Reciprocating Pumps ........144
Classification of Reciprocating Pumps in Terms of the Method of
Driving the Water Piston or Plunger.. ..................lM
Classification of Reciprocating Pumps in Terms of the Number of
Water Cylinders 146
Formulas 146
Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct-acting Reciprocating Pumps
over Centrifugal Pumps 148
Key Terms and Concepts to Remember ............. 154
Questions ond Topics for Library Research 157
Problems 159
Studentb Self-test 161

Lesmn 6

vtt
 Classification ofHydraulic Turbines .................... 164
Impulse Turbine .............1A
Reaction Turbine .......... ..................... 165
Types of Water Turbine Runner ....... 165
Specific Speed ............... 165
Ranges of Specific Speed ................. 166
Hydroelectric Power Plant .......... ..... 166
Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants .................167
Definitions of Terms and Other Useful Information ....-.....,..... 168
Determination of Effective Head for lmpulse Turbine ........... 169
Determination of Effective Head for Reaction Turbine ......... l7l
Design Equations ................... ........,..173
Hydraulic Turbine Effrciencies ..........175
Key Tbrms and Concepts to Remember ............. ..................185
Problems .....191
Studentb Self-test ......... 193

Lesson 7 GAS COMPRESSORS.....................r.......................... I 95

Introduction .................;.........r.......................... ..................... 195
Lesson Objectives ........ 195
DefinitionofGasCompressor .......... l%
Practical Uses of Compressed Air ............. ......... 196
Types of Gas Compressors................. ................. 196

Reciprocating Compressor............... ................... 198

Preferred Compression Curves ........200
Volumetric Efficiency of a Reciprocating Compressor ..........201
Displacement Volume of Reciprocating Compressor
Compressor Efficiency ..................203
Multi-stage Reciprocating Compressors............ ....,..,.............214
Three-stage Reciprocating Compressor ..............
...................222
Four-stage Reciprocating Compressor .............
......................224
Five-stage Reciprocating Compressor.............. ......................226
Problems .....233
Questions (For Library Research) ........,...........235
Studentb Self-test .........235

Design (Project) Problem 239

References 243
Answers to the Student's Self-test 245

vtrt
 ',,..,.#.

PRTNCIPLE,S Otr
trLUID trLO\M

lxrRooucrtoil
Lesson 1 reviews the principles of fluid flow including the basic fluid properties such
as density, specific volume, specific gravity, specific weight, and viscosity. lt also deals
with the Reynolds number, types of flows, continuity equation, Bernoulli's equation,
and the
three forms of head of fluid. lt discusses as well the derivation of the three forms
of head
and the total dynamic head (TDH) or external head of pumps, and presents a schematic
diagram of a typical pump installation. Sample problems accompany the discussion
of
each topic.

To further enhance the learning process, additional problems involving the principles
of fluid flow are provided for students to solve.

Lessox Oe.recrues
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
o define the basic properties of fluid;
o determine the types of flow of fluid using the Reynolds number;
o derive the three forms of head of fluid and the total dynamic head (TDH) or
external head of pumps using Bernoulli's equation;
o determine the total dynamic head of a pump; and
. solve problems involving the principles of fluid flow.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS AND OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION
gas form.
o Fluid machinery refers to machines that handle fluids in either liquid or
o rest or in motion.
Fluid mechaniis is the study of the behavior of fluids whether at
o Ftuid sfaflcs is the study of fluids at rest.
o Ftuid dynamics is the study of fluids in motion'
in motion'
o Hydraulics is the branch of science concerned with water or other fluids
o particles that easily
Ftuidsare substances which are capable of flowing, and have
move and change their relative position without separation of mass'
to an
o Ftuidsfatics is the study of fluids at rest orwhich have no velocity with respect
observer in a gravitationalfield.
o Mass is the absolute quantity of matter'
o weight is the force of gravity in a fluid or body which could be measured by a
weighing scale.
o Properties of water at 4oC and 1 atmosphere
r Density, P = 1 000 kg/m3 = 1 kg/l = 1'94 slug/ft3
I Specific weight, T= 9 810 N/m3 = 62'4lbltt3
r Specific volume, v = 0.001 m3/kg = 0'51546 ft3/slug
r Specific gravitY, SG = 1.0

PROPERTIES OF FLUID

1. Specific Weight is the force of gravity in a unit volume of a substance'

--- W, - m9
r-v- v
where T = specific weight of the substance, lb/m3, kgr/m3' N/m3
V = volume of the substance, In3, ft3
m = mass of the substance, kg, lb
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2, fps2
= 9.8066 m/s2
= 32.2fpsz

2. Densityis the mass per unit volume of a substance'

m
P=v
where P = density of a substance, kg/m3, lb/ft3
m = mass of the substance, kg, lb
V = volume of the substance, m3, ft3
reciprocal
3. Specific volume is the volume of a unit mass of a substance or the
of densitY.
V1
v=-=-
mp
 where v = specific volume of the substance, m3/kg, ft3/lb \
V = volume of the substance, m3, ft3
m = mass of the substance, kg, lb

4. Specific Gravity (SG) is the ratio of the specific weight of any substance to that
of water or the ratio of density of any substance to that of water.

SG= Y = P
Y* P*
where P= densitY of anY substance
p* = density of water = 1 000 kg/m3
y = specific weight of any substance
. T* = specific weight of water

5. Temperature is the measure of random motion of molecules of a fluid or system.

It is the thermal condition of fluid with reference to its ability to communicate
heat from one body to another body or fluid. lt is the measure of hotness and
coldness of a fluid.

Absolute temperature is the temperature of a fluid measured with respect to an

absolute zero, which is -460oF or -273oC.

t Common Temperafure Sca/es

a) Celsius Scale - scale used in the metric or Sl system of units

Basis: Freezing point of water 00c
Boiling point of water 100"c

b) Fahrenheit Scale - scale used in the English system of units

Basis: Freezing point of water 32oF
Boiling point of water 212.F

t Equations of Temperature

a) Fahrenheit to Celsius temperature

5
t"u =:(tF _32)
g,

b) Celsius to Fahrenheit temperature

t.' = 9t^ *32

5"
where t, = temperature of fluid, oF
t" = temperature of fluid, oC
. Common Sca/es Used in the Absolute Temperatures

a) Kelvin - an absolute scale used in the metric or Sl system of units

T*=t"+273

b) Degrees Rankine - an absolute scale used in the English

system of units
T*=tr+460
where Tx = absolute temperature of fluid, K
Tn = obsolute temperature of fluid, oR

6. Pressure is basically defined as the normal force per unit area.

,A F
o=-
a) Gauge pressure - the pressure of a fluid or system measured by
pressure measuring-instruments like a pressure gauge or manometer

r This pressure may be higher than or lower than the atmospheric

pressure.
r Gauge pressure that is lowerthan the atmospheric pressure is known
as vacuum pressure.

b) Absolute pressure - the pressure of a fluid or system with reference to

an absolute zero pressure

It is the pressure of a fluid or system including the atmospheric pressure.

P"u, =Pr,rtPn
where p,o" = absolute pressure, kPaa, psia
P"t, = atmosPheric Pressure, kPa, Psi
pe = gauge pressure, kPag, psig
r Negative (-) if pn of the fluid or system is greater than or higher than
the atmospheric pressure
r Positive (+) if ps of the fluid or system is lower than the atmospheric
pressure
.r Negative pressure (Rn) is also known as vacuum pressure.

c) Fluid pressure or hydrostatic pressure of fluid

r lt is the force exerted by the column of fluid per unit area.
r As shown in Figure 1.1 on the next page,

p=psh=yh or h=*=i

Flotd'M*{hlntry, ,Iste R, l'ransirnu:":

 where p = fluid pressure, kPag, psig
p = density of the fluid, kg/m3, lb/fts
y = specific weight of the fluid, kN/m3, lb/ft3
g = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.2fps2
h = depth of the fluid, or head of fluid, m, ft

T
I
h

Mi
Column of fluid

Figure 1.'1. Fluid Pressure

r Absolute pressure at the base of the fluid

Po = P"t, * Pn = Put, * P9h = Pr,* * yh-+ kPaa, psia

d) Atmospheric pressure - the force exerted by the column of atmosphere

per unit area at the surface of the earth

It is the intensity of force per unit area due to the weight of the
atmosphere.

e) Standard atmospheric pressure - the pressure of the atmosphere

measured at the surface of the earth near sea level

p",, = 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in. Hg

P,,, = 14.69 psi = 101.325 kPa = 1.03 kg/cm2 = 1.01 bar

p",, = 1.34 m of HrO = 33.91 ft of HrO

r When a fluid is at rest, the pressure at any boundary exerted by the

fluid (and on the fluid) will be perpendicular to the boundary.

P re ssu re-me a su ri ng I n stru me nts

a) Pressure gauge
o Bourdon gauge is the device most commonly used to measure pressure
commercially.
o The reference pressure in measuring the pressure of the system is the
atmospheric.
Lesson 1 PRINCTPLES OF FLUID FLOW 15
 Pressure gauge
(Bourdon tube)

SYSTEM

Figure 1.2. Pressure Gauge

b) Manometer - a Utube containing a liquid of known specific gravity, the surface

of which moves proportionally to changes in pressure

Types of Manometers

Opentype manometer is a manometer with an atmospheric surface in

one leg and capable of measuring gauge pressure.

Piezometer - the simplest form of manometer, it is a tube tapped

into a wall of a container or conduit for the purpose of measuring the
pressure

Pressure inside Pressure inside

the system is the system is
higher than T higher than
atmospheric atmospheric

Working Working
+Ps substance
substance
of the system of the system
Mercury

Figure 1.3. Open-type Manometer

Differential-type manometer is a manometer without an atmospheric

surface and capable of measuring only differences of pressure.

System B

Figure 1.4. Differential-type Manometer

6 | Guidebook in Fluid Machinerl' Jose R. Francisco
 7. Surface tension is the force of molecular attraction per unit length of free
surface. lt is a function of both the liquid and the surface in contact with the
liquid. Surface tension of liquid decreases as the temperature increases.
It is always tangent to the inter-face.

Fluid film

FL_*l
Figure 1.5. Surface Tension

oo-_dF or d=_
.F
dLL
where 6 = surface tension, N/m

a) Wetting liquid. A liquid is said to wet a surface in contact with it if the

attraction of the molecules to the sudace exceeds the attraction of the
molecules to each other.

Figure 1.6. Wetting Liquid

b) Non-wetting liquid. A liquid is said to be non-wetting if the attraction of

the other liquid molecules to each other is greater than their attraction
to the surface.
Tube

0
I

Figure 1.7. Non-wetting Liquid

Lesson 1 PRINCTPLES OF FLUID FLOW 17

 8' Compressibilityis the resistance of fluid to change its volume in
a confined
space. Compressibility of water usually affects the solution of practical
probrems in hydraurics onry by changing its unit weight.

Modulus of elasticity or butk modulus of the ftuid is the ratio of the

stress
(change of pressure) to the strain (change in volume divided
by the original
volume).
AP
'B =-t-l
/av\
('v./
where F = bulk modurus or modurus of erasticity of the fluid
F = 300 000 psi (for water)
V = originalvolume
AV = change in volume
Ap = change in pressure
The negative sign (-) accounts for the fact that as the pressure increases,
the volume decreases.
Ex' 1'11 Determine the percentage change in the volume of water if its pressure
is increased
by 30 000 psi.

Solution:
For water, F = 300 000 psi

From the equation of modurus of erasticity of the fruid,

t'av) ap=-|ffi
( so ooo \
or 10% decrease
lv,l=- B )=-o'tO
Note: The negative sign means decrease in volume.

9. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid. lt may

be defined
as the ratio of the shearing stress or force between adjacent layers
of fluid
to the rate of change of velocity perpendicular to the direction of motion.
lt
may also be defined as the property of a fluid that determines the
amount of
its resistance to a shearing stress.
Fluid layer

Shearing
area,A

_t Figure 1.8. Absolute Viscosity

Stationary layer

8 | Guidebook in Fluid Machinery

Jo19 R,.f.renciscq
 Absolute viscosity is defined as the unit force required to move one iayer of
a fluid at a unit velocity to another layer of the fluid which is at unit distance
from the first.
,1,

lt = a\t'
/dv

Absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity is the ratio of the fluid layer shearing
stress to that of the shear stress rate.

Shear strain rate is the ratio of the velocity of a particular layer to its
perpendicular distance from the stationary surface, and is constant for each
layer.
V.V
zy
According to Newton, the force F required to maintain a constant velocity Vo
of the upper (layer) surface is proportional to the area and the shear strain
rate.

F*At+) or F=FAt))

(to) shear stress (N/m'z;

u= =
shear strain rate (1/s)
(n= )
where t = shearing force or stress
V = velocity of fluid
y = distance perpendicular to flow
p = proportionality constant, known as absolute viscosity
z = distance between layers or plates

Other Derivation of Viscosity, trt

a) Points to consider:
. lf the distance between the plates and the relative velocity of the upper plate
to the lower plate are both kept constant, the force F required will be directly
proportional to the area of the moving plate.

F*A eq. 1

where A=shearingarea
F = shearirrg force

Lesson 1 PRINCIPLES OF I.LUID ['LO\\'19

 lf both the distance between the plates and the area of the moving plate are
kept constant, the force required will be directly proportional to the relative
velocity of the plates.

F*V eq.2

lf the relative velocity and the area of the moving plate are kept constant, but
the distance between the plates is varied, the force required will be inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. This arises from the fact
that as the distance between the plates decreases, the shear stress
increases.

r*1z eq. 3

Combiningeq. 1,2,&3,
AV
l-x-
z
lntroducing the proportionality constant, p,

-l--ul-l
/nv \
'\z )
Dividing both sides byA,
-r = ulTAV\
\z- )
I

where f : )= t = shearing stress between plates or layers

\A /
/V\
I : l= rate of shearing strain or linear velocity distribution in the fluid
\,)p proportionality constant, known as viscosity
=

Taking the value of p,

Lr=ti] =
shearing stress
rate of shearing strain
t:) t:)
b) Units of Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity (Sl, mks, & cgs)

N.s
-) Pa.s --+ Kg/m. s
m'
-
cgs
Dvne. s -
cm-
lb,. s
English -+ -= + Keyn
tn'

10 | Guidebook in Fluid MachinerY Jose R. Francisco

 Derivation'.

ll=-=
t:l N/m2
_, N.s = Pa.s
_
m/s m-
tYl m

mis') . s
u=[i] =
N/m2
m/s
_, N.s _
_
m-
(kg .

m'
_kg
m.s
t:) m

rr')
Lr = ['o j =
Dyne/cm2 Dvne.s -
=-r=POlSe
cm/s cm-
t:) cm

Dyne .s (9.cm/s') .s _
1=[i]= Pylg&d _
cm/s cm' cm'
g
cm.s
(:) cm

Conversion:
1 Poise=1g/cm-s 1 Dyne=19-cm/s2
1 Poise = 1 Dyne-s/cm2 1 Poise = 0.10 Pa.s
'1 Reyn
= 6.9 x '104 Poise

Derivation of 1 Poise = 0.10 Pa . s

N.S_, (kg . m/s') . s _ (1000 g) . (t OO cm/s') . s

1Pa.s=1 ) -l
m- m' (100 cm)'?

(o. cm/s'). s
_1000g.cm/s2.s =10t"
100 cm'
;'
cm-
.10 DYn",' t poise
= = 1o
cm-
Then, Poise = 0.10 Pa . s
1

1 CentiPoise = 0.0'1 Poise = 0.001 Pa . s

c) Units of Viscosity (English system of units)

rF )
_[n )_tb,ft' _tb,.s
-" (v\ fps
=\------J=----L
ftz
t-
\=) rt

rF )
t n I tb,/in2
' - tb,.
:' ;-s =Reyn + afterOsborne
=+-'-,'"
' fV) ipn in'
u Reynolds

l,) in

Lesson 1 PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW 111

 . 1 ReYn = '1 lbr-s/in2

fF) stug.fpsz
-iP- - slus
,, = --ln ,)

" [y) tp_r ft.s

l''l rt

Conversion:
1 Poise = 0'10 Pa-s
1 cP = 0.001 Pa-s
1 lb,-s/ft2 = 478.8 Poise = 47'88 Pa-s
1 Poise = 0.002089 lb,-s/ft2
1 Pa-s = 2.089 x 10-2 lb,-slft2
1 cP = 2.089 x 105 lb,-s/ft2

d) Kinematic viscosity is defined as the absolute viscosity divided by density'

It is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of a fluid to its mass density'
u
v=i-
o

Units of Kinematic Viscosity (sl or metric system of units)

ko. m/s2
"
.,-=-= - a' 'S - m'
;r N's/m2
" p kg/m3 kg/m3 s
Di,ng.* grcm/s2..
a*' ." c*' -'o
" - p g/cmt= g/cm3 ="*'
,-[= =stoke
s

lstoke=1cm2/s

Units of Kinematic Viscosity (English system of units)

lb,'s sluo . fps2 og
-+ t2
u fl' il'
- slugltt'- --;
ft2
V-----
p slug/ft'

Jose R. Francisco
12 | Guidebook in Fluid MachinerY
Sysfem of Units for Viscosity

1. Absolute Metric System

lPoise=1g/cm-s
lPoise=1Dyne-s/cm2

2. Absolute British System

1 poundal-s1ft2 = 1 lb./ft-s

Conversion: 1 Poise = 0.0672 poundal-s/ft2

l Poise =0.0672|b /ft-s

3. Absolute "gravitational" British System, or the Engineers' System

1lb-s/ft2=1slug/ft-s

Conversion: 1 Poise = 0.0020885 lb-s/ft2

1 Poise = 0.0020885 slug/ft-s

Note: 0.0020885 = 0.0672t32.17

4. Units of Kinematic Viscosity

Metric System: 1 stoke = 1 cm2ls

Conversion: 1 stoke = 0.001076 ft2ls

Methods of Obtaining Viscosity

1. Universal Saybolt Viscosimeter (kinematic viscosity)

v=0.0022t'-1'8
t'
where t' = Saybolt second
v = kinematic viscosity, stoke

Saybolt second is the time in seconds required for 60 cm2 of liquid to pass
through an opening of standard size.

u =(o.rrut'-191)ro"
I t'J
where v = kinematic viscosity, ft2ls

Lesson 1 PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW I13

t Note: For heavy oil, a Saybolt-Furol viscosimeter is used.

1 Saybolt-Furol = 10 . Saybolt Universal

2. Engler Viscosimeter

, =(o ,5Bt'-199)',0"
t' tl
where v = kinematic viscosity, ft2ls
t' = Saybolt seconds

3. Redwood Viscosimeter

u =(o.rrot'-l!9)ro"
t/
I
where v = kinematic viscosity, ft2ls
t' = Saybolt seconds

4. Helmholtz Equation for Absolute Viscosity of Water

0.01779
- 1+ 0.03368 r+o.ooo221(
where 1r = absolute viscosity, poise
t = temperature of water, oC

5. Grindley and Gibson's Equation forAbsolute Viscosity of Air

p = 0.0001 702(1+ 0 00329 t + 0.o0ooo 7 t'z )

where 1r = absolute viscosity, poise

t = temperature of air, oC

Ex. 1.21Using Helmholtz equation, determine the viscosity of water in Poise and slug/ft-s
for a temperature of 15.55"C. lf the density of water at this temperature is 1 gm/cm3,
determine the kinematic viscosity in both units.

Given: Water at a given condition

t = 15.55"C P = 1 g/cm3

Required:
The absolute viscosity, in Poise, and kinematic viscosity in both units

/
14 | Guidebook in Fluid Machinery Jose R. Francisco
Solution:
Using Helmholtz equation,

0.01779 0.01779
p=
1 + 0.03368t+ O.OOO221( 1 + 0.03368(15.55) + O.OOO221 (15.55)'z

p = 0.01128 Poise ANSWER

ln the English unit: 1 Poise = 0.0020885 slugift-s

p = (0.01128 Poise) (0.0020885 slug/ft-s/Poise)

p = 0.0000236 slug/ft-s

For Kinematic Viscosity,

0'0'1128 Poise
u=F= = 0.01128 stoke = 0.0000,l 214ft2ls
p 1glcm3

Ex. 1.31 Using Grindley and Gibson's equation, determine the viscosity of air for 60oF.
Specific weight of air is 0.0765 lb/ft3. Find the kinematic viscosity for both units.

Given: Air at a given condition

t = 60oF Y = 0.0765 lb/ft3

Required:
. The absolute viscosity using Grindley and Gibson's equation
o The kinematic viscosity for both units
Solution.
Using Grindley and Gibson's equation,

p = 0.0001 702(1+ 0.00329 t + 0.000007 t'?

)

where 1= 91oo -32)=15.56"c

9'
p = o.oo01 70211+ 0.0032e(1 5.56) + 0.000007(1 5.56)'?] = o OOO'' 8 Poise

ln the English unit: 1 Poise = 0.0020885 slug/ft-s

p = (0.00018 Poise) (0.0020885 slug/ft-s/Porse; = 37.59 x 10-8 slug/ft-s

tesson 1 PRINCIPLES OJ FLUID FLOW IT5''

 For Kinematic Viscosity,

,=f = =1.5g22x104 ft2ls

lstoke
\
v =(1.sgx104 ft2ls,I
/ - )=0.1a7 stoke
\0.001076ft,1s )

Ex. 1.41 No. 6 fuel oil has a viscosity of 300 SSU and a specific gravity of approximately 1 .0.
Determine the kinematic viscosity and absolute viscosity of the oil for both units.

Given: No. 6 fueloil

Lr = t'= 300 SSU SG = 1.0

Required:
The kinematic viscosity and absolute viscosity in both units

Solution:
a) For heavy oil, 1 SSF = 10SSU
where SSF = Saybolt Second Furol
SSU = Saybolt Second Universal
3oo SSU
t' - = 3o SSF
10

b) For English unit,

/
, =10.236t' o'
I T} =
[o'r.u(r.)-(# I,
o" = 6.13 x 1O
6
ft2ls

c) For Sl unit,

v = 0.0022t' -19 = o.oo22(30)-1! 0,006 cmr/s or stokes

t'\,30 =

d) Solving for the absolute viscosity, p = vp

where p = (1 000) (SG) = (1 000) (1.0; = 1 000 kg/m3 = 0.001 kg/cm3

Then, p = (0.006 cm2/s) (0.001 kg/cm3) = 6 x 10-3 g/cm-s or Poises

e) For English System,

1 Poise = 0.0020885 slug/ft-s

p = (0.006 Poise) (0.0020885 slugift-siPoise; = 1 .2531 x 10 5 slugift-s

16 | Guidebook in tr'luid Machinery Jose R. Francisco

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS AND OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION

a Viscometer or viscosimefer is a device used to measure the viscosity of a fluid.

a Hydrometer is a device used to measure the specific gravity of a fluid.
a Saybolt viscometer is the most commonly used device for determining the absolute
viscosity of liquids.
Saybolt Seconds Universal (SSU) is the Saybolt time used to measure the
viscosity of fluid.
Relationship between SSU and Kinematic viscosity
Let t = time, in seconds

r For t < '100 seconds,

195
SSU = O.22ot - t
-) in centistokes

r For t > 100 seconds,

135 -+ in centistokes
SSU = O.22Ot - t
o Conversion of SSU to centistokes, centistokes = 0.308(SSU - 26)
e Saybolt Seconds Furol (SSF) - another viscosity index
r 60 SSF = 600 SSU

Ex. 1 .51 The absolute viscosity of a fluid at atmospheric condition is 6 x 10-3 kg,-s/m2. Find
this viscosity in
a) Reyn
b) Poise
c) lb,-s/ft2
d) Pa-s
Solution:
a) For the viscosity in Reyn,

x 1o 3
u=
[u Y= )t-# )t-*; tTffi'l
=8.535 x 106 =g.535 x 106 Reyn
F
b) For the conversion to Poise,

u =[u * ro'ks*, ourru] .r=0.05886 pa .s

)tru)=o
p=0 05886 r, .'[##=)=o uuuu Poise

Lesson I PRII{CIPLES Or FLUID FLOW 117

l c) For the conversion to lb,-s/ft2

2'205 lb'll''
'u=|.o
I m' /l lkg J[3.28f1 ,| =1.22stx1s,!!+
x 103!9+)f
ft'

d) For the conversion to Pa-s

ks'='s
', =lo x 10',
m' l[ggU)=0.05886 {m' ..=0.05886 pa. s
[. J[ trs, )

Ex. 1.61 Given a fluid with an absolute viscosity m between 1-m2 surfaces spaced 1 mm
apart, find how fast the surfaces will move relative to each other if a 10-N force is applied in
the direction of the surfaces when m is
a) 0.001 N-s/m2 (water)
b) 0.100 N-s/m2 (a thin oil at room temperature)
c) 10.0 Pa-s (syrup; cold oil)
d) 108 Pa-s (asphalt)
Solution:
F= 10N \/

z=1mm

a) Solving for the relative velocity if p = g.96', N-s/m2

"
=
[i)[; )= [i*] )t-m** )=, 0,,.
b) Solvin! for the relative velocity if p = 6.100 N-s/m2

"
=
[i)[;)= (1#)(-#fl+* )=
o'o m/s

c) Solving for the relative velocity if p = 10 Pa-s

*,.
[i I; ) (i# )(#*!,*
= = =o oo,
" ]

d) Solving for the relative velocity if p = 108 Pa-s

[#)[#H#)=,0 ",,,
, =(il;)=

l8 | Guidebook in Fluid Machinery Jose R. Francisco

Ex. 1.7] Mercury at 20oC has a viscosity of 1 .58 x 10-2 Poise. What is the force necessary
to maintain a relative velTitV of 2 m/s between two plates that are separated by 10 cm and
* 'rt or. pa s
't'm')
whose area is 0.10 m2? | 1 Poise = 0.,10 - l

A = 0.10 m'

z=0.10m

Solving for the force necessary to maintain the relative velocity,

N
'=.Slli[o.to m'(2
' m/s)-l
'l=0.00316N
'=u[])=[,ru'x103 m' JL 010m ]

REYNOLDS NUMBER

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter used to determine the type

of flow of fluid.
The Reynolds number equation is as follows:

R"=YDV=PDV
ir g l.r

where y = specific weight of fluid, N/m3, lb/ft3

p = density of fluid, kg/m3, lb/ft3
p = absolute viscosity, poise, Pa-s, gm/cm-s, slug/ft-s
D = internal diameter of the pipe, m, ft
V = velocity of fluid, m/s, fps
t r 3:r"r1".'1ff:11:,nJ3,"'"' m/s2' rPS2

TYPES OF FLOW OF FLUID

1 . Laminar flow is the type of flow of fluid in which the fluid pafticles move along straight,
parallel paths in layers or laminae, in which R" . 2 000 -+ low velocity.

Figure 1.9. Laminar Flow

Lesson I PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW 119

 2. Turbulent flow is the type of flow of fluid in which the fluid particles move in a
haphazard fashion in all directions. lt is impossible to trace the motion of an individual
particle because of its high velocity and variable direction.

,4! :} liti 2iitei.:i{,*it i

R" , 4 000 high velocitY

Figure 1.10. Turbulent Flow

3. Criticalflow (transitional flow) is the combination of laminar flow and turbulent flow.

R"=20001o4000

CONTINUITY EQUATION

Continuity equation is an equation derived from the first law of thermodynamics

for a steady flow, open system. lt is used to determine the mass flow rate and volume
flow
rate of fluid.

1. Massflowrate, m = PAV= PQ

2. Volume flow rate, Q = A V

where m = mass flow rate, kg/s

p = density of the fluid, kg/m3
A = cross-sectional area, m2
= velocity of the fluid, m/s
o = volume flow rate, m3/s

Ex. 1.Bl Air having a density of 1 .01 kg/m3 and an absolute viscosity of .79 x 104 Poise
'l

(1.7g r10-5 pa-s) flows through a 30.48-cm diameter pipe at the rate of 1814.0 kg/hr.
Determine the type of flow existing in the pipe.

Given: Air flowing inside a PiPe

m=1814.0kg/hr
P = 1.01 kg/m3
D = 30.48 cm
p = 1.79 x 10-a Poise = 1.79 x 10-5 Pa-s

Jose R. Frencisco
20 I Guidebqok in, Fluid ftIachinery
Required:
The type of flow of fluid inside the pipe

Solution:
For the volume flow rate,

(1l14ko/hr)f -1 hr )
"'l36oosJ=o.5om3/s
e=[-'
p 1.01 kg/m'

For the air velocity,

+(o'sm'ls)-
v=9= a9 - =6.85m/s
A nD2 n(O.SO+a m)'

For the Reynolds number,

(t ot t<grT'l(13-91-.8r)-(-o as mrs)
R" = =1fi 807.8
+ =

Since 117 807.8> 4000, ihe type of flow is turbulent.

Ex. 1.91An irrigation pump delivers water through a 15-cm horizontal pipe flowing full at the
outlet, the jet striking the ground at a horizontal distance of 3.66 m and at a vertical distance
of 1.22 m from the end of the pipe. Find the capacity of the pump in lpm.

Given: A figure shown

D=15cm

Required:
The pump capacity, lpm

Lesson 1 PRINCTPLES OF FLUID FLOW l2l

Solution:
Considering the vertical distance,

y = Vrt + 0.5 g t?, where Vu = 0

2y
Then, t = g eq. 1

Considering the horizontal distance,

x=V,t -+ V,^=I eq'2

t
Substituting eq. 1 in eq.2,

=7.34 mls
2(1 22)

For the pump capacity,

Q=An =(;)o'n = rcf (7.34)= 0 12er m'/s = 7782 tpm

[; ),.
HEAD OF FLUID

Head of fluid is the height to which a column of fluid must rise to contain the same
amount of energy as contained in one unit weight or mass of fluid under the conditions
being considered.

Forms of Head
1. Potential or actual head is a head based on the elevation of the fluid above
some arbitrarily chosen datum plane.
2. Kinetic or velocity head is a measure of the kinetic energy contained in a unit
mass of the fluid due to its velocity and is given by the familiar expression for

kinetic E .

"n"rgy, zg
3. Pressure head is the ener-gy contained in the fluid as a result of its pressure

and is equal to P = P
pg Y
.

22 | Guidebook in Fluid Machinery Jose R. Francisco

BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

. Bernoulli's equation is an equation used to determine the head of fluid. To derive the
three forms of head, consider the piping line shown in Figure 1 .11 as a steady flow,
open system.

Figure 1.11. Bernoulli's Equation

Considering an ldeal Flow

Applying the first law of thermodynamics for a steady flow, open system, and considering
that energy losses are negligible:

Energy Entering the System = Energy Leaving the System + Energy Loss

E,* = Enu, * E.o"" , but E.o.. = 0 (for ideal system)

U, * E,, * P, * K, + Q = U, * E,r* Pr+ K, + W

where Q = heattransfer= 0 (adiabaticprocess)

W = shaft work = 0 (piping line only)
U, = internal energy of mass entering the system
U, = internal energy of mass leaving the system
U, = U, and t., = t,
P, = potential enerEy of mass entering the system
P, = potential energy of mass leaving the system
K., = kinetic energy of mass entering the system
Kz = kinetic energy of mass leaving the system
E,. = flow energy of mass entering the system
E,, = flow energy of mass leaving the system
Ero.. = energy loss between boundaries

Lesson I PRINCTPLES OT FLUID FLOW 123

 Then, E,, * P. * K, = E,+ Pr+ K,

prV,+
v:
sr,*:;=Pzvz*gzr+:?,
v:
butv, = v2 and Pt= Pz= P

D.
-' + g Z, + -! p"+ oZ^ * ---:-
V,'= !-- v:
p 2 P "' 2

D^ -D.
12 11 +g(zz-2.\+ V" -V.
p t=,
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 1/9,

Pr-P, +(z^-=.1*Vi-Vl
\z =g, but y=pg
pg 29

P, - P, + (z^ -Vl
Y 'z - r"1*Vi
" 29 =g

-
v29 :Vi
Pz Pr
*Vi * (2, -2.,) = 0 -+ Bernoulli's equation

AHo*AH*+AH.=0

(Ho, - Ho,) * (Hn, - H*,) * (H,r- H,,) = o

where AH^P =
Pz - Pr
= change in pressure head, m
^,
't

H. =P=pressurehead,m
Y

AH" =
v::v? =changeinvelocitYhead, m
"29
H"=9=velocityhead,m
"29
AH. = (=, - =,) = change in static head' m
Hz= z = static head, m

r "Neglecting friction, the

Statem ent of Bernoulli's equation for ideatsysfem:
total head, or the total amount of energy per unit weight or mass, is the same
at every Point in the Path of flow."

Jose R. Francisco
24 | Guidebook in Fluid MachinerY
Considering an Actual Flow

e ln an actual flow system, energy losses are considered, and the first law of
thermodynamics for a steady flow, open system is applied.

U, + E,1 * P, * K,, + Q = U, * E,r* Pr* K, * W * E.,,

where Er,r= energy losses between 1 & 2

rhen, *, - z,\+E,,a = 6
t"* ).[,qt ).
AHr+AHn+AH,+H.=0; H, = head losses, m

r Sfafement of Bernoulli's equation if friction is considered: "With continuous,

steady flow, the total head at any point in a stream is equalto the total head
at any downstream point plus the head loss between two points."

Ex. 1.101A pipe 200 m long slopes down as shown, 1 in 100, tapers from 0.80-m diameter
at the higher end to 0.40-m diameter at the lower end, and carries 100 lps of oil
(SG = 0.85). lf the pressure gauge at the iower end reads 50 kPa, determine the velocities
at the two ends and the pressure at the higher end. Neglect all losses.

G itten : A pipeline shown

D, = 0.80 m D, = 0.40 m SG = 0.85

Q = 100 lps P, = 50 kPag L=200m

' = 100
Slooe

Required:

The values of V,, V, and p,

Solution:

Solving for the value of 2,, consider the triangle shown.

,121
SrnA=-=-
Jr +
1r oo)' 2oo

Then, r,=,4:=1.999m =2m

J, * (100 )'z

Lesson I PRINCTPLES OF FLUID FLOW 125

 Solving for the velocity of fluid at point 1 ,

o4Q
'1 A, [D.,'

Solving for the velocity of fluid at point 2,

O4Q = 0.80 m/s

A2 frDr' n(0.+o m)'

Forthepressuregaugeatpoint'l,considerBernoulli'sequation

Pz-P-r +v: -v: + (2" - z.\ = o

pg 29

Then, Pl = P"9[:2g
- [v,'-v.' +(2,-r,)1*pr,
. ', where po = density of oil
)
I
p, = (o 85)(1 ooo)(e 8066)LqT##. (o -2)l* 5 0000
I

P, = 33 583.95 Pag = 33'6 kPag ANS WER

pressure of water flowing at a velocity

Ex. 1.111 At a point in a horizontal pipeline, the
where the pipe has a smaller section'
of 4.6 m/s is 117.3 kPaa; at another point close by,
the pressure is 110.4 kPaa.
a)Neglectinglosses,findthevelocityofflowatthesecondpoint.
bi lf the head loss is 0.20 m, find the velocity at the second point.
Given:A PiPeline shown

Pr= 110.4 kPaa

V, = 4'6 m/s
P, = 117'3 kPaa

Required:

a) Find V, if losses are neglected'

b) lf H. = 0.20 m, find Vr'

Jose R. Francisco
26 | Guidebook in Fluid MachinerY
 Solution:

a. Solving for velocity V, use Bernoulli's equation

Pr -- - V,' - Qz -- -Yr'
pg -1 29 pg -2 29

where p = 1 000 kg/m3 and z, = z,

Then, Vr=
2(p,-?r) .,,,
_+Vl - I
bn173rr-11c4rr
'tAAz ^

p \ 1000

V, = 5'91 m/s ANSWER

b. Solving for V, if H. = 0.20 m, use Bernoulli's equation

Pr---V'-Qz,-,Vr'
a---='- +Z_ -- *H,
pg'29pg'29
-aL,

Then, %=Vff+Y''-ZgH-
lztlt 3oo - 1 1o 4oo )

u = + 4 6? - 2(9'8066)(0'20) = 5'57 m/s

Vff

TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD OF A STEADY FLOW, OPEN MACHINE

USING BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

o Whenever problems involving fluids (liquid, vapor, and gas)are encountered, always
remember the first law of thermodynamics defined by the general energy equation.
This general energy equation is the most important equation in thermodynamics.
o Consider Figure '1 .12 (general energy diagram of a steady flow, open system).

Figure 1.12. Steady Flow, Open Sysfem

Lesson I PRINCIPLES OT FLUID FLO\\'I27

 r From the first law of thermodynamics for a steady flow, open system, energy
entering the system is equalto energy leaving the system.

E,* = Eor, + Energy loss between boundaries

U, * Eu * K, * P1 t Q = U, * E,r* Kr+ P2 t W * Ero.,

where 1 stands for the system entrance

2 stands for the system exit
U = internal energy, kW, = U., = U, if lr= t,
E, = flow energy, kW
p = pressure, kPaa
v = specific volume, m3/kg
m = mass flow rate, kgis
P = potential energy, mgz, kW
K = kinetic energy, kW
V = velocity of the fluid, mis
Q = heat transfer, kW
o lt is positive (+) if transferred to the system.
I lt is negative (-) if rejected by the system.
W - shaft work of the system
o lt is positive (+) if work is done by the system.
. lt is negative (-) if work is done to the system.
E.o.. = energy losses between 1 & 2, kW

r solving for w, and considering that e = 0 and density is constant,

W = (Eiz - Eu) + (K, _ K,) + (p, _ p,)

vv =,f P.:&).[;)tn, -v,)* ms(zz-Z,)*E,.".

t
Dividing both sides of the equation by mg,

- p, '1.,'
%'a V' )* ,r,
l- [p,
mg =
1. pg
|
29
_ z, ) +
"
Ero=.

/I )'' mg

where AHo = q+ = change of pressure head, m

pg

AH* =
v:-:i velocity head, m
= change in
2g
AH, = (=, - change in static head, m
=,) =
Eto"
H. = =head loss between 1& 2, m
mg
W
= TDH = totaldynamic head, m
mg
-
28 | Cuidebook in Fluid Machinery Jose R. Francisco
 Therefore, TDH = AHo + AH* + aH. + HL (Bernoulli's equation)

t Total dynamic head (TDH) is head corresponding to the energy input to the
system, m.

EXTERNAL HEAD REQUIRED FOR PUMP (OR BLOWER)

Figure 1 .13 shows a typical installation of a pumping system.

Elbow

Elbow
Gate valve Datum
,]
)" 1\ J.l
T--l
Pump

Foot valve
& strainer

Figure 1.13. Pumping System/lnstallation

Using Bernoulli's equation, consider pointAto point B and the datum line is at the
pump centerline.

Ho+TDH=Hr*H.o,

where Ho = Po .52-
"pg?gA' tzo -totalhead at point A, m

o Negative (-) sign is used if pointA is below the pump centerline (datum line).
o Positive (+) sign is used if point A is above the pump centerline (datum line).

Pt . g + Zo =totalhead at B, m
Ho
" = pg 29
Po = atmospheric pressure if the source is open to the atmosphere
p, = atmospheric pressure if the discharge reservoir is open to the
atmosphere
Vo = V, = velocities of fluid = 0
H*, = head loss from point A to point B [head loss due to friction (h,)
and due to turbulence (hr)I, m
H.or=H.o',*Hrr.
Hro.,= head loss from point A to point 1 , m
H.r, = head loss from point 2 to point B, m

Lesson I PRTNCTPLES OF FLUID FLOW 129

 For T,rtal dynamic head,

TDH = (zu+ z,) o H-n,

Note for the pumping system/installation shown in Figure 1 .'1 3:

1. The datum line is the centerline of the pump. Vertical distance below the
datum line has a negative (-) sign.
2. The reference pressure is the atmospheric pressure. At sea level, it is zero
psig or 14.7 psia or 101 .325 kPaa. Pressure above the atmospheric pressure
has a positive (+) sign and a negative (-) sign for vacuum.
3. All losses of head due to friction, turbulence, etc. in the suction line have
negative (-) signs; and all losses due to friction, turbulence, etc. in the
discharge line harre positive (+) signs.
4. In the equaticn of TDH above, a positive (+) sign is used if point A is below
the pump centerline and a negative (-) sign is used if point A is above the
punlp centerline.
5. zo is calle<J static suction head when point A is above the pump centerline;
ancl zo is callecl static suction litt if point A is below the pump centerline.

THEORETICAL POWER GF A PUMP

" The theoreticat power input of the pump is obtained by using the equation

pg0rTDH)
wP =
1 000

where WP = theoi'etical power of the pump (or water power), kW

TDH = total dynamic head or the purnp head, m
a = pump discharge rate, m3/s
p = densitY of the fluid, kg/rn3
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
= 9.8066 mis2

BRAKE POWER OF THE PUMP

Brake power of the pump is the theoretical power divided by the pump efficiency,
"
and obtained by the equation

or--[-
---WP-PgQ(TDH)
looon

where BP = pump brake power, kW

1l= pump efficiency

30 | Guidebook in Fluiil N{athinery Jose R. Francisco

 Ex. 1.121 What power is required to pump 40 lps of waterthrough a '100-mm pipe from a
pump to a point 10 m above. The figure is shown below. Assume an overall efficiency of
65%. Determine the pressure intensities at points 1 and B. Neglect losses.

G iven: The figure shourn

Q=40 lps
D, = D, = 100 mm = 0.'10 m
n=65%

I Required:
The pump brake power and the pressure at points 1 and B
I

Solution:
I
'1
Solving for the velocity at point and point 2,

ao 4f\o.o4 mr/s)/=5.093m/s=%
I
V, =---I-
nD? r(0.10 m)'z
i

'
Solving for the total dynamic head (TDH),

TDH = Hu - Ho * H,^, Z.= zo+ zB = 10 m

where Hro, = 0

Solving for the water poll/er (WP) or pump theoretical power,

pgo(rpH) _ 1000(e.8066)(0 04)(10)

wp = = 3.e23 kW
1 000 1 000

Solving for the pump break power (BP),

WP ANSWER
BP = -3'923 = 6.035 k\l/
q 0.65

Lesson 1 PRINCTPLES OF FLUID FLOW 131

 For the pressure at point 1, consider line from point A to point 1.

Using Bernoulli's equation,

Ho=H.,*H*,
Po * Vo' -, = P, * V+z_+U,.^
I LA
pg 29 pg 29

where H.,o = 0 Vo=o

PA = 0 kPag 2.,=o

Then, solving for p.,

.#)=
o, = -oo[z^ -(1 000)(e Booor[e.
#Hr]
pj= 42389.12 Pag - 42.4 kPag ANSWER

For the pressure at point 2, consider point 2 to point B.

Using Bernoulli's equation,

Hr=Hr*Hrru
pn Vo2
_z^ =P, *V' +2.
*
pg 29' -1 "L.A
+H,
pg 29

Then, z = pnf r, - 29
, ,,v.,, rpz
E)
)

p, = (1000)(e 806r,[, 55 676 88 Pag = 55.7 orrn ANSWER

#ffi]=
Checking: Consider point 1 to point 2.

TDH=H, -H, *H.,, =P.*

x k-x=?
(55 676.88 + 42 389.12)
TDH = = 1 0m
1000(e.8066)

l,? I Giiietebgo* in Fluid: tlachlnerf Jose R. Francisco

Ex. 1.131 A pump draws water from reservoir A and lifts it to reservoir B as shown in the
figure. The loss of head from A to 1 is three times the velocity head in the 15.24-cm pipe
and loss of head from 2 to B is 20 times the velocity head in the 101 .6-mm pipe. The pump
discharge rate is 40 lps. Determine the following:
a) Pump head
b) Pump theoretical power
c) Pump brake power if the purnp efficiency is 7g%
d) Pressure head at point 1
e) Pressure head at point 2
Given: Pump system shown

Q = 40 lps H.o, = .[*)

Za=36m
*rr, =',(Y)

Dr = 15.24 cm
Required: Pump
a) TDH
b) Pump WP
c) BP if pump efficiency isTB%
d) Pressure head at point 1

e) Pressure head at point 2

Solution:

Solvingforthevelocityatpoint1,v=#=ffi=2.19mls

Solving for the velocity at point 2, V, 1a, =

= nDr' 1(0'04) = 4.93 m/s
n(0.1016)'z"

a) Determination of the pump head, TDH

TDH = zu-zo* Hro,

where Hro. = H*, * H.r.

**,=,[#)=,[##6]=0,.",
H.,, = rrlf)= rr[#ffif= ro r, *
Lesson I PRINCTPLES OF FLUID FLOW 133
 Therefore, TDH = 36 - 6 + 0.73 + 24.78= 55.51 m ANSWER

b) Solving for the pump theoretical power or water power,

pso(TpH) _ 1000(e.8066)(0.04)(55.51)
wp = =21.77 kW ANSWER
1 000 1 000

c) Solving for the pump brake power,

wP -21 '77
Bp = = 27 .91k\N ANSWER
n 0.78

d) Solving for the pressure head at point 1, consider pointAto point 1.

Using Bernoulli's equation,

Ho=H,,*H.o,
Po
Y aze P, * Y,'+2, *Hi".
*
pg29^pg29
= 15.24 cm

where Vo =0 pA=0kPag
z, =0
Then.

H", =ft =ze-[X.,.^,)=. ANSWER

[#*#.0'Z3]=503m
e) Solving for the pressure head at point 2, consider line from point 2 to poini B.

Using Bernoulli's equation,

D" v.2 +z-.='p.- * 'l'l?
3+' uu +z- +H,..
pg29'pg29

where VB =Q PB = 0 kPag
7
'z -0

P' (4'93)'z
Therefore, P'=
H^,
pg
= Zo * H,
", -Y29 =36+24.78-
2 (e.8066)
= 59.54 m ANSWER

34 | Guidebook in Fluid Machinery .lose R. Francisco

Ex. 1.141 A pump discharges 126 lps of brine (sG = '1.2). The pump inret, 304.8 mm in
diameter, is at the same level as the outlet, 203.2 mm rn diameter. At the inlet, the vacuum
is 152.4 mm of mercury. The center of the pressure gauge connected to the pump discharge
flange is 122 cm. This gauge reads 138 kPag. For a pump efficiency of 83%, what is the
power output of the motor?

Given: A pump as shown

SG = 1.2 Q = 126 lps

D, = 304.8 mm
D, = 203'2 mm
n =83%
9r= 138 kPag
-I
p = 1 000(1 .2) = 1200 kg/m3
pi = -152.4 mm Hg = -20.318 kPag
Required.
The motor power output

Solution:
Solving for the velocity at point 1,
o\o,,ru,,u
v =+ =
TtD.- n(0.3048)'
=1.727 mts

Solving for the velocity at point 2,

4(0'126)-
frDr'=x(0'2032)'
%- = 10, =3.885 mis

Solving for TDH using Bernoulli's equation,

TDH = (H, - H1) * H,,r, where H.,, = 0; z,=0

v,')
Therefore, TDH =(,P1_PJ *(v; * + (zr-2,)
pg 29

rDH= i??999i'-9?19
(1200)(e.8066)
.Q:}t:!!Zt
2(e.8066)
+122=15 2e m

Solving for the theoretical power of the pump,

psolTDH) _ 1200(e.8066)(0.126)(15.2s)
wp = =22.67 k\N
1 000 1 000

Lesson I PRTNCTPLES OF FLUID FLOW I35

 Solving for the PumP brake Power'

BP=WP = 22.67 = 27.31kW

11 0.83

is directly coupled'
For the motor power output' if motor
ANSWER
MP = BP = 27 '31 k\N

a 30-kW motor'
Note: For standard size of motor' use

A STRAIGHT PIPE
HEAD LOSS DUE TO FRICTION OF
pipe is obtained using the equation
Headloss due to friction in a straight
LV2
H. =f
o zs

m
where H. = head loss due to friction'
f = friction factor
m
L = length of a straight PiPe,
of the m
D = inside diameter PiPe,
= velocity of fluid, m/s
mis2
g = acceleiation due to gravitY,
= 9.8066 m/s2

Ex.1.15]lnapumpingsystemhandlingwater,theleve|inthesuctiontankis3mbelowthe
the pump shaft
in the discharge tank is 21 m above
pump shaft centerline-; ano the level
in diameter and together with its
valves and fittings is
centerline. The inlet piping is7 .62cm
with its
pipe. The discharge line' 6'35 cm in diameter'
equivalent to 26 m of strJignt steel delivers 7'1 kw
of straight steel pipe. lf the motor
valves and fittings, is equivale nltoTzm Assume
to the pump shaft, il;l; in" pr*p etrlc5lgVior a discharge rate o'f 12'6lps?
pipe is 0'024'
that the friction factor for a steel
B

Given: Awater PumPing sYstem

zo =3m
a=
tB 21 m
za= 21 m
D, =7'62cm Dr= 6.35 cm
L" =26m L. = 72m
o

f = 0.024 O= 12.6 lps

BP = 7.1 kW
zo= 3m

Required:
The PumP efficiencY
Jose R. Francisco
36 | Guidebook in Fluid llachinerl'
Solution:

Solving for the velocity at point 1, V g = Ilyz

= ltu; = 2.763 mls
r.10.0762)'

4(0'0126)
Solving for the velocity at point 2, v, = ftuz'
1a, = = 3.979 m/s
n(0.0635)'

Solving for the head loss from point A to point '1

,

rh# 024,[#
H,. = = (0
)[#ffi] =.,n,
Solving for the head loss from point 2 to point B,

H,,, =,+E= oz+rfZ r, nr,

ro
[*m] =

Solving for the TDH of the pump,

TDH = (r, * ro) * H.o, = (21+3)+ (3.1 I + 21.97)= 49.16 m

Solving for the theoretical pump power,

pgo(rpH) _ 1000(e.8066)(0.0126)(4e.16)
wp = = 6.07 kw
1 000 1 000

Solving for the pump efficiency,

n=
H(1
oo%) =Y(1 oo%) = 85.4eoh

FLUID MACHINERY

Fluid machinery is an equipment capable of handling fluid, either moving the fluid or
moved by the fluid.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF FLUID MACHINERY

1. Pumps
a)Centrifugal Pumps
. Centrifugalflow
o Propeller or axial flow
. Mixed flow
. Peripheralflow
Lesson I PRINCTPLES OF FLUID FLOW 137
 b) Rotary Pumps
o Screw-type PumP
o Gear-type pump
r Cam-type pump
o Vane-type pump
c) Reciprocating PumPs
o Direct-acting PumP
o lndirect-actingpump(Power-driven)
d) Deep-well PumPs
. Reciprocating PumP
o Air lift
o lnjector centrifugal PumP
o Turbine type
2. Hydraulic Turbines
a) lmpulse Turbines
o Pelton wheel
b) Reaction Turbines
. Radialflow Francis
o Mixed flow Francis
o Axialflow
r Kaplan - adjustable blades
r Propeller - fixed blades
3. Fans and Blowers

4. Compressors
a) Centrifugal comPressors
b) Reciprocating comPressors
c) Rotary compressors
5. Fluid coupling and torque converter - pump and turbine built together to transmit
power smoothlY.

Note:
The above-listed machines (except the positive displacement pumps) are called
turbo machrnes. ln the turbo machines, there is a change of momentum in
moving fluid; force is exerted on the vanes (blades, runner); and work is done
by the displacement of the vane. The analysis of turbo machines involves the
principles of fluid dYnamics.
ln the case of axial flow, centrifugal pumpS, blowers, and compressors, energy
is added to the fluid by continuously doing work on the fluid. ln turbines, energy
is extracted from the fluid to produce torque on the rotating shaft.
ln the case of a roto-dynamic pump, a rotating element called impeller imparts
energy to the liquid and the pressure rises. A positive displacement pump is
gear
based purely on mechanical concepts, since the liquid is displaced by a
Jose R: Ftancisco
38 I Guidebook tn S'luid MachinerY
 system rotating in a closed housing (gear pump) or a piston (plunger) moving in
a cylinder (reciprocating pump). lt discharges a definite quantity of liquid (apart
from any leakage) irrespective of head on pump, hence, there is a positive
displacement.

HYDRAULIC MACHINE

Hydraulic machine is a machine powered by a motor activated by the confined flow of

a stream of liquid, such as oil or water under pressure"

DIVISIONS OF HYDRAULIC MACHINE

1. A machine designed to utilize energy for the purpose of moving fluids (pumps)'
2. A machine designed to develop power from hydraulic machine (hydraulic power)
3. A machine designed to control and transmit energy by hydraulic means (hydraulic
controls, hydraulic actuators)
4. A machine designed to use power for various purposes (hydraulic jack, hydraulic
motors)

KEY TERMS AND CONGEPTS TO REMEMBER:

Hydrometer is a device used to determine the specific gravity of liquids.

Pitot tube is a device used to measure fluid velocity. lt is also used to measure the
velocity of fluid inside a pipe.

Continuity equation is an equation used in the conservation of mass.

The continuity equation foran idealfluid flow states that energy is constant anywhere
in the fluid or in the flow path.

An ideat fluid is a fluid that is frictionless and incompressible.

Cohesion is the property of a fluid whereby its own molecules are united or attracted
to each other.

The pressure of a fluid at any point in the line will not be the same in all directions if
the fluid is viscous and in motion.

o Adhesion is the volumetric change of the fluid caused by a resistance.

o The upper critical Reynolds number for pipe flow has no practical importance to
designers.
Lesson 1 PRTNCTPLES OF FLUID FLOW 139
 ODV
The Reynolds number for a pipe flow is given by the equation where p is
,,
density in kg/m3, D is the inside diameter of pipe in m, V is the mean velocity of the
fluid in pr./s, and pt is the viscosity in Pa-s.

Density in terms of viscosity is defined as the absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity

divided by kinematic viscositY.

the Critical Reynotds numberisthe demarcation between laminarflow and turbulent

flow.

Bernoutli's equation states that the total energy in the steady flow of a frictionless
and incompressible fluid is constant.

Reynotcts number is the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces and is given

bytheequation PDV.
It

Viscosity, p, is the property of a fluid by virtue of its resistance to shear. The unit in
sl is Poise or g/cm-s (= 1 Pa-s). At 20.2"C, the absolute viscosity of water is 1
centiPoise and air is 0.17 centiPoise.

1 centiPoise is equal to 11100 Poise.

Steady flow is the flow in which the quantity of fluid per unit time is constant.

tJnsteady f/ow is the flow in which the quantity of fluid per unit time is not constant.

Laminar ftow is the flow in which the paths of the individual particles of fluid do not
cross each other. The Reynolds number is less than 2 000.

Turbulent ftow is the flow in which the paths of the individual particles cross each
other and particles have no definite paths. The Reynolds number is greater than
4 000

One-dimensional flow is the flow of fluid or stream which may be represented by a

straight line.

Two-dimensional ftow is the flow of fluid or stream which may be represented by a

curve.

a Volume. specific volume, and volume flow rate of a fluid are functions of temperature.

a Viscosity is practically independent from pressure and depends on temperature

only.

40 | Cuidebook in Fluid MachinerY Jose R. tr'rancisco

 A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear
force. lt cannot sustain a shear force at rest.

A fluid may be a gas, a liquid, or a fluidized solid powder and is known to consist of
finite particles.

ldealfluid is a fluid that is frictionless and incompressible.

Discharge is the volume of fluid that flows through a section of a channel or pipe per
unit time, expressed in m3/s.

Pasca/'s /aw states that "pressure set up in a confined liquid acts equally in all
directions, and is always at right angles to the containing surfaces."

Path line is a line followed by the fluid particles in motion.

o Streamlineis the imaginary line tangent to which at any point indicates the direction
of motion at that point.

o Streak /rne is the instantaneous position of all fluid particles that pass through a
given point.

lJniform flowisthe type of flow in which the velocities of liquid particles at all sections
of the pipe or channel are equal. lt is generally referred to as flow in channel.

Non-uniform flow is the flow in which velocities of liquid particles at all sections of
the pipe or channel are not equal.

The motion of a fluid element may be divided into three categories. translation,
rotation, and distortion. Distortion can be further subdivided into angular distortion
and volume distortion.

Neuvfon's second law of motion, the continuity equation, and the principle of
conservation of energy always apply to any fluid.

The energy equation for fluid flow is based on the first law of thermodynamics
which states that the heat input into the system added to the work done on the
system is equal to the change in energy of the system.

PRTNCTPLES OF FLUrD FLOW l4l

PROBLEMS

1. What is the size of pipe to carry 1 m3/s at an average velocity of 2 mls?

2. What is the flow rate of water, in lpm, in a 0.20-m diameter pipe if the average
velocity of flow is 1.5 m/s? lf the pipe's diameter is reduced to 0.10 m at another
section, what is the velocity of flow in that section?

3. A pipe hose should deliver at least 1 200 lpm. lf the nozzle has a diameter of
30 mm, what is the velocity of the issuing jet?

4. A pump delivering 0.227m31s of water has a 30.48-cm diameter suction flange and
a25.4-cm diameter discharge flange. The suction pipe is 4 m long and the discharge
pipe is 23 m long. The water is delivered to a reservoir 16 m above the intake water
level. Neglecting turbulence losses in the pipe, determine the following:
a) Pump head
b) Pump theoretical power
c) Pump brake power if the pump efficiency is 85% (Assume a friction factor of
0.02 for cast iron pipe.)

5. A pump delivering 31.5 lps of water has a 40.64-cm diameter suction pipe and
35.56-cm diameter discharge pipe. The suction vacuum gauge that is 8 cm below
the pump centerline reads 127 mm of mercury below atmospheric pressure. The
discharge gauge that is 46 cm above the pump centerline reads 73.14 kPa. What
is the head of the pump? Determine the pump brake power if the pump efficiency is
82o/o.

6. lt is desired to pump 1 000 gallons per hour of gasoline (SG = 0.85) from the bottom
of a storage tank at ground level to the top of a fractionating column 27.5 m high.
The total length of pipe (actual + equivalent lengths of valves and fittings) is 38.5 m.
The pipeline is a 5.08-cm diameter standard steel pipe. Calculate the size of motor
needed, if the efficiency of the pump and drive is assumed to be 60%. Assume a
friction factor of 0.022 for the standard steel pipe.

7. One thousand gallons of benzol are to be pumped per hourthrough a 3.175-cm

steel pipe to the top of a reaction tower. The equivalent length of the line, including
pump, is 305 m and the pipe outlet is 15.5 m above the level of the benzol in the
supply tank. The temperature is 21oC; the specific gravity of benzol is 0.88. The
pump is a directly connected electrical centrifugal with an overall efficiency of 60%.
Calculate the size of the motor driving the pump. Assume a friction factor of 0.02.

8. Water is pumped from a reservoir to a tank with a lift of 6 m. The suction pipe which
connects the reservoir to the pump is 30.48 cm in diameter and 8 m long. The
discharge pipe which connects the pump to the tank is 25.4 cm in diameter and
137 m long. Both pipes may be classified as clean, smooth, cast iron pipes. The
suction pipe projects into the reservoir and the discharge pipe projects into the
Lesson I PRINCTPLES OF FLUID FLOW 143
--- /
- tank. The efficiency of the pump is 60%. Considering all losses, calculate the
horsepower required to operate the pump to discharge 85 lps into the tank.

9. A pump that delivers 320 lps of oil (SG = 0.90) has a 400-mm diameter suction pipe
and a 35-cm diameterdischarge pipe. The suction vacuum gauge located 10 cm
below the pump centerline reads 125 mm Hg. The discharge gauge which is 48 cm
above the pump centerline reads 75 kPa. Determine the pump power if the pump
efficiency is79%.

10. A pump draws water (SG = 0.985) from reservoirA and lifts it to reservoir B, with a
static suction lift of 8 and a static discharge head of 25. The diameter of the suction
pipe is 15.24 cm and the diameter of discharge pipe is 4.0 inches. The total head
loss from A to B is 25o/o of the total dynamic head (TDH), and the head loss at the
discharge side of the pump is 90% of the total head loss. The pump capacity is 100
lps. Determine the following:
a) Pump brake power if the efficiency is 78%
b) Reading of the pressure gauge installed at the suction side of the pump
c) Reading of the pressure gauge installed at the discharge side of the pump

11. A pump draws water from reservoirA and lifts it to reservoir B as shown in the figure
below. The loss of head from A to 1 is three times the velocity head in the 15.24-cm
pipe and the loss of head from 2 to B is 20 times the velocity head in the 101 .6-mm
pipe. Compute the brake power of the pump if the efficiency is 82o/o and the pressure
heads at points 1 and 2 when the discharge is a) 12.6 lps, and b) 38 lps.

12. The plan is to pump 1 .05 lps of gasoline (SG = 0.85) from the bottom of one tank to
the top of another. The level in the inlet tank is 1 .2 m above the pump centerline, and
the level in the discharge tank is 29.5 m above the pump centerline. The inlet-pipe
diameter equals the discharge-pipe diameter of 5.08 cm. The total length of the
steel pipe is 38 m. lf the pump efficiency is 80%, what is the required power output
of the motor?

44 | Guidebook in Fluid Machineiy Jose,Rr,,I'fi*ncirco

13. A double suction, single stage, centrifugal pump delivers 900 m3/hr of sea water
(SG = 1.03) from a source where the water level varies 2 m from high tide to low
tide level. The pump centerline is located 2.6 m above the surface of the water at
high tide level. The pump discharges into a surface condenser, 3 m above the
pump centerline. Loss of head due to friction in the suction pipe is 0.8 m and that in
the discharge side is 3 m. Pump is directly coupled to a 1 750 rpm, 460 volts,
3 phase, 60 Hz. Calculate the following:
a) Total suction head,. m
b) Total discharge head, m
c) Total dynamic head of the pump, m
d) Theoretical pump power
e) Pump brake power if the pump efficiency is B2o/o
14. What is the flow rate of water in lpm in a 0.3-m diameter pipe if the average velocity
of flow is 1 .5 m/s? lf the pipe's diameter is decreased to 0.10 m in another section,
what is the velocity of flow in that section?

15. Water from the reservoir is pumped over a hill through a pipe 900 mm in diameter
and a pressure of 1 kg/cm2 is maintained at the pipe discharge where the pipe is
85 m from the pump centerline. Pump has a static suction head of 5 m. The pump
capacity is 1 500 liters per second. Friction losses are equivalent to 3 m of head
loss. Determine the following:
a) Total dynamic head (TDH)
b) Waterpower
c) Pump brake power if the efficiency is 82%
 Sruoenrts Selr-resr
/NSIRUCI/ON: Encircle the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.
1 . The branch of Applied Mechanics dealing with the behavior of fluids at rest and in motion
a) engineering mechanics b) fluid machinery
c) fluid mechanics d) hydraulics
2. Substances capable of flowing and which conform to the shape of their containers
a) pure substance b) fluids
c) liquids d) Allof the above
3. The weight of a unit volume of a substance
a) specific gravity b) specific weight
c) relative density d) density
4. A property of fluid that determines the amount of its resistance to a shearing force
a) viscosity b) kinematic viscosity
c) fluid pressure d) density
5. A head that represents the height of a column of homogeneous fluid that will produce a
given intensity of pressure
a) velocity head b) pressure head
c) static head d) Allof the above
6. Force of gravity per unit volume of a substance
a) density b) specific volume
c) specific gravity d) None ofthe above
7. The measure of resistance to the flow of fluid
a) absolute viscosity b) viscosity
c) kinematic viscosity d) None ofthe above
8. The Reynolds number for a laminar flow
a) less than 4 000 b) greater than 2 000
c) less than 2 000 d) None ofthe above
9. The unit of kinematic viscosity in metric system
a) Poise b) sq.ft. per sec.
c) sq. m. per sec. d) None ofthe above
10. The Reynolds number corresponding to a fluid flowing in a 1S-cm diameter pipe with a
velocity of 2.5 m/s, specific gravity of 0.95, and an absolute viscosity of 0.00016 Pa-s
a) 19905.45 b) 20567 987.15
c) 22265625.02 d) None ofthe above

Lesson I PRINCTPLES OFFLUID FLOW 147

11. The type of a flow of fluid if the velocity of a fluid flowing through a pipe is low, the
particles move in parallel layers, and the velocity at any point is constant in magnitude
and direction
a) laminar flow b) transition flow
c) critical flow d) All of the above
12.The type of a flow of fluid if the velocity is high, the motion is not steady but varies in
both magnitude and direction at any given point
a) laminarflow b) transition flow
c) critical flow d) Noneoftheabove
13. The head that corresponds to the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid
a) static head b) pressure head
c) velocity head d) Allof the above
14. The head that corresponds to the vertical distance of the fluid level below the centerline
of the pump
a) static discharge head b) static suction head
c) static suction lift d) total static head
15. The head that corresponds to the flow energy of a flowing fluid in the piping line
a) pressure head b) velocity head
c) static head d) allof the above
16. A form of energy that corresponds to the vertical head or static head of a flowing fluid
a) kinetic energy b) potentialenergy
c) flowenergy d) internalenergy
17. The mass flow rate of water if its volume flow rate is 38 lps and its density is 989 kg/m3
a) 3.80 kg/s b) 3.7582 kg/s
c) 3.7582kg/min d) None ofthe above
18. The well-known equation used in the analysis of head of flowing fluid in a piping line
a) continuity equation b) Colebrook equation
c) Bernoulli'sequation d) Noneoftheabove
'19. The equivalent of one Poise

a) 0.10 Pa-s b) 1.0 Dyne-sec. per sq cm

c) 1.0 g/cm-s d) None ofthe above
20. Total head loss in a pipeline
a) equals head loss due to friction for straight pipe only
b) equals to the friction losses plus turbulence loss
c) equals to major head losses in a piping line
d) Noneoftheabove

;l#J..GuU*.pqpx,in
""" , .,
'"'."
rl# S[ g:;;ii!,i;;1;;,1'..;,,,i:,t,,.,;;:.',..;;
21. The relative density of a certain fluid if its density is 985 kg/m3 at standard condition
a) 0.99 b) 0.085
c) 11.2 d) Noneoftheabove
22. The velocity of air flowing inside a pipe if its volume rate is 500 lps and the pipe diameter
is 30.48 cm
a) 6.85 m/s b) 8.65 m/s
c) 5.68 m/s d) Noneoftheabove
23. The size of pipe to carry up.to 1 000 lps of fluid at an average velocity of 2 mls
a) 0.7978 cm b) 79.87 cm
c) 79.78 cm d) Noneoftheabove
24. The flow rate of water in a 0.2 m-diameter pipe if the average velocity of flow is 1 .5 m/s
a) 0.0471 lps b) 47.1lpm
c) 47.1 lps d) None ofthe above
25. Afi'e hose should deliver at least 1 200 lpm of fluid. lf the nozzle has a diameter of
30 mm, what is the velocity of the issuing jet?
a) 1697.65 m/s b) 1697.65 cm/s
c) 1607.65 cm/min d) Noneoftheabove
26. A machine used to transport liquid from the point of low energy level to a point of high
energy level
a) compressor b) water turbine
c) pump d) blower
27. A fluid that is frictionless and incompressible
a) liquid b) water
c) idealfluid d) realfluid
28. The volumetric change of the fluid caused by a resistance is known as
a) cohesion b) adhesion
c) erosion d) specific volume
29. The fluid's property of intermolecular attraction is called
a) cohesion b) adhesion
c) collision d) precision
30. A device used to determine the specific gravity of liquids
a) thermometer b) hydrometer
c) pitot tube d) barometer
31. An equation used in the conservation of mass
a) Bernoulli'sequation b) continuity equation
c) Reynolds equation d) All of the above

Lesson I
32. Defined in terms of viscosity as absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity divided by
kinematic viscosity
a) absolute viscosity b) dynamic viscosity
c) kinemaiic viscosity d) density
33. The type of flow in which the velocities of the liquid particles in allsections of the pipe or
channel are equal, and generally referred to as flow in channel
a) uniform flow b) steady flow
c) non-uniform flow d) unsteady flow

50. 1 Guidebook in $lluid Machinery Jose R, Elranciscb

 Axswens ro rHE Sruoenrrs Serr-Tesr
LEST'(}N 1 LESSON 2 LESSON 3 oN4 LESSON 5 LESSON 6 LEU!'UN 7
1. c SrrA SerB SerA SErB
2.b 1. b 1.c 1.b 1 .c, 'I .c 1.a 1.a 1. a
3.b 2.a 2.b 2.b 2.a 2.b 2.b 2.b 2.b
4.a 3.a 3.c 3.d 3.c 3.c 3.a 3.b 3.a
5.b 4.a 4.c 4.d 4.a 4.c 4.b 4.a 4.d
6.d 5.c 5.b 5.b 5.d 5.b 5.b 5.a 5.b
7. a 6.c 6.a 6.b 6,a 6.a 6. d, 6.d 6.a
8.c 7. a 7.a 7.a 7. a 7.a 7.a 7.a 7. d
9.c 8.d Lb 8.b 8.b 8.b 8.b Lb 8.c
10. d 9.c Oa 9.b 9.a 9.c Lb La 9.c
10. c 10. a 10. a 10. c 10. a 10. a 10. b
11. a 10. b
11. b 11. a 11. d 11. a l',i. c 1't. b
12. d 11. b
13. c 12. d 12- c 12. b 12. c 12. c 12. b
14. b 13. a 13. a 13. c 13. a 13. c 13. a 12. b
14. a 14. b 14. a 14. b 14. c 14. b 13. a
15. a 15. a 15. b 15. c 15. a
15. b 15. b 14. a
16. b 16. b 16. b 16. b 16. b 16. b
17. d 15. c
17. a 17. b 17. a 17. b 17. d
18. c 18. d 18, d 18. a 18. d 18. a 16. c
19. a 19. c 19. b 19. b 19. b 19, b 17. b
20. b 24. a 20. c 24. b 2Q. c 18. d
21. d 21. d 21. a 21. b 21. a 19. d
22. a 22. c 22. c 22. d 22. c
23. d 20. b
23. a 23. c 23. b 23. c
24. a 24. b 24. b 24. a 24. b 21. a
25. c 25. c 25. c 25. c 25. c 22. c
26. c 26. b 26. b 26. b 26. b 23. b
27. b 27. d 27. c 27. b 27. c 24. b
28. a 28. b 28. b 28. a 28. b 25. b
29. b 29. c 29. a 29. c 29. a
30. b 30. b 30. c 30. a 30. c 26. a
31. c 31. d 31. b 31. d 27. a
3?.c 32. c 32. c 32. c 28. d
33. c 33. a 33. b 33. a 29. d
3t{. a 34. a 34. d 34. a 30. b
35: c 35. b 35. c 35. b
36, b 36. b 36. b
37. c 37. c 37. c
38. c 38. a 38. c
39. c 39. c
40. c 40. c
41. a 41. a
42. b 42. b
43. c 43. c
44. d 44. d
45. a 45. a
46. b 46. b
47. c 47. c
48. c 48. c
49. c 49. c
50. c 50. c

:.2*3
 Guf,deboo[<

tr[uf,d
Maahflmery

Jose R. Francisco