JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
JKUAT SODeL

SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING

P.O. Box 62000, 00200
©2015

Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: [email protected]

BIT 2324 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

JJ II
J I LAST REVISION ON June 22, 2015
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
This presentation is intended to be covered within one
week. The notes, examples and exercises should be sup-
plemented with a good textbook. Most of the exercises
have solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessi-
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ble by clicking the green Exercise tag. To move back to

the same page click the same tag appearing at the end of
the solution/answer.
©2015

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the re-

sponsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
[email protected]
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
LESSON 3
Projections & Coordinate Systems

Learning outcomes
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By the end of this topic you should be able to;

• Define coordinate systems
• Describe different types of maps
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• Distinguish vector, raster & image data formats

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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
3.1. Introduction
A map is a graphical representation of where features are, ex-
plicitly and relative to one another. It is composed of different
geographic features represented as either points, lines, and/or
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areas. Each feature is defined both by its location in space and

by its characteristics. Quite simply, a map is a model of the
real world. The map legend is the key linking the attributes to
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the geographic features. Attributes, e.g. such as the species for

a forest stand, are typically represented graphically by use of
different symbology and color.
Maps and mapping are essential components of any and all
geographic information systems (GISs). For instance, maps con-
JJ II stitute both the input and output of a GIS. Hence a GIS utilizes
J I many concepts and themes from cartography, the formal study
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
of maps and mapping. In order to become proficient with GISs,
there is need to learn more about cartography, maps, and map-
ping.

3.2. Map Scale, Coordinate Systems, and Map Projec-

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tions
The central purpose of a map is to provide relevant and useful
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information to the map user. In order for a map to be of value,

it must convey information effectively and efficiently. Mapping
conventions facilitate the delivery of information in such a man-
ner by recognizing and managing the expectations of map users.
Mapping or cartographic conventions refer to the accepted rules,
JJ II norms, and practices behind the making of maps. One of the
J I most recognized mapping conventions is that “north is up” on
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
most maps. Though this may not always be the case, many
map users expect north to be oriented or to coincide with the
top edge of a map or viewing device like a computer monitor.
All map users and map viewers have certain expectations
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about what is contained on a map. Such expectations are formed

and learned from previous experience by working with maps. It
is important to note that such expectations also change with
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increased exposure to maps. Understanding and meeting the

expectations of map viewers is a challenging but necessary task
because such expectations provide a starting point for the cre-
ation of any map.
Several other formal and informal mapping conventions and
JJ II characteristics, many of which are taken for granted, can be iden-
J I tified. Among the most important cartographic considerations
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
are map scale, coordinate systems, and map projections. Map
scale is concerned with reducing geographical features of inter-
est to manageable proportions, coordinate systems help us define
the positions of features on the surface of the earth, and map pro-
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jections are concerned with moving from the three-dimensional

world to the two dimensions of a flat map or display.
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3.2.1. Map Scale

One of the challenges behind mapping the world and its resident
features, patterns, and processes is reducing it to a manageable
size. All maps reduce or shrink the world and its geographic
features of interest by some factor. Map scale refers to the factor
JJ II of reduction of the world so that it fits on a map.
J I Map scale can be represented by text, a graphic, or some
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
combination of the two. For example, it is common to see “one
inch represents one kilometer” or something similar written on
a map to give map users an idea of the scale of the map. Map
scale can also be portrayed graphically with what is called a
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scale bar. Scale bars are usually used on reference maps and al-
low map users to approximate distances between locations and
features on a map, as well as to get an overall idea of the scale
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of the map.

Map Scale from a United States Geological Survey (USGS)

Topographic Map

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The representative fraction (RF) describes scale as a sim-

ple ratio. The numerator, which is always set to one (i.e., 1),
JJ II denotes map distance and the denominator denotes ground or
J I “real-world” distance. One of the benefits of using a representa-
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
tive fraction to describe scale is that it is unit neutral. Any unit
of measure can be used to interpret the map scale. Consider a
map with an RF of 1:10,000. This means that one unit on the
map represents 10,000 units on the ground. Such units could
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be inches, centimeters, or even pencil lengths; it really does not

matter.
Map scales can also be described as either “small” or “large.”
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Such descriptions are usually made in reference to representative

fractions and the amount of detail represented on a map. For
instance, a map with an RF of 1:1,000 is considered a large-
scale map when compared to a map with an RF of 1:1,000,000
(i.e., 1:1,000 > 1:1,000,000). Furthermore, while the large-scale
JJ II map shows more detail and less area, the small-scale map shows
J I more area but less detail. Clearly, determining the thresholds
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
for small- or large-scale maps is largely a judgment call.
All maps possess a scale, whether it is formally expressed or
not. Though some say that online maps and GISs are “scaleless”
because we can zoom in and out at will, it is probably more
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accurate to say that GISs and related mapping technology are

multiscalar. Understanding map scale and its overall impact on
how the earth and its features are represented is a critical part
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of both map making and GISs.

3.2.2. Coordinate Systems

Just as all maps have a map scale, all maps have locations,
too. Coordinate systems are frameworks that are used to de-
JJ II fine unique positions. For instance, in geometry we use x (hor-
J I izontal) and y (vertical) coordinates to define points on a two-
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dimensional plane. The coordinate system that is most com-
monly used to define locations on the three-dimensional earth is
called the geographic coordinate system (GCS), and it is based
on a sphere or spheroid. A spheroid (a.k.a. ellipsoid is simply
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a sphere that is slightly wider than it is tall and approximates

more closely the true shape of the earth. Spheres are commonly
used as models of the earth for simplicity.
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The unit of measure in the GCS is degrees, and locations

are defined by their respective latitude and longitude within the
GCS. Latitude is measured relative to the equator at zero de-
grees, with maxima of either ninety degrees north at the North
Pole or ninety degrees south at the South Pole. Longitude is
JJ II measured relative to the prime meridian at zero degrees, with
J I maxima of 180 degrees west or 180 degrees east.
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Note that latitude and longitude can be expressed in degrees-
minutes-seconds (DMS) or in decimal degrees (DD). When using
decimal degrees, latitudes above the equator and longitudes east
of the prime meridian are positive, and latitudes below the equa-
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tor and longitudes west of the prime meridian are negative (see
the following table for examples).
Converting from DMS to DD is a relatively straightforward
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exercise. For example, since there are sixty minutes in one de-
gree, we can convert 118° 15 minutes to 118.25 (118 + 15/60).
Note that an online search of the term “coordinate conversion”
will return several coordinate conversion tools.
When we want to map things like mountains, rivers, streets,
JJ II and buildings, we need to define how the lines of latitude and
J I longitude will be oriented and positioned on the sphere. A da-
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
tum serves this purpose and specifies exactly the orientation and
origins of the lines of latitude and longitude relative to the center
of the earth or spheroid.
Depending on the need, situation, and location, there are
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several datums to choose from. For instance, local datums try

to match closely the spheroid to the earth’s surface in a local
area and return accurate local coordinates. A common local
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datum used in the United States is called NAD83 (i.e., North

American Datum of 1983). For locations in the United States
and Canada, NAD83 returns relatively accurate positions, but
positional accuracy deteriorates when outside of North America.
The global WGS84 datum (i.e., World Geodetic System of
JJ II 1984) uses the center of the earth as the origin of the GCS and is
J I used for defining locations across the globe. Because the datum
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
uses the center of the earth as its origin, locational measurements
tend to be more consistent regardless where they are obtained on
the earth, though they may be less accurate than those returned
by a local datum. Note that switching between datums will alter
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the coordinates (i.e., latitude and longitude) for all locations of

interest.
For geographic data, often referred to as spatial data, fea-
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tures are usually referenced in a coordinate system that models

a location on the earth’s surface. The coordinate system may be
of a variety of types. For natural resource applications the most
common are geographic coordinates such as latitude and longi-
tude, e.g. 56°27’40” and 116°11’25”. These are usually referred
JJ II by degrees, minutes, and seconds. Geographic coordinates can
J I also be identified as decimal degrees, e.g. 54.65°.
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
Geographic data is distinguished from attribute data in that
it is referenced spatially by a coordinate system, e.g. it has a
spatial extent. Natural resource applications commonly use a
Legal Survey system.
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• Entity Representations
We need symbolize spatial features in order to be able to asso-
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ciate attribute information. We can classify different features

into different dimensions. Each classification of dimension is a
conceptual classification.
• Points - “0” dimensionality. No length or Width.: Each
point is Discrete in that it can only occupy a given point
JJ II in space at any given time.
J I • Lines - “1” dimensional. Length, but No Width: Must
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
have a beginning and an ending point.
• Polygons -“2”dimensional. Length and Width: By adding
Width, we can describe a feature as having an area.
• Surfaces - “3” dimensional. Length, Width, and Height:
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Surfaces have infinite number of values (e.g. Elevation).

We say that this type of data is Continuous.
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When thinking of spatial elements, we must consider Spatial

Scale. Depending on scale, we may want to represent a river as
a line or a polygon.
We typically represent objects in space as three distinct spa-
tial elements:
1. Points - simplest element
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
2. Lines (arcs) - set of connected points
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3. Polygons - set of connected lines

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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
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3.2.3. Map Projections

Map projections refer to the methods and procedures that are
used to transform the spherical three-dimensional earth into two-
dimensional planar surfaces. Specifically, map projections are
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mathematical formulas that are used to translate latitude and
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
longitude on the surface of the earth to x and y coordinates on a
plane. Since there are an infinite number of ways this translation
can be performed, there are an infinite number of map projec-
tions. The mathematics behind map projections are beyond the
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scope of this unit. To illustrate the concept of a map projection,

imagine that we place a light bulb in the center of a translucent
globe. On the globe are outlines of the continents and the lines
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of longitude and latitude called the graticule. When we turn

the light bulb on, the outline of the continents and the graticule
will be “projected” as shadows on the wall, ceiling, or any other
nearby surface. This is what is meant by map “projection.”
Within the realm of maps and mapping, there are three sur-
JJ II faces used for map projections (i.e., surfaces on which we project
J I the shadows of the graticule). These surfaces are the plane, the
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
cylinder, and the cone. Referring again to the previous example
of a light bulb in the center of a globe, note that during the
projection process, we can situate each surface in any number
of ways. For example, surfaces can be tangential to the globe
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along the equator or poles, they can pass through or intersect

the surface, and they can be oriented at any number of angles.
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
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3.3. Spatial Data Models
Traditionally spatial data has been stored and presented in the
form of a map. Three basic types of spatial data models have
evolved for storing geographic data digitally. These are referred
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to as:
1. Vector;
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2. Raster;
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3. Image
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The below diagrams reflects the two primary spatial data encod-
ing techniques. These are vector and raster. Image data utilizes
techniques very similar to raster data, however typically lacks
the internal formats required for analysis and modeling of the
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data. Images reflect pictures or photographs of the landscape.

1. Vector data formats
All spatial data models are approaches for storing the spa-
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tial location of geographic features in a database. Vector

storage implies the use of vectors (directional lines) to rep-
resent a geographic feature. Vector data is characterized
by the use of sequential points or vertices to define a linear
segment. Each vertex consists of an X coordinate and a Y
JJ II coordinate.
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Vector lines are often referred to as arcs and consist of a

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string of vertices terminated by a node. A node is defined
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
as a vertex that starts or ends an arc segment. Point fea-
tures are defined by one coordinate pair, a vertex. Polygo-
nal features are defined by a set of closed coordinate pairs.
In vector representation, the storage of the vertices for
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each feature is important, as well as the connectivity be-

tween features, e.g. the sharing of common vertices where
features connect.
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Several different vector data models exist, however only

two are commonly used in GIS data storage. The topologic
data structure is often referred to as an intelligent data
structure because spatial relationships between geographic
features are easily derived when using them. Primarily for
JJ II this reason the topologic model is the dominant vector
J I data structure currently used in GIS technology. Many of
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
the complex data analysis functions cannot effectively be
undertaken without a topologic vector data structure.
The secondary vector data structure that is common among
GIS software is the computer aided drafting (CAD) data
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structure. This structure consists of listing elements, not

features, defined by strings of vertices, to define geographic
features, e.g. points, lines, or areas. There is considerable
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redundancy with this data model since the boundary seg-

ment between two polygons can be stored twice, once for
each feature. The CAD structure emerged from the de-
velopment of computer graphics systems without specific
considerations of processing geographic features. Accord-
JJ II ingly, since features, e.g. polygons, are self-contained and
J I independent, questions about the adjacency of features can
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
be difficult to answer. The CAD vector model lacks the
definition of spatial relationships between features that is
defined by the topologic data model.
• Vector Advantages
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– Accurate positional information that is best for

storing discrete thematic features (e.g., roads,
shorelines, sea-bed features.
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– Compact data storage requirements

– Can associate unlimited numbers of attributes
with specific features
2. Raster data formats
Raster data models incorporate the use of a grid-cell data
JJ II structure where the geographic area is divided into cells
J I identified by row and column. This data structure is com-
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
monly called raster. While the term raster implies a regu-
larly spaced grid other tessellated data structures do exist
in grid based GIS systems. In particular, the quadtree
data structure has found some acceptance as an alterna-
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tive raster data model. The size of cells in a tessellated

data structure is selected on the basis of the data accuracy
and the resolution needed by the user. There is no explicit
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coding of geographic coordinates required since that is im-

plicit in the layout of the cells. A raster data structure
is in fact a matrix where any coordinate can be quickly
calculated if the origin point is known, and the size of the
grid cells is known. Since grid-cells can be handled as two-
JJ II dimensional arrays in computer encoding many analytical
J I operations are easy to program. This makes tessellated
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
data structures a popular choice for many GIS software.
Topology is not a relevant concept with tessellated struc-
tures since adjacency and connectivity are implicit in the
location of a particular cell in the data matrix.
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Several tessellated data structures exist, however only two

JJ II
are commonly used in GIS’s. The most popular cell struc-
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
ture is the regularly spaced matrix or raster structure.
This data structure involves a division of spatial data into
regularly spaced cells. Each cell is of the same shape and
size. Squares are most commonly utilized.
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Since geographic data is rarely distinguished by regularly

spaced shapes, cells must be classified as to the most com-
mon attribute for the cell. The problem of determining
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the proper resolution for a particular data layer can be a

concern. If one selects too coarse a cell size then data may
be overly generalized. If one selects too fine a cell size
then too many cells may be created resulting in a large
data volume, slower processing times, and a more cum-
JJ II bersome data set. As well, one can imply accuracy greater
J I than that of the original data capture process and this may
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
result in some erroneous results during analysis.
As well, since most data is captured in a vector format,
e.g. digitizing, data must be converted to the raster data
structure. This is called vector-raster conversion. Most
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GIS software allows the user to define the raster grid (cell)
size for vector-raster conversion. It is imperative that the
original scale, e.g. accuracy, of the data be known prior to
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conversion. The accuracy of the data, often referred to as

the resolution, should determine the cell size of the output
raster map during conversion.
Most raster based GIS software requires that the raster cell
contain only a single discrete value. Accordingly, a data
JJ II layer, e.g. forest inventory stands, may be broken down
J I into a series of raster maps, each representing an attribute
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
type, e.g. a species map, a height map, a density map, etc.
These are often referred to as one attribute maps. This is
in contrast to most conventional vector data models that
maintain data as multiple attribute maps, e.g. forest in-
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ventory polygons linked to a database table containing all

attributes as columns. This basic distinction of raster data
storage provides the foundation for quantitative analysis
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techniques.
This is often referred to as raster or map algebra. The
use of raster data structures allow for sophisticated math-
ematical modelling processes while vector based systems
are often constrained by the capabilities and language of
JJ II a relational DBMS.
J I This difference is the major distinguishing factor between
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vector and raster based GIS software. It is also important
to understand that the selection of a particular data struc-
ture can provide advantages during the analysis stage. For
example, the vector data model does not handle continu-
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ous data, e.g. elevation, very well while the raster data
model is more ideally suited for this type of analysis. Ac-
cordingly, the raster structure does not handle linear data
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analysis, e.g. shortest path, very well while vector sys-

tems do. It is important for the user to understand that
there are certain advantages and disadvantages to each
data model.
• Raster Advantages
JJ II – It is the most common data format
J I – It is easy to perform mathematical and overlay
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
operations
– Satellite information is easily incorporated
– Better represents “continuous”- type data
3. Image data
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Image data is most often used to represent graphic or pic-

torial data. The term image inherently reflects a graphic repre-
sentation, and in the GIS world, differs significantly from raster
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data. Most often, image data is used to store remotely sensed

imagery, e.g. satellite scenes or orthophotos, or ancillary graph-
ics such as photographs, scanned plan documents, etc.
Image data is typically used in GIS systems as background
display data (if the image has been rectified and georeferenced);
JJ II or as a graphic attribute. Remote sensing software makes use
J I of image data for image classification and processing. Typically,
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 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
this data must be converted into a raster format (and perhaps
vector) to be used analytically with the GIS. Image data is typi-
cally stored in a variety of de facto industry standard proprietary
formats. These often reflect the most popular image process-
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ing systems. Other graphic image formats, such as TIFF, GIF,

PCX, etc., are used to store ancillary image data. Most GIS
software will read such formats and allow you to display this
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data.

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3.4. Attribute data models
A separate data model is used to store and maintain attribute
data for GIS software. These data models may exist internally
within the GIS software, or may be reflected in external com-
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mercial Database Management Software (DBMS). In the raster

data model, the cell value (Digital Number) is the attribute.
Examples: brightness, landcover code, SST, etc.
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For vector data, attribute records are linked to point, line

& polygon features. Can store multiple attributes per feature.
Vector features are linked to attributes by a unique feature num-
ber. A variety of different data models exist for the storage and
management of attribute data. The most common are:
JJ II • Tabular
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• Hierarchial
• Network
• Relational
• Object Oriented
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The tabular model is the manner in which most early GIS soft-
ware packages stored their attribute data. The next three mod-
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els are those most commonly implemented in database manage-

ment systems (DBMS). The object oriented is newer but rapidly
gaining in popularity for some applications.

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Revision Questions

Exercise 1.  Define a map.

Example . Distinguish between vector and raster formats.
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Solution: Revise. 

Exercise 2.  What is a spatial data model?

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Solutions to Exercises
Exercise 1. Revise. Exercise 1
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Exercise 2. Revise. Exercise 2
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