Consciousness: Consciousness: person’s Sleep: Sleep is part of a circadian rhythm lasting 24 hours.

Product of the activity of >hypothalamus >hormone

awareness at a given moment. Altered States: melatonin >neurotransmitter serotonin >body temp. Seasonal Affective Disorder: (SAD): form of depression related
Shifts in quality or pattern of mental activity. to the winter months low levels of sunshine. Temp: light exposure- phototherapy. Purpose of Sleep: Adaptive
theory: conserves energy, keeps animals safe from night predators. Restorative theory: opportunity to restore
Different Stages of Sleep: Non-REM stage 1 systems, cell tissue growth/repair.
sleep: light sleep, hypnagogic images,
myoclonic jerks. Stage 2 sleep: sleep spindles, Sleep Disorders: Sleep apnea: breathing stops for ½ min. Insomnia: inability to fall asleep, stay asleep, get enough
bursts of EEG. Stage 3 sleep: first appearance sleep. Narcolepsy: genetic disorder causing a collapse into REM sleep. Somnambulism: sitting, walking, performing
of delta waves, growth hormones released. complex behaviour while asleep. Night terrors: extreme fear, agitation, screaming while asleep. Sleep Deprivation:
Stage 4 sleep: predominantly deltas waves, Causes: sleep disorders, failure to fall asleep or stay asleep for adequate amount of time, worry, drug usage.
sleepwalking, sleeptalking, & night terrors occur.
REM Sleep & Dreaming: REM sleep occurs 4 Theories of Dreaming: Freudian theory: conflicts, events, & desires of past represented in symbolic form in dreams.
Manifest content: actual dream & its events Latent content: symbolic content, according to Freud. Activation-
or 5 times a night. Associated with dreaming
synthesis hypothesis: cortical association areas synthesize a dream to explain cortical activation by pons. Activation-
(Dement) Nightmares: unpleasant dreams during
information-mode model: information from waking hours can influence dream synthesis.
REM. REM behaviours disorders: REM paralysis
fails, acting out dreams; sexsomnia
Hallucinogens: alter brains interpretation of sensations, creating hallucinations. Narcotics: are pain relieving drugs from
opium poppies, bind to endorphin receptors. Common narcotics: opium, morphine & heroin. Methadone: controls
Drug Dependence: Physically addictive drugs: symptoms of heroin or morphine withdrawal. Stimulants: drugs that increase the functioning of the NS. Depressants:
Users body craves drug, depression causes
physical withdrawal. Drug tolerance: Body drugs that slow central NS. Barbiturates: major tranquilizers, sedative effect, used as sleeping pills
becomes conditioned to level of drug, leads to
increased drug dosages Signs of physical Depressants: Relaxation, Stimulants: Stimulation, excitement. Narcotics: Euphoria. Psychedelics & Hallucinogens:
dependency: >Compulsive use >loss of control Distort consciousness, alter perception
>Disregard for the consequences of use
>Psychological dependence: users believe that Learning: Relatively permanent change in behaviour caused by experience or practice
they need the drug to function & for well Classical Conditioning: Phenomenon in which 1 stimulus can, through pairing with another stimulus come to produce
a similar response. Concepts: UCS: stimulus that automatically evokes involuntary unconditioned response (UCR).
Conditioned Emotional Responses: Phobias, (UCR): response naturally evoked by UCS. CS: Neutral stimulus, paired with the unconditioned stimulus, evokes
Conditioned taste aversions, Biological conditioned response (CR) on its own. CR: response by VCS after CS-UCS pairing. Pavlov: Presented a sound
preparedness, Advertising, Drug addiction (CS) followed by food (UCS) >After several pairings, sound alone elicited salivation (CR) >CS must precede UCS

Reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement: Every correct response followed by reinforcer. Partial reinforcement: Pavlovian perspective: CS becomes substitute
Reinforcement not given after every trial but according to a schedule. Partial reinforcement effect: response for UCS through association. Cognitive
rewarded under partial reinforcement schedule is much more resistant to extinction. Partial Reinforcement Schedule: perspective: CS provides info about arrival of
Fixed ratio: A certain # if responses is required. Variable ratio schedule: A varying # or responses is requires. UCS. Stimulus generalization: stimuli similar to
Fixed interval schedule: correct response made within a set interval. Variable interval schedule: Reinforcement UCS will evoke CD but to a lesser degree.
follows a varying interval of time. Stimulus discrimination: presentation of a
stimulus similar to CS without UCS leads to
Thorndike Law of Effect: A response followed by a pleasurable consequence will be repeated, but a response this stimulus not producing generalization.
followed by an unpleasant consequence will not be repeated. B.F. Skinner: voluntary response learning-operant
conditioning. Operant Conditioning: Primary reinforce: stimulus that satisfies a basic natural drive. Secondary
reinforce: Stimulus becomes reinforcing after paired with primary reinforce. (+) reinforcement: stimulus whose Latent learning: learning that remains hidden
until it becomes useful. Tolman: rats allowed to
presentation increases probability of response. (-) reinforcement: stimulus whose termination increases probability of wander in a maze unreinforced show evidence
response. Shaping: reinforcement of successive approximations to some final complex goal. of learning the maze when reinforced. Learned
helplessness: fail to escape because of history
Punishment: Stimulus when following a response makes response less likely. Punishment by application: Response of repeated failures in past. Seligman: dogs
is followed by an unpleasant stimulus. Punishment by removal: a response is followed by the removal of some
pleasurable stimulus. Aggressive punishment: can act as a model for aggressive behaviour. Punishment: normally placed in an inescapable situation failed to try
has only a temporary effect on behaviours to escape later when they could. Insight: sudden
perception of relationships
Sensory Memory: Iconic memory: >visual representation in
Memory: system that actively stores & retrieves neural form >lasts ¼ sec. Echoic memory: >auditory form
info: >Encoding >Storage >Retrieval. 3 stages >lasts for up to 4 sec. Short term (working memory): >holds Long-term Memory: >more or less permanent
>unlimited in capacity >deeply processed info
of memory systems: sensory memory, short info before storage into LTM or info that is currently in use. retained & retrieved more efficiently >culture affect
term memory, & long-term memory. >capacity of 7 +or- 2 chunks of info. >duration of 12 to 30 encoding, storage, & retrieval of info in LTM Type
sec w/out rehearsal. Loss of STM contents: >failure to of LTM: Procedural: skill habits & conditioned
Levels-of-processing model: info that is rehearse >decay >interference by similar info >intrusion of new responses Declarative: general facts & personal
processed at a deeper level is more likely to
info into STM exp. Inc: Semantic: general knowledge Episodic:
be remembered Parallel distributed processing
model: info is simultaneously stored across an personal info/ daily events. Implicit: difficult to
Flashbulb memory: vivid, detailed memories caused by bring into conscious awareness. Explicit: person is
interconnected neural network that stretches emotional/traumatic events-no more accurate-other memories
across the brain aware of processing LTM organization: Semantic
LTM formation: Constructive processing: memories are networks: nodes of related info spreading out from
reconstructed from info that is stored during encoding.
Cues 4 Remembering: Retrieval cue: stimulus a central piece of knowledge
for remembering- are encoded at same time Hindsight bias: tendency to believe through revision of older
as new memory Encoding specificity: memories to include newer info that 1 could correctly predict
the outcome of an event. Memory retrieval problems: Procedural memories: cerebellum STM: cortical
physical surroundings become encoded as prefrontal & temporal lobes Semantic & episodic
retrieval cues. State-dependent learning: Misinformation effect: misleading questions or info may be memories: frontal & temporal lobes Memory 4 fear:
physiological/ incorporated into memory. False memory syndrome: creation amygdale Memory formation: Consolidation: neuronal
of false or inaccurate memories through suggestion, hypnosis. changes during formation of a memory
Psychological states used as retrieval cues Type of forgetting: Encoding failure: info is not attended to &
Recall: info must be “pulled” out of memory Hippocampus: responsible for new LTM storage,
Recognition: involves matching info w/ stored fails to be encoded. Decay/Disuse: info that is not accessed removal destroys ability to store anything new.
images or facts Serial position effect: 1st decays from the storage system over time. Proactive Amnesia: Retrograde amnesia: past memories lost,
items & last items in a list are recalled interference: older info already stored in memory interferes can be for min or several yrs Electroconvulsive
better than middle items. with the retrieval of newer info. Retroactive interference: therapy: can cause retrograde amnesia Anterograde
newer info interferes with the retrieval of older info. amnesia: new memory formation blocked; old
memories retrievable Infantile amnesia: lack of
memories before the ages 2-3 due to implicit
nature of infant memory. Alzheimer’s primary
memory difficulty is anterograde amnesia
 Definition of Psychology: Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes Research Ethics: Ethical guidelines for doing research with human
beings protect the rights and well-being of participants.
Psychology’s 4 Goals: Description, Explanation, Prediction, Control
Animals in psychological research must not be exposed to
unnecessary pain or suffering
Descriptive Methods: Finding Relationships: The Scientific Method:
Naturalistic observations: Designing an experiment: Placebo: when expectations of participants in a
watching subjects in natural Determines facts & controls the possibilities study influence their behaviour
Establishes cause & effect of error & bias when observing behaviour,
environments but lacking control. Important Elements:
1. Perceiving the question Experimenter bias: experimenter’s expectations
Laboratory observations: in an >Independent variables-factors may unintentionally influence the results of the
artificial but controlled situation that are manipulated 2. Forming the hypothesis study
3. Testing the hypothesis
Case Studies & Surveys: >Dependent variables-measured Single-blind studies: experiments in which the
behaviours or responses 4. Drawing conclusions subjects do not know if they are in the
Case studies involve 1 subject;
surveys involve asking 5. Reporting the results experimental or control groups
>Random Assignment to
standardized questions of a groups-controls for individual
Action Potential: At rest; Neuron is (-) Double-blind studies: experiments in which
sample of the population differences or biases neither the experimenters nor the subjects know
charged on the inside, Outside of cell is
>Operational Definitions- (+) charged Action Potential; Neurons fire if they are in the experiment or control group
Neurotransmitters: definition of a variable interest
Acetylcholine: stimulates in an all-or-nothing manner. Excitatory
transmitters allow (+) Na ions to enter the Structure of Neuron: Neurons; Dendrites, which
muscle, memory formation receive input, Soma or cell body, Axons, which
Peripheral NS: Somatic NS: cell leading to the action potential.
GABA: inhibitory transmitter sensory pathway neurons- carry neural messages to other cells. Glial
Serotonin: associated w/ Synapse: Synaptic vesicles are found at cells; separate, support, & insulate the neurons.
messages to central NS;
sleep mood & appetite the end of the axon terminal; action Myelin; insulate & protect axons & speeds
Motor pathway neurons-
Endorphin: neural regulator 4 potentials cause transmitter release from transmission. Nerves; axons bundle together in
central NS to voluntary
pain responses Dopamine: the axon terminal; neurotransmitter ‘cables’
muscles Autonomic NS 2
movement, pleasure sensations molecules fit into dendrites’ receptor,
Divisions: Sympathetic division
Cleaning synapse: most stimulating or inhibiting that cell.
is fight or flight system,
neurotransmitters are taken reacting to stress
back into the synaptic vesicles Parasympathetic division Brain + Spinal cord: 2 functions; transmit messages 2 & from the brain, Control life-saving
during reuptake. Acetylcholine restores & maintains normal reflexes. Brain Stem; Medulla: life-sustaining functions, Pons: involved in sleep, dreaming,
is cleared out of the synapse arousal, coordination of movement. Reticular formation: involved in selective attention &
by enzymes that break up the Senses & Movement: Occipital arousal. Cerebellum: motor movement, learned reflexes, posture. Structures-Cortex; Limbic
molecules. lobe: contains the primary visual
cortex. Parietal lobe: system: THALAMUS: switching station that send sensory info to areas of cortex, HYPOTHALA-
The Cortex: Outer covering of somatasensory area, body & MUS: hunger, thirst, sleep, sexual behaviour, sleeping-walking, emotions, pituitary gland. HIPPO-
brain, tightly pack layer of chemical senses. Temporal lobe: CAMPUS: storing memories & remembering locations of objects. AMYGDALA: fear responses &
neurons, corticalization primary auditory area. Frontal memory of fearful stimuli. FORNIX: pleasure centre, connects hippocampus to cortex.
(wrinkles) allow 4 greater lobe: motor cortex.
cortical area, 2 cerebral
hemispheres connected by Chemical Connection: The Endocrine Glands: Endocrine glands secrete hormones to
Higher Forms of Thoughts & influence activity of muscles & organs Pituitary gland: growth hormone & influences other
corpus callosum Language: Association areas: glands Pineal gland: melatonin, regulates sleep-wake cycle Thyroid gland: metabolism by
integration of cortical processing. secreting thyroxin Pancreas: blood sugar by secreting insulin & glucagons Gonads:
Cerebral Hemispheres: Broca’s area: left frontal lobe produces hormones regulate sexual growth, activity, reproduction Adrenal glands: stress reaction w/
Split Brain: corpus callosum fluent speech. Wernicke’s area: left epinephrine & norepinephrine Adrenal cortex: salt intake, stress, & sexual development
severed to control epilepsy.
temporal lobe understands language.
Left hemisphere: language,
writing, logical thought,
information processed Sense of Pain: Gate-control theory of pain: Stimulation of pain receptors causes transmitter release into the spinal cord.
Activates other pain receptors by opening ‘gates’ in the spinal column
sequentially.
Right hemisphere: processes How We Perceive World in 3 Dimensions: Monocular cues (pictorial depth cues): Depth cues based on 1 eye only; >linear
info globally, emotional perspective >Interposition (overlap) >Texture gradient >Accommodation >Relative size >Aerial perspective >Motion parallax Binocular
expression, spatial perception, cues: Cues for perceiving depth based on both eyes; >Convergence >Binocular disparity. Gestalt Principles of Perception: Figure-
recognition of faces, patterns, ground relationships: >Closure >Similarity >Contiguity >Continuity >Common region Perception & Perceptual Constancies: Size
melodies, & emotions. constancy: objects seem the same size, no matter their distance. Shape constancy: objects seem same shape despite retinal
image changes. Brightness constancy: changes in lighting do not affect brightness perception.

Chemical Sense: Olfaction: Olfactory Visual Illusions: Muller-Lyer illusion: involves the misperception of 2 lines of equal length. Moon illusion: Moon appears to
receptors receive molecules of be larger on the horizon. Factors That Influence Perception: Perceptual set or expectancy: tendency to perceive according to
substances. Neural signal go to the prior experiences. Top-down processing: Knowledge organizes individual features into a unified whole. Bottom-up processing:
olfactory bulbs Analysis of smaller feature builds up to a complete perception.

Sensation & Central NS: Sensation: activation Light: Light: form of electromagnetic radiation described by wavelength & amplitude. Color of hue: in part
of sense organ receptors. Sensory receptors: determined by wavelength; >Long wavelengths-red end of the visible spectrum. >Shorter wavelengths-blue end of
specialized neurons activated by stimuli the visible spectrum. Brightness: corresponds to the amplitude of light waves. Saturation: refers to the purity of
Thresholds: >Just noticeable difference: the colour people see. Parts of the Eye: Pathway of light: Cornea -> Pupil-> Lens-> Retina-> (hits the rods &
smallest detectable stimulus change. >Absolute cones)
thresholds: smallest amount of energy for
stimulus detection. >Subliminal stimuli: Not Color Vision: Trichromatic & opponent- process theories: 2 process that work together. Trichromatic theory of
been shown to affect day to day behaviour. color perception: 3 types of cones for long, medium & short wavelengths. Opponet processes: at the ganglion
Ignoring Sensations: Habituation: ignoring a cell level combine long versus medium cones to produce red & green. Medium & long cones combine together
constant stimulus. Sensory adaptation: sensory versus the short-wavelength cone to produce yellow & blue. Color blindness: total lack of color perception or
neurons stop responding to constant stimuli color perception that is limited to yellows & blues or reds & greens only. Rods, Cones: Rods: low light levels,
no role in color vision, poor acuity, located peripherally. Cones: work at bright light levels, see color, provide
central & sharp vision.