Syllabus content

Topic 3: Geometry and trigonometry

Concepts
Essential understandings:
Geometry and trigonometry allows us to quantify the physical world, enhancing our spatial awareness in
two and three dimensions. This topic provides us with the tools for analysis, measurement and
transformation of quantities, movements and relationships.

Suggested concepts embedded in this topic:

Generalization, space, relationships, equivalence, representation,
AHL: Quantity, Modelling.

Content-specific conceptual understandings:

• The properties of shapes depend on the dimension they occupy in space.
• Volume and surface area of shapes are determined by formulae, or general mathematical relationships
or rules expressed using symbols or variables.
• The relationships between the length of the sides and the size of the angles in a triangle can be used
to solve many problems involving position, distance, angles and area.
• Equivalent measurement systems, such as degrees and radians, can be used for angles to facilitate
ease of calculation.
• Different representations of the values of trigonometric relationships, such as exact or approximate,
may not be equivalent to one another.
• The trigonometric functions of angles may be defined on the unit circle, which can visually and
algebraically represent the periodic or symmetric nature of their values.

AHL
• Position and movement can be modelled in three-dimensional space using vectors.
• The relationships between algebraic, geometric and vector methods can help us to solve problems
and quantify those positions and movements.

SL content
Recommended teaching hours: 25
The aim of the SL content of the geometry and trigonometry topic is to introduce students to geometry in
three dimensions and to non right-angled trigonometry. Students will explore the circular functions and
use properties and identities to solve problems in abstract and real-life contexts.
Throughout this topic students should be given the opportunity to use technology such as graphing
packages, graphing calculators and dynamic geometry software to develop and apply their knowledge of
geometry and trigonometry.
On examination papers, radian measure should be assumed unless otherwise indicated.
Sections SL3.1 to SL3.3 are content common to both Mathematics: analysis and approaches and
Mathematics: applications and interpretation.

SL 3.1

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The distance between two points in three- In SL examinations, only right-angled trigonometry
dimensional space, and their midpoint. questions will be set in reference to three-
dimensional shapes.

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Volume and surface area of three-dimensional solids In problems related to these topics, students should
including right-pyramid, right cone, sphere, be able to identify relevant right-angled triangles in
hemisphere and combinations of these solids. three-dimensional objects and use them to find
The size of an angle between two intersecting lines unknown lengths and angles.
or between a line and a plane.

Connections
Other contexts: Architecture and design.
Links to other subjects: Design technology; volumes of stars and inverse square law (physics).
TOK: What is an axiomatic system? Are axioms self evident to everybody?

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SL 3.2

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Use of sine, cosine and tangent ratios to find the In all areas of this topic, students should be
sides and angles of right-angled triangles. encouraged to sketch well-labelled diagrams to
support their solutions.
Link to: inverse functions (SL2.2) when finding
angles.
a b c This section does not include the ambiguous case of
The sine rule: = = .
sinA sinB sinC the sine rule.
The cosine rule: c2 = a2 + b2 − 2abcosC;
a2 + b2 − c2
cosC = .
2ab
1
Area of a triangle as absinC.
2

Connections
Other contexts: Triangulation, map-making.
Links to other subjects: Vectors (physics).
International-mindedness: Diagrams of Pythagoras’ theorem occur in early Chinese and Indian
manuscripts. The earliest references to trigonometry are in Indian mathematics; the use of triangulation to
find the curvature of the Earth in order to settle a dispute between England and France over Newton’s
gravity.
TOK: Is it ethical that Pythagoras gave his name to a theorem that may not have been his own creation?
What criteria might we use to make such a judgment?

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SL 3.3

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Applications of right and non-right angled Contexts may include use of bearings.
trigonometry, including Pythagoras’s theorem.
Angles of elevation and depression.

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Syllabus content

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Construction of labelled diagrams from written
statements.

Connections
Other contexts: Triangulation, map-making, navigation and radio transmissions. Use of parallax for
navigation.
Links to other subjects: Vectors, scalars, forces and dynamics (physics); field studies (sciences group
subjects)
Aim 8: Who really invented Pythagoras’s theorem?
Aim 9: In how many ways can you prove Pythagoras’s theorem?
International-mindedness: The use of triangulation to find the curvature of the Earth in order to settle a
dispute between England and France over Newton’s gravity.
TOK: If the angles of a triangle can add up to less than 180°, 180° or more than 180°, what does this tell us
about the nature of mathematical knowledge?

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SL 3.4

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The circle: radian measure of angles; length of an Radian measure may be expressed as exact
arc; area of a sector. multiples of π, or decimals.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Diffraction patterns and circular motion (physics).
International-mindedness: Seki Takakazu calculating π to ten decimal places; Hipparchus, Menelaus and
Ptolemy; Why are there 360 degrees in a complete turn? Links to Babylonian mathematics.
TOK: Which is a better measure of angle: radian or degree? What criteria can/do/should mathematicians
use to make such decisions?

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SL 3.5

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Definition of cosθ, sinθ in terms of the unit circle. Includes the relationship between angles in different
quadrants.
cosx = cos( − x)
Examples: tan(3π − x) = − tanx
sin(π + x) = − sinx
sinθ The equation of a straight line through the origin is
Definition of tanθ as .
cosθ y = xtanθ, where θ is the angle formed between the
line and positive x-axis.
π π π π π 3 3π 1 3
Exact values of trigonometric ratios of 0, , , , sin = , cos = − , tan   210° =
6 4 3 2 3 2 4 2 3
and their multiples.
Extension of the sine rule to the ambiguous case.

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Connections
International-mindedness: The first work to refer explicitly to the sine as a function of an angle is the
Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata (ca 510).
TOK: Trigonometry was developed by successive civilizations and cultures. To what extent is mathematical
knowledge embedded in particular traditions or bound to particular cultures? How have key events in the
history of mathematics shaped its current form and methods?
Enrichment: The proof of Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions.

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SL 3.6

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The Pythagorean identity cos2θ + sin2θ = 1. Simple geometrical diagrams and dynamic graphing
packages may be used to illustrate the double angle
Double angle identities for sine and cosine.
identities (and other trigonometric identities).
The relationship between trigonometric ratios. Examples:
Given sinθ, find possible values of tanθ, (without
finding θ).
3
Given cosx = and x is acute, find sin 2x, (without
4
finding x).

Connections

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SL 3.7

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The circular functions sinx, cosx, and tanx; Trigonometric functions may have domains given in
amplitude, their periodic nature, and their graphs degrees or radians.
Composite functions of the form π
Examples: f (x) = tan(x − ),
4
f (x) = asin(b(x + c)) + d.
f (x) = 2cos(3(x − 4)) + 1.
Transformations. Example: y = sinx used to obtain y = 3sin2x by a
stretch of scale factor 3 in the y direction and a
1
stretch of scale factor in the x direction.
2
Link to: transformations of graphs (SL2.11).
Real-life contexts. Examples: height of tide, motion of a Ferris wheel.
Students should be aware that not all regression
technology produces trigonometric functions in the
form f (x) = asin (b (x + c)) + d.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Simple harmonic motion (physics).
TOK: Music can be expressed using mathematics. What does this tell us about the relationship between
music and mathematics?

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide 47

Syllabus content

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SL 3.8

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Solving trigonometric equations in a finite interval, 2sinx = 1,   0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
both graphically and analytically. Examples: 2sin2x = 3cosx,   0° ≤ x ≤ 180°
2tan(3(x − 4)) = 1,   − π ≤ x ≤ 3π
Equations leading to quadratic equations in Examples: 2sin2 x + 5cosx + 1 = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4π,
sinx, cosx or tanx.
2sinx = cos2x,   − π ≤ x ≤ π
Not required: The general solution of trigonometric
equations.

Connections

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AHL content
Recommended teaching hours: 26
The aim of the AHL content in the geometry and trigonometry topic is to extend and build upon the aims,
concepts and skills from the SL content. It further explores the circular functions, introduces some
important trigonometric identities, and introduces vectors in two and three dimensions. This will facilitate
problem-solving involving points, lines and planes.
On examination papers radian measure should be assumed unless otherwise indicated.

AHL 3.9

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Definition of the reciprocal trigonometric ratios secθ,
cosecθ and cotθ.
1 + tan2θ = sec2θ
Pythagorean identities:
1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ
The inverse functions f (x) = arcsinx,
f (x) = arccosx, f (x) = arctanx; their domains and
ranges; their graphs.

Connections
International-mindedness: The origin of degrees in the mathematics of Mesopotamia and why we use
minutes and seconds for time; the origin of the word sine.
TOK: What is the relationship between concepts and facts? To what extent do the concepts that we use
shape the conclusions that we reach?

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AHL 3.10

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Compound angle identities. Derivation of double angle identities from
Double angle identity for tan. compound angle identities.
Link to: De Moivre’s theorem (AHL1.14).

Connections
Other contexts: Triangulation used by GPSs (global positioning systems); concepts in electrical
engineering including generation of sinusoidal voltage.

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AHL 3.11

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Relationships between trigonometric functions and sin(π − θ) = sinθ
the symmetry properties of their graphs.
cos(π − θ) = − cosθ

tan(π − θ) = − tanθ

Link to: the unit circle (SL3.5), odd and even

functions (AHL2.14), compound angles (AHL3.10).

Connections
Links to other subjects: Simple harmonic motion graphs (physics)
TOK: Mathematics and knowledge claims: how can there be an infinite number of discrete solutions to an
equation?

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AHL 3.12

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Concept of a vector; position vectors; displacement
vectors.
Representation of vectors using directed line
segments.
Base vectors i,   j,   k.
Components of a vector:
v1
v = v2 = v1i + v2 j + v3k.
v3

Algebraic and geometric approaches to the Distance between points A and B is the magnitude
following: →
of AB
• the sum and difference of two vectors
• the zero vector 0, the vector −v
• multiplication by a scalar, kv, parallel vectors

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

• v
magnitude of a vector, |v|; unit vectors,
|v|
• → →
position vectors OA = a,   OB = b
• →
displacement vector AB = b − a
Proofs of geometrical properties using vectors.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Vectors, scalars, forces and dynamics (physics).
Aim 8: Vectors are used to solve many problems in position location. This can be used to save a lost sailor or
destroy a building with a laser-guided bomb.
TOK: Vectors are used to solve many problems in position location. This can be used to save a lost sailor or
destroy a building with a laser-guided bomb. To what extent does possession of knowledge carry with it an
ethical obligation?

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AHL 3.13

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The definition of the scalar product of two vectors. Applications of the properties of the scalar product
The angle between two vectors. v · w = w · v;
Perpendicular vectors; parallel vectors. u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w;
(kv) · w = k(v · w);
v · v = v 2.
v · w = v w cosθ, where θ is the angle between v and
w.
For non-zero vectors v · w = 0 is equivalent to the
vectors being perpendicular; for parallel vectors
|v ⋅ w| = |v||w|.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Forces and dynamics (physics).
TOK: The nature of mathematics: why this definition of scalar product?
Enrichment: Proof of the cosine rule using the dot product.

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AHL 3.14

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Vector equation of a line in two and three Relevance of a (position) and b (direction).
dimensions: Knowledge of the following forms for equations of
r = a + λb. lines:
Parametric form:
x = x0 + λl, y = y0 + λm, z = z0 + λn.

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Cartesian form:
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= = .
l m n
The angle between two lines. Using the scalar product of the two direction
vectors.
Simple applications to kinematics. Interpretation of λ as time and b as velocity, with |b|
representing speed.

Connections
Other contexts: Modelling linear motion in three dimensions; navigational devices, for example GPS.
TOK: Why might it be argued that one form of representation is superior to another? What criteria might a
mathematician use in making such an argument?

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AHL 3.15

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Coincident, parallel, intersecting and skew lines, Skew lines are non-parallel lines that do not
distinguishing between these cases. intersect in three-dimensional space.
Points of intersection.

Connections
TOK: How can there be an infinite number of discrete solutions to an equation? What does this suggest
about the nature of mathematical knowledge and how it compares to knowledge in other disciplines?

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AHL 3.16

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The definition of the vector product of two vectors. The vector product is also known as the “cross
product”.
v × w = v w sinθn, where θ
is the angle between v and w, and n is the unit
normal vector whose direction is given by the right-
hand screw rule.
Properties of the vector product. v × w = − w × v;
u × (v + w) = u × v + u × w;
(kv) × w = k(v × w);
v × v = 0.
For non-zero vectors v × w = 0 is equivalent to the
vectors being parallel.
Geometric interpretation of | v × w | Use of | v × w | to find the area of a parallelogram
(and hence a triangle).

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Connections
Links to other subjects: Magnetic forces and fields (physics).
TOK: To what extent is certainty attainable in mathematics? Is certainty attainable, or desirable, in other
areas of knowledge?

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AHL 3.17

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Vector equations of a plane:
r = a + λb + μc, where b and c are non-parallel
vectors within the plane.
r · n = a · n, where n is a normal to the plane and a is
the position vector of a point on the plane.
Cartesian equation of a plane ax + by + cz = d.

Connections

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AHL 3.18

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Intersections of: a line with a plane; two planes; Finding intersections by solving equations;
three planes. geometrical interpretation of solutions.
Angle between: a line and a plane; two planes. Link to: solutions of systems of linear equations
(AHL 1.16).

Connections
TOK: Mathematics and the knower: are symbolic representations of three-dimensional objects easier to
deal with than visual representations? What does this tell us about our knowledge of mathematics in other
dimensions?

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Topic 4: Statistics and probability

Concepts
Essential understandings:
Statistics is concerned with the collection, analysis and interpretation of data and the theory of probability
can be used to estimate parameters, discover empirical laws, test hypotheses and predict the occurrence of
events. Statistical representations and measures allow us to represent data in many different forms to aid
interpretation.
Probability enables us to quantify the likelihood of events occurring and so evaluate risk. Both statistics and
probability provide important representations which enable us to make predictions, valid comparisons and
informed decisions. These fields have power and limitations and should be applied with care and critically

52 Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide