Undergraduate Music Theory Terminology Used by Selected Spanish

University of Kentucky
UKnowledge
Theses and Dissertations--Music Music
2018
UNDERGRADUATE MUSIC THEORY TERMINOLOGY USED BY

SELECTED SPANISH-SPEAKING INSTRUCTORS IN CHILE:
DEVELOPMENT, SIMILARITIES, AND LIMITATIONS
Enrique Sandoval-Cisternas
University of Kentucky, [email protected]
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https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1188-7383
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Sandoval-Cisternas, Enrique, "UNDERGRADUATE MUSIC THEORY TERMINOLOGY USED BY SELECTED
SPANISH-SPEAKING INSTRUCTORS IN CHILE: DEVELOPMENT, SIMILARITIES, AND LIMITATIONS" (2018).
Theses and Dissertations--Music. 119.
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Enrique Sandoval-Cisternas, Student
Dr. Karen Bottge, Major Professor
Dr. Michael Baker, Director of Graduate Studies

UNDERGRADUATE MUSIC THEORY TERMINOLOGY
USED BY SELECTED SPANISH-SPEAKING INSTRUCTORS
IN CHILE: DEVELOPMENT, SIMILARITIES, AND LIMITATIONS
__________________________________________________
THESIS
__________________________________________________
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the
College of Fine Arts
at the University of Kentucky
By
Lexington, Kentucky
Co-Directors: Dr. Karen Bottge, Professor of Music Theory

and Dr. Kevin Holm-Hudson, Professor of Music Theory
Lexington, Kentucky
2018
Copyright  Enrique Sandoval-Cisternas 2018

ABSTRACT OF THESIS

Six Chilean music theory instructors participated in an anonymous survey applied

over an online platform between April and October of 2017. These instructors were invited
to participate in this study because of their role in teaching music theory at influential
institutions, each of which is ranked among the top ten best universities in Chile. The
questions included in the survey relate to the terminology used to refer to music elements
upon which current American music theory textbooks consistently agree, and that are
usually taught during the first two years of undergraduate studies in accredited American
music schools: types of cadences, periods, sentences, types of 64 chords, augmented sixth
chords, tonicization, modulation, binary form, and the exposition of the sonata form.
Music theory terminology and its standardization facilitates the communication of
the participants of the domain, as well as the transmission of knowledge and practice of the
field. This characteristic of music terminology is an essential pedagogical tool for the
training of musicians, especially undergraduate students. In order to evaluate and compare
the level of standardization of music theory terminology used by Chilean instructors, this
research will first assess the level of standardization of seven American music theory
textbooks, and one British textbook.
KEYWORDS: Music Theory, Terminology, Textbooks, United States, Chile
April 11, 2018

By
Dr. Karen Bottge

Co-Director of Thesis
Dr. Kevin Holm-Hudson

Co-Director of Thesis
Dr. Michael Baker

Director of Graduate Studies
April 11, 2018

To my beloved wife Cindy, thank you for supporting me throughout all these years, for
your love and care
To my children, Leonor, Pablo, and Lucas, because through them God has shown me the
meaning of love, and the value and reward of perseverance and endurance
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many thanks to my dear Professors for helping me to find the beauty of music
theory and its teachings: Dr. Karen Bottge, Dr. Kevin Holm-Hudson, Dr. Michael Baker,
and Dr. Rob Schultz. You pushed me to dive deeper into knowledge, to find what is not
seen by the common eye. Thank you for your faithful and relentless encouragement
through this process. Also, many thanks to Dr. Dieter Hennings and Dr. Lance Brunner for
their support and encouragement, providing insights that guided and challenged my
thinking.
I received equally important assistance from family and friends. My wife, Cindy,
provided on-going support throughout the thesis process. Many thanks also to Dr. Pedro
Vera, providing technical assistance for completing the project in a timely manner. Finally,
I wish to thank the respondents of my study (who remain anonymous for confidentiality
purposes). Their comments and insights created an informative and interesting project with
opportunities for future work.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................iii
List of Tables..................................................................................................................vii
List of Figures................................................................................................................viii
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background.....................................................................................................1
1.2 Terminology: General Definition and Function.............................................2
1.3 Terminology and Its Function in Other Fields of Study.................................5
1.4 Descriptive and Prescriptive Terminology.....................................................7
1.5 Music Theory and the Development of Its Terminology................................7
1.6 Benefits of Terminology in Music Theory.....................................................9
Chapter 2: Development of Music Theory Terminology in English Language
2.1 Establishing a Terminology in Music Theory..............................................12
2.2 Music Periodicals in English Language........................................................13
2.3 Music Theory Associations in the United States..........................................14
2.4 Music Theory Textbooks in English: The American Experience.................16
2.5 Curriculum and Materials: The First Two Years of Undergraduate.............19
Chapter 3: Chapter Three: Assessment of American Textbooks
3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................21
3.2 Types of Cadences........................................................................................22

6
3.3 Types of 4
Chords.........................................................................................24
3.4 Augmented Sixth Chords..............................................................................26
3.5 Tonicization and Modulation........................................................................28
iv
3.6 Phrase Structure: Period and Sentence.........................................................29
3.7 Binary Form..................................................................................................30
3.8 Sonata Form..................................................................................................32
Chapter 4: Music Theory Literature Used in Chile
4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................36
4.2 Common Literature Used by Chilean Instructors.........................................36
4.3 General Evaluation........................................................................................39
Chapter 5: Survey Data, Questions and Methodology
5.1 Introduction: Materials Included...................................................................44
5.2 Methodology.................................................................................................44
5.3 Questions and Answers.................................................................................45
A. The Music Theory Discipline in Chile...............................................45
B. Types of Cadences.............................................................................46
6
C. Types of 4
Chords.............................................................................50
D. Augmented Sixth Chords...................................................................53
E. Tonicization and Modulation.............................................................55
F. Phrase Structure..................................................................................56
G. Binary Form.......................................................................................58
H. Sonata Form.......................................................................................60
Chapter 6: Discussion
6.1 General Considerations.................................................................................65
6.2 Music Theory as a Three-Part Discipline.....................................................68
6.3 Music Theory Associations and Periodicals in Chile...................................69
v
6.4 Types of Cadences.......................................................................................70
6
6.5 Types of 4
Chords.......................................................................................72
6.6 Augmented Sixth Chords.............................................................................73
6.7 Tonicization and Modulation.......................................................................73
6.8 Phrase Structure, Binary form, and Sonata Form........................................74
6.9 Conclusion: Benefits and Implications........................................................77
Appendices
Appendix A: Music Periodicals..........................................................................81
Appendix B: Common Literature of Harmony and Analysis Used in Chile......83
Appendix C: Common Literature of Solfeggio and Practical Skills..................85
Bibliography...................................................................................................................87
Vita.................................................................................................................................91
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Regional Music Theory Associations..................................................................15
Table 2: Music Theory Interest Groups.............................................................................16
Table 3: Music Theory Curricular Content........................................................................20
Table 4: American Music Theory Textbooks.....................................................................21
Table 5: Terminology of Cadences in Textbooks..............................................................23
Table 6: Terminology of 64 Chords in Textbooks................................................................24
Table 7: Terminology of Augmented Sixth Chords in Textbooks.....................................27
Table 8: Terminology of Tonicization and Modulation in Textbooks...............................29
Table 9: Terminology of Periods and Sentence in Textbooks...........................................30
Table 10: Terminology of Binary Form in Textbooks.......................................................31
Table 11: Terminology of the Exposition of Sonata Form in Textbooks..........................33
Table 12: Survey Results, Types of Cadences...................................................................46

6
Table 13: Survey Results, Types of 4
Chords....................................................................50
Table 14: Survey Results, Augmented Sixth Chords.........................................................53
Table 15: Survey Results, Tonicization and Modulation...................................................55
Table 16: Survey Results, Periods and Sentence...............................................................56
Table 17: Survey Results, Binary Form.............................................................................59
Table 18: Survey Results, Exposition of the Sonata Form................................................60
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Kyo Kageura, Lexical and Symbolic Forms........................................................3
viii
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background
The purpose of this study is to investigate and measure the level of
standardization of undergraduate music theory terminology used by Spanish-speaking
instructors, taking as a case study the Chilean experience. In order to obtain reliable data,
an online and anonymous survey was submitted to six music theory instructors from
influential academic institutions in the country. The survey contains questions about
materials commonly included in undergraduate American music theory textbooks, as well
as about the development of music theory pedagogical practice in the country. At the
same time, this research proposed that music theory terminology has gradually developed
from music literature and practice made in the language to which it pertains, being
characterized as a “descriptive terminology.” Then, knowing beforehand that current
music theory literature, periodicals, and textbooks originating from the Spanish language
are not as abundant as in the American experience, this research proposed that the
Spanish music theory terminology would not have a high level of standardization due to
this lack of materials in the original language. The survey will shed light on the actual
level of standardization.
Music theory journals, textbooks, and music theory associations have proliferated
during the past decades in the United States, playing an important role in the
development of a relatively common musical vocabulary in the American-English
language, and thus contributing to the expansion, transmission, and institutionalization of
a common body of knowledge and vocabulary among musicians. Moreover, the academic
cooperation and dissemination of knowledge that these publications and professional
1
organizations promote have built a coherent terminology shared by most music theory
teachers. Since music theory textbooks tend to summarize current musical practice and
terminology, this research will assess seven American music theory textbooks on the
same materials included in the survey, comparing the level of standardization of those
textbooks with the Chilean experience. On the other hand, music theory literature
originating in the Spanish language, as well as professional associations, have not seen
the same development as in the American experience. Thus, the main questions addressed
in this research are: (1) How has the Chilean music terminology developed? (2) Is there a
large amount of standardized terms used within Chilean educational institutions? (3) How
do music theory instructors transmit their teachings? Additionally, this study will review
the pedagogical resources used by the interviewed instructors, as well as how those
resources are included in the curriculum of teaching music fundamentals and notation,
harmony, and analysis. Intending to promote the benefits of having a common vocabulary
in music theory (a field of knowledge that deals with as many as certainties as
ambiguities), an evaluation commenting on the implications of the results will be
addressed at the end of this study, advocating for future developments in the field of
music theory from and for the Spanish language.
1.2 Terminology: General Definition and Function
Dealing with terminology is to immerse ourselves in the field of linguistics, a
necessary task to understand the importance of getting acquainted with a good definition
of what “terminology” is, as well as its function. A term is created when a sign or word is
charged with a technical or specialized sense; it is regarded as part of the Language for
2
Special Purposes (LSPs).1 At the same time, a term is able to replace a definition as much
as a definition replaces a term. Thus, terminology is seen an element of LSPs rather than
of Language for General Purposes (LGPs).2
Figure 1: Kyo Kageura, Lexical and Symbolic Forms3
The function and meaning of a term in a domain is based on the relationship
between that term and the elements or concepts defined by it. Terminology is then more
than a collection of words, but a system of words working to define abstraction and
concrete entities such as ideas and concepts, events, or things.4 The function of
1
Annette Jessen, "The Presence and Treatment of Terms in General Dictionaries"
(Master’s thesis, University of Ottawa, 1997), 2. In ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis.
2
Jessen, 6.
3
Kyo Kageura, The Quantitative Analysis of the Dynamics and Structure of
Terminologies, ed. Inc ebrary (Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2012),
13. Online access https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.uky.edu/lib/kentucky-
ebooks/detail.action?docID=1083817 (accessed July 17, 2017).
4
Ibid., 26.
3
terminology is quite similar to the function of general vocabulary but it focuses in a
specific domain. In other words, terminology is “the vocabulary of a domain.”5
In his book The Quantitative Analysis of the Dynamics and Structure of
Terminologies, Kyo Kageura cites four definitions of “term” given by prominent scholars
in the field of linguistics and terminology:6
[1] A linguistic symbol which is assigned to one or more concepts, which

are defined from neighboring concepts. It can be a word or a word group.
H. Felber
[2] A lexical unit consisting of one or more than one word which represent
a concept inside a domain. B. Bessé
[3] A lexical item deliberately created within a specialized society, which is

used especially among a group of people with the same vocation or the same
subjects. K. Nomoto
[4] A functional class of lexical units. J.C. Sager
From the above definitions, we can then describe a “term” as a lexical unit such as
a word or a group of words created or taken from the general language, used by a group
of people in a specialized domain of study. At the same time, terms can be “non-
linguistic symbols such as mathematical symbols and/or non-lexical linguistic units such
as phrases,”7 which Kyo Kageura describes as an “artificial sign system.” It is also
possible for terms to be or interact with common words because they can be taken from
the general vocabulary. Thus, ordinary words would become a term, and terms would
become ordinary words if used in common discourse or as daily vocabulary. Figure 1,
5
Brunno de Besse, cited by Kyo Kageura in The Quantitative Analysis of the Dynamics
and Structure of Terminologies, 10.
6
Kageura, 9.
7
Ibid., 11.
4
taken from Kageura’s book, exemplifies the relationship between general and specialized
artificial lexical item, as well as signs created to serve as terms.
1.3 Terminology and Its Function in Other Fields of Study
Due to the importance of the use of terminology in specialized domains such as
accounting,8 radiology,9 library science,10 and chemistry,11 whose terminology has
reached international standardization due to their use of mathematical models and high
degree of objectivity, academic collaboration has developed as a necessary practice to
maintain an updated core of knowledge among scholars and participants of those fields.
The increasing use of technology and advance computing programs are other important
factors that have contributed to the wide acceptance of a standardized terminology in
those fields.
The use of terminology has been widely documented since the 1980s, showing its
benefits as well as the way the terminology of a specific domain is created.12 The
discussion about the implementation of a terminology with national and international
standards started as early as the 1930s, when Europeans scholars began to promote the
8
Pedro A. Fuertes-Olivera, "Equivalent Selection in Specialized E-Lexicography: A Case
Study with Spanish Accounting Terms," Lexikos 21 (2011): 95-119.
9
Daniel L. Rubin a, "Creating and Curating a Terminology for Radiology: Ontology
Modeling and Analysis," Journal of Digital Imaging 21, no. 4 (Dec 2008): 355-62.
10
Alvin Marvin Schrader, “Toward a Theory of Library and Information Science,” (PhD
diss., Indiana University, 1983). In ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis.
11
Elsabé Taljard and Mahlodi Jean Nchabeleng, "Management and Internal
Standardization of Chemistry Terminology: A Northern Sotho Case Study," Lexikos 21
(2011): 194-216.
12
H. Felber, Terminology Manual, (Paris: Unesco and Infoterm, 1984),
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0006/000620/062033EB.pdf (accessed July 17, 2017).
5
idea of an internationally standardized language of the hard sciences, especially in
engineering, within the International Federation of National Standardizing (ISA).13 This
association, founded in 1926, became later the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), and its function is “to facilitate the international coordination and
unification of industrial standards.”14 Today, its services cover almost every industry,
having a membership of 163 nationalities.
The standardization of terminology is a process, and having terminology in a
specific domain does not grant its standardization. Likewise common language
vocabulary: the creation of a terminology of a domain could originate with a single
person, but the acceptance of its standardization is a communal decision and practice. It is
possible, however, for a reduced circle of individuals, a specialized society, to have a
terminology that only works inside their circle of influence, without national or
international standardization. Such “specialized societies” would be the individuals of a
domain representing a single country, or of small societies such as the staff of a
university or business. In the case of the music theory domain, the members of a given
music theory department would represent a specialized society, using their own
terminology. Thus, the level of standardization of a terminology is measured by the
number of individuals of that “society” using the same terms to describe concepts and
musical elements.
13
Felber, 16, 31.
14
https://www.iso.org/about-us.html (accessed July 17, 2017).
6
1.4 Descriptive and Prescriptive Terminology
Progress in any field of study leads to the creation of terms by either assigning a
concept to an existing word (lexical item) or coining new words to assign a concept. This
accumulation of concepts creates a system of concepts in that domain, as well as a
terminology. This type of terminology is not necessarily standardized, and represents all
the accumulative progress and core of knowledge that the participants of the given field
have made. When documented and systematically catalogued, the results are dictionaries.
This type of terminology is known as “descriptive terminology,”15 and it is presented in
fields of study where concepts have a broad meaning, and in which subjectivity plays an
important role, such as in music. On the other hand, in domains that need high levels of
standardization and the avoidance of ambiguity (homonyms and synonyms), a
“prescriptive terminology” is necessary. This means a high-level standardized
terminology in which “for one concept—the element of thinking—only one term should
exist and vice versa.”16
1.5 Music Theory and The Development of Its Terminology
Music is a domain in which objectivity and subjectivity coexist because it is in
itself both an aesthetic experience and a physical substance. Music analysis, then, would
deal with its psychological/perceptive (aesthetic/philosophy) and scientific (sound and its
measurements) aspects. Even the analysis of its notation deals with this ambiguity
because it cannot completely describe how the actual sound is nor the way it is perceived
15
Felber, 13, 14.
16
Ibid., 14.
7
by people.17 Under this perspective, why standardize a terminology in music theory? Is
there any value in having a standardized terminology, or even a terminology in a field
that deals with as much ambiguity as with facts?
Music theory terminology falls under the classification of a “descriptive
terminology,” in which the knowledge and concepts of the domain have been linked to
lexical items taken either from the general vocabulary or by creating new words/signs
and cataloguing them in specialized lexicons or dictionaries. The creation of those
lexicons does not ensure the standardization of the terminology, but only its record and
transmission. Extra efforts have to be made to accomplish a standardized terminology,
and the creation of lexicons is only one of the elements that contributes to it.
Dissemination of publications, academic collaboration, and collaborative work in
seminars and symposiums play a key role in establishing a common terminology in the
music field.
Music theory as a body of knowledge has a long history, from the time of ancient
Greeks. In our days, publications, academic collaboration between its participants, the
creation of music theory associations, and the establishment of graduate theory programs
offering masters and PhD academic degrees, all have contributed to the establishment of
a core of common knowledge and vocabulary. In Western history, music theory has been
a discipline cultivated not only by composers but also by music theorists. Emblematic are
the contributions of Hugo Riemann, Heinrich Schenker, and Allen Forte, providing
17
Theodor W. Adorno, Essays on Music, ed. Richard D. Leppert (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 2002), 113-126. See also Barthold Kuijken, The Notation Is Not the
Music: Reflections on Early Music Practice and Performance (Bloomington
Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2013).
8
analytical tools that have serve as models for musical analysis and harmony. While
Riemann’s great contribution is his theory of tonal functions,18 Schenker contributed with
his theory of structural levels and linearity in tonal music.19 On the other hand, Forte’s
contribution is his pitch-class theory, an analytical tool created to analyze free atonal
music as well as other current compositional trends.20 These authors also contributed with
new concepts and terms to the core of knowledge of the domain, serving as an example
on how a “prescriptive terminology” can become part of the terminology of the field.
1.6 Benefits of Terminology in Music Theory
The implementation of a complete “prescriptive terminology” in the field of
music seems far from being conceived, and not even desired because of the nature of
music. Throughout the history of music theory, however, there are instances in which
authors have contributed to the implementation of a specialized artificial lexicon. Such
are the cases of the terminology proposed by Allan Forte in his pitch-class theory, and
James Hepokoski and Warren Darcy in their sonata theory.21 However, what made
possible their inclusion in the main body of music theory terminology, as well as their
standardization, was the acceptance of these artificial terms by most participants of the
18
Bernstein, David W, “Nineteenth-century Harmonic Theory: The Austro-German
Legacy, Riemann,” in The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory, ed. Thomas
Street Christensen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 796-800.
19
William Drabkin, “Heinrich Schenker,” in The Cambridge History of Western Music
Theory, ed. Thomas Street Christensen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001),
812-43.
20
Allen Forte, "Pitch-Class Set Genera and the Origin of Modern Harmonic Species,"
Journal of Music Theory 32, no. 2 (1988): 187-270.
21
James A. Hepokoski and Warren Darcy, Elements of Sonata Theory: Norms, Types,
and Deformations in the Late Eighteenth-Century Sonata, (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2006).
9
discipline. For the terminology Forte, it is a finished process, but not yet for Hepokoski
and Darcy’s terminology.
Clear analytical tools to recognize elements in their contexts, as well as
verbalization of concepts into lexical items, are absolutely necessary for pedagogical
purposes; therefore, a certain level of standardization is necessary in the area of music
theory. Academic collaboration also requires a common vocabulary, which is able to
describe concepts and musical elements that would be clearly recognized by the
participants of the domain, and ensuring that all participants speak the “language of the
domain.” Even when music concepts and elements can be described instead of being
assigned to a single lexical item, which is a necessary task for certain elements of music
that have more than one meaning in musical analysis, a singular term would work better
for those elements that need a clear and precise definition. In other words, music theory
terminology and its standardization not only facilitates the communication of the
participants of the domain, but also the transmission of knowledge and practice of the
field. This characteristic of music terminology is an essential pedagogical tool for the
training of musicians, especially those who need a solid and stable foundation of
knowledge that would enable them for higher levels of studies.
Examples of the benefits of using a standardized terminology in music theory are
found in the common labeling of cadences. For instance, in a music class in which
students already know what the term “Phrygian cadence” means (a concept-lexical item
relationship), participants are not in need of receiving an explanation or description of it
every time the instructor mentions that type of cadence because they already know that
the term implies a harmonic progression ending on the dominant, reached by a
10
descending half-step motion in the bass, from a iv6 (first inversion) to a V. In other
words, the “Phrygian” term is self-explained. Using the term also prevents the
participants from mistaking it for a simple “half cadence,” which ends on the dominant
but not by a descending half-step motion in the bass.
11
Chapter 2: Development of Music Theory Terminology in English Language
2.1 Establishing a Terminology in Music Theory
Musical lexicons or dictionaries have a long tradition in Western music, serving
as pedagogical tools to record and transmit common knowledge, and helping at the same
time to establish a “descriptive terminology.” They represent an intent to not only
describe musical elements, styles, and the history of music and its figures, but also to
transmit performance practices. At the same time, these lexicons function as elements of
standardization, accomplishing pedagogical goals. Johannes Tinctoris’s Terminorum
Musicae Diffinitorium (1494),22 Johann Gottfried Walther’s Musicalisches Lexicon
(1732),23 Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Dictionnaire de musique (1768),24 Heinrich Christoph
Koch’s Musikalisches Lexikon (1768),25 and Hugo Riemann’s Musiklexikon (1882),26 are
among the best example of this systematic documentation of music terminology through
history, recording both tradition and practice as well as transmitting an invaluable core of
knowledge to future generations. Modern periodicals, music theory associations,
22
Johannes Tinctoris, Terminorum Musicae Diffinitorium (Treviso: Gerardus de Lisa,
n.d., 1494).
23
Johann Gottfried Walther, Musicalisches Lexicon, Oder Musicalische Bibliothec,
Darinnen Nicht Allein Die Musici, Welche So Wol in Alten Als Neueren Zeiten,
Ingleichen Bey Verschiedenen Nationen, Durch Theorie Und Praxin Sich Hervor Gethan
Und Was Von Jedem Bekannt Worden; ...Angef¸Hret, Sondern Auch Die in Griechischer,
Lateinischer, Italianischer Und Franzsischer Sprache Gebrauchliche Musicalische
Kunste Oder Sonst Dahin Gehrige Worter Nach Alphabetischer Ordnung Vorgetragen ...
Werden (Leipzig: Wolffgang Deer, 1732).
24
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Dictionnaire De Musique (Paris: Chez la veuve Duchesne,
1768).
25
Heinrich Christoph Koch, "Musikalisches Lexikon: Welches Die Theoretische Und
Praktische Tonkunst Encyclopä Disch Bearbeitet, Alle Alten Und Neuen Kunstwörter
Erklärt, Und Die Alten Und Neuen Instrumente Beschreiben," (Frankfurt am Main:
August Hermann der Jüngere, 1802).
26
Hugo Riemann, Musiklexikon (Leipzig: s.n., 1882).
12
symposiums, and textbooks, are media that have also helped to establish the terminology.
They play a key role in not only establishing but also creating and disseminating the
terminology.
2.2 Music Periodicals in the English Language
In the construction of a music terminology, the role of journals is to introduce
new concepts and review the ones already established. In the discipline of music theory,
the terminology does not only come from specialized journals in the area of question, but
from all the music periodicals. Nowadays, music theory is regarded an independent field
of study, related to other music disciples such as composition and musicology but with its
own goals and analytical tools. Even when its beginning is rooted in ancient Greek
thinking, in modern history its boundaries were redefined during the 1980s and the early
1990s by academic publications and societies, a process that was controversial because of
the overlapping subjects of study and analytical tools used by both theorists and
musicologists alike.27 This division was established however, because of the tendency of
specialization in academic fields. Analytical tools had been developed either by
composers interested in describing the compositional techniques used by themselves or
others during their life time (e.g., Rameau, Koch, Schoenberg, and Hindemith), or by a
specialized theorist/musicologist such as Riemann. However, the twentieth-century saw a
proliferation of theorists who developed analytical tools for both tonal and atonal
27
Burkholder discusses this subject in his 1993 article. J. Peter Burkholder, "Music
Theory and Musicology," The Journal of Musicology 11, no. 1 (1993): 11-23.
13
music.28 At the same time, a steady interest for music from the past has revived since the
last decades of the twentieth-century, bringing forth new approaches to sonata form,29
cadences,30 and music of the common practice in general. JSTOR, a database of academic
journals widely used in American institutions, contains the records of 75 music journals,
most of them including digitalized issues. The earliest record of a music journal in this
database is from 1844, The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular. A complete list of
the journals listed in JSTOR is found in Appendix A.
2.3 Music Theory Associations in the United States
Music associations are the institutions that promote academic collaboration and
dissemination of knowledge among musicians. Their contribution to the core of music
theory terminology comes from all the disciplines in the domain of music. In the United
States, the main music theory society was founded in 1977: Society of Music Theory
(SMT). The society maintains two journals, Music Theory Spectrum and Music Theory
Online, the first accessed by subscription and the last one distributed free of charge from
the society’s website. The society also support the SMT-V, a website containing peer-
reviewed, scholarly video publications exploring topics in music theory and analysis.31
28
Pitch-class Set Theory was developed during the 1960s and 1970s by Allen Forte and
other. See Allen Forte, “A Theory of Set-Complexes for Music,” Journal of Music
Theory (1964): 136-83, and Forte, The Structure of Atonal Music (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1973). The Sonata Theory was developed by Hepokoski and Darcy
during the 1990s. See Hepokoski and Darcy Elements of Sonata Theory.
29
Hepokoski and Darcy, Elements of Sonata Theory.
30
Markus Neuwirth and Pieter Bergé, What Is a Cadence? Theoretical and Analytical
Perspectives on Cadences in the Classical Repertoire (Leuven, Belgium: Leuven
University Press, 2015).
31
https://societymusictheory.org/smt-v-purpose (accessed August 15, 2017).
14
The society meets once a year in a scholarly conference that features presentations, and
workshops. At the same time, the Society of Music Theory promotes nine regional music
theory associations, and twenty-three interest groups or subdivisions of the discipline by
specific theme. The nine regional associations also promote annual meetings and
publications, and some of them are highly supported by universities. Table 1 shows the
nine regional associations, their websites, and the publications supported by them if any.
Table 1: Regional Music Theory Associations
REGIONAL Music Theory Associations WEBSITE JOURNAL
Music Theory Society of the Mid-Atlantic http://mtsma.org Gamut: online journal of the Music Theory
(MTSMA) Society of the Mid-Atlantic.
Established in 2003. http://trace.tennessee.edu/gamut/
Music Theory Midwest (MTMW) http://mtmw.org N/A
Established in 1990
Music Theory Society of New York State http://www.mtsnys.org/ Theory and Practice: 1975 - 2012
(MTSNYS)
established in 1971
Music Theory SouthEast (MTSE) https://musictheorysoutheast.wordpress.co N/A
1996? m/
New England Conference of Music http://necmt.org N/A
Theorists (NECMT)
established 1987
Rocky Mountain Society for Music http://www.unco.edu/rmsmt N/A
Theory (RMSMT)
2014?
South-Central Society for Music Theory http://www.scsmt.org/ N/A
(SCSMT)
2013?
Texas Society for Music Theory (TSMT) http://tsmt.unt.edu N/A
1998
West Coast Conference of Music Theory http://wccmta.com Occasionally publishing: Musical
and Analysis (WCCMTA) Currents from the Left
Established 1992 Coast (2008), Analyzing the Music of
Living Composers (And Others) (2014),
and Form and Process in Music, 1300-
2014: An Analytic Sampler (2016).
Twenty-three interest groups, subdivisions of the music theory domain covering a
wide range of subjects, are supported by the Music Theory Society. Analysis, teaching,
improvisation, music and philosophy, music and mathematic, and music technologies are
among the subjects covered by those groups. The society also promotes interest groups
15
that support faculty practices and faculty’s relationships at the workplace and home.
Table 2 shows the interest groups and their websites.
Table 2: Music Theory Interest Groups
INTEREST GROUP WEBSITE

Autographs and Archival Documents https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/autographs_and_archives
Dance and Movement Interest Group https://societymusictheory.org/administration/committees/dance_and_movement
Early Music Analysis https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/earlymusic
Film and Multimedia https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/fmig
History of Theory https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/historyoftheory
Improvisation https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/improvisation
Jazz Analysis https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/jazz
Mathematics of Music https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/mathematics
Music and Disability https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/disabilities
Music and Philosophy https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/philosophy
Music and Psychoanalysis https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/psychoanalysis
Music Cognition https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/cognition
Music Informatics Group https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/SMTinformatics
Music Theory Pedagogy https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/pedagogy
Performance and Analysis https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/performanceanalysis
Popular Music https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/popularmusic
Post-1945 Music Analysis https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/post-1945
Queer Resource Group (SMT-LGTB) https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/queer
Russian Music Theory https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/russian
World Music Analysis https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/world_music
Scholars for Social Responsibility https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/socialresponsibility
Adjunct Faculty https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/adjunct
Work and Family https://societymusictheory.org/societies/interest/WorkFam
2.4 Music Theory Textbooks in English: The American Experience
In the American experience, textbooks are one of the main sources of common
knowledge for undergraduate students, transmitting not only the view of their particular
authors but also the general knowledge of the field. They promote the use of a common
vocabulary and thus, the standardization of the terminology. Therefore, the evaluation of
the terminology included in recent American music theory textbooks and its comparison
with the Chilean experience is a main focus of this research. Recent music theory
textbooks show that the terminology has developed to identify musical elements and
concepts in their context; even when some elements are labeled differently, most
16
textbooks use common lexical items to identify them. Such is the case of the 64 chord,
which having different functions according to its context, is usually labeled as cadential 64,
passing 64, or pedal 64 according to its function in the harmonic flow. Other examples of
standardized terminology in American music theory are found in the terms used to refer
to cadences, as well as to the three types of augmented sixth chords: German, French, and
Italian.
The publication of music theory textbooks in the United States shows a consistent
growth since the 1940s. This has been documented by Murrow, who reviews thirty-nine
music theory textbooks published in the English language between 1941 and 1992, many
of them being published more than one time.32 Additionally, Wennerstrom compiled a list
of 361 music theory publications in the English language, including 150 publications on
written theory, 117 on musical skills, twenty on sixteenth-century counterpoint, nineteen
on eighteenth-century counterpoint, nineteen on twentieth-century counterpoint and
composition, and thirty-six on form and analysis. She cites fifty publications dedicated
only to the analysis of twentieth-century musical trends.33As a result, most current theory
teachers in today’s academic institutions have been in contact with many of these
textbooks and the terminology shared by them in one way or another, there acquiring a
common musical lexicon that developed naturally from this dissemination of common
knowledge. Those textbooks, together with music theory symposiums and journals, have
played a main role in the creation and acceptance of a common music terminology. Even
32
Rodney C. Murrow, “Music Theory Textbooks in the United States, 1941-1992:
Philosophical Trends in Written Skills" (PhD diss., The University of Oklahoma, 1995).
33
Mary Wennerstrom, Music Theory Pedagogy: Selected Bibliography (2011),
http://www.music.indiana.edu/departments/academic/musictheory/files/bibliography1211
.pdf (accessed August 16, 2016).
17
when instructors decide to do not use a unique guidebook for their classes, their teaching
materials still reflect the core of knowledge and terminology shared by those
publications. Additionally, accredited music institutions are required to impart a certain
minimum of materials in their undergraduate courses, according with the general
requirements of the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM),34 the American
institution that regulates and gives accreditation to musical programs in the United States.
On the other hand, the development of music theory publications in Spanish-
speaking countries has followed a different path because few music theory textbooks,
books, and journals have been published in the past decades in the original language.
Many music programs have been using translations of textbooks that were originally
published in languages other than Spanish, such as English and German. Emblematic is
the case of Piston’s Harmony, an American textbook originally published in 1941, whose
fifth edition (1987) was translated to Spanish in 1991 and still appears in the bibliography
used by many Spanish-speaking instructors. The book, even though being an important
contribution to the development of the teaching of music theory, no longer represents
updated material to be used in the classroom because it does not align with current music
theory curriculums. For instance, the book does not include the recent developments of
the field in materials such as sonata form and phrase structure, nor Neo-Riemannian
theory, Schenkerian theory, or post-tonal analysis. Additionally, periodicals and
professional associations of music theory have not flourished nor been documented in
those countries in the same way as in the American experience, at least not in
34
National Association of Schools of Music (NASM), https://nasm.arts-accredit.org
(Accesses August 1, 2017).
18
international academic databases such as ProQuest, RILM, RISM, and WorldCat. These
facts lead us to ask if a coherent and common music theory terminology has been
developed in the Spanish language, as well as if most musical elements and concepts
have been identified with a term, according to their function and context.
2.5 Curriculum and Materials: The First Two Years of Undergraduate Studies
The core of knowledge that undergraduate music students should receive in their
first two years of training in American institutions must include: music fundamentals,
diatonic and chromatic harmony, and form. Additionally, at the end of their four years of
training they have received additional courses on Renaissance and/or Baroque
counterpoint, as well as introductory courses on analytical techniques for tonal and atonal
music. Curricular content can be organized and taught in a variety of ways by the
instructors to produce comprehensive musical competence. In fact, the guidelines from
the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) is quite broad, emphasizing goals
more than specific materials. However, a typical two years of undergraduate training in
music includes five main subjects of the music theory discipline: music fundamentals,
four-part harmony, tonal harmony, chromatic harmony, and form and analysis. Table 3
shows the subjects and the materials included, but not limited, in each area.
19
Table 3: Music Theory Curricular Content
MUSIC RUDIMENTS OR Notation: staff, pitches, rhythmic values, simple meter, compound

FUNDAMENTALS meter, anacrusis.
Intervals: Size, quality, and different between simple and compound
intervals
Key Signatures: all keys, major and minor
Triad and Seventh Chords in minor and major keys
Clefs and Time Signature
Modes: all seventh modes. Scales: Major, minors, pentatonic.
Relative and Parallel keys
Figure Bass notation, Non‐chord Tones
FOUR-PART HARMONY Format
Roman Numeral or any other system
Voice leading: counterpoint species
Voice Motions
TONAL HARMONY Harmonic Progressions and Ending Phrases:
I IV V I or T SD D T
Cadences. Tendency Tones
Inversions: Root Position, First, and Second: Triad and Seventh Chords
Diminish Chord. Embellishing chords
CHROMATIC HARMONY Tonicization and Applied Dominants
Modulation: different types
Modal Mixture. Other Chromatic Chords: Neapolitan, Augmented 6th
Chords
FORM AND ANALYSIS Phrases, Sentences, and Period: their relationship with cadences
Binary Form, Ternary Form, and Sonata Form

20
Chapter 3: Assessment of American Textbooks
3.1 Introduction
In order to evaluate and compare the level of standardization of music theory
terminology used by Chilean instructors, this research will first assess the level of
standardization of seven American music theory textbooks, and one British textbook. The
assessment will evaluate the terminology of materials usually taught during the first two
years of undergraduate studies in accredited American music schools: types of cadences,

6
4
chords and their contexts, augmented six chords, phrase structures, types of binary
form, and the exposition of the sonata form.
Table 4: American Music Theory Textbooks
Harmony Harmony Tonal Harmony in The Concise Music Harmony in

and Voice Harmony Context Musician’s Introduction Theory Practice
Leading Guide to to Tonal Remixed
Theory and Harmony
Analysis
Piston Aldwell, Kostka and Roig- Clendinning Burstein Holm- Butterworth

Schachter Payne Francolí and Marvin and Straus Hudson
and
Cadwallader
Five Five Eight Two Three Edition: Edition: Edition:

Editions: Editions: Editions: Editions: Editions: 2016 2017 1999
1941, 1948, 1978, 1989, 1984, 1989, 2003, 2011 2005, 2011, Reprint?
1962, 1978, 2003, 2011, 1995, 2000, 2016 2005, 2009
1987 2019 2004, 2009,
Translations 2013, 2017
of the Fifth
edition:
Spanish
(1991)
Japanese
(2006)
Table 4 shows the music theory textbooks assessed in this research, including
their publication year as well as their editions. The seven American textbooks assessed
21
are: Piston’s Harmony (1987), Aldwell/ Cadwallader/Schachter’s Harmony and Voice
Leading (2011), Roig-Francolí’s Harmony in Context (2011), Kostka and Payne’s Tonal
Harmony, with an Introduction to Twentieth-Century Music (2013), Clendinning and
Marvin’s The Musician’s Guide to Theory and Analysis (2016), Burstein and Straus’s
Concise Introduction to Tonal Harmony (2016), and Holm-Hudson’s Music Theory
Remixed (2017). The British textbook is Harmony in Practice (1999) by Anna
Butterworth.
3.2 Types of Cadences
Cadences are important structural elements in tonal music because not only do
they serve as formal phrase-ending elements that shape periods and sentences, define
musical forms and their structures, but they are also essential closures and structural
elements. A renewed interest from the academic community has taken place over the last
few decades reconsidering their role. Hepokoski and Darcy comment on the importance
of the perfect authentic cadence (PAC) in the internal structure of the Sonata form, as
well as how composers and theorists from the Classical era regarded them.35 Other
studies have focused in the role of the half cadence.36 Markus Neuwirth and Pieter Bergé
compiled nine essays on the subject presented in January 2011 at a conference held at the
Academia Belgium in Rome.37 Table 5 shows the similarities and differences in the
35
Hepokoski and Darcy, 120-23.
36
L. Poundie Burstein, "The Half Cadence and Other Such Slippery Events," Music
Theory Spectrum 36, no. 2 (2014): 203-227.
37
Neuwirth and Bergé. A description and review of the essays are given by William
Marvin, “Review of Markus Neuwirth and Pieter Bergé, eds., What Is A Cadence?
Theoretical and Analytical Perspectives on Cadences in the Classical Repertoire (Leuven
University Press, 2015,” Music Theory Online 21, no. 4 (2015),
http://www.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.15.21.4/mto.15.21.4.marvin.html (accessed August
16, 2017).
22
terminology used by the assessed textbooks to label cadences. It shows that the
terminology in American textbooks is highly standardized, and that the only differences
are found in the labeling of the Phrygian cadence and the Half cadence. In the case of the
Phrygian cadence, the differences are given by labeling the cadence using the term half
cadence attached to the Phrygian term. Piston, Aldwell/ Cadwallader/Schachter,
Clendinning/Marvin, and Roig-Francolí use the term Phrygian cadence only, while
Kostka/Payne and Holm-Hudson use the term Phrygian Half cadence. In the labeling of
the Half cadence, Piston and Aldwell/ Cadwallader/Schachter recognize the use of both
terms Half Cadence and Semicadence. It is important to remember that Piston and
Aldwell/ Cadwallader/Schachter represent the oldest textbooks assessed in this research,
having their first edition in 1941 and 1978 respectively. Thus, their recognition of
labeling the Half cadence using two terms shows a historical process of standardization
toward the current terminology. All other textbooks, being more recent publications, use
the term Half cadence only. Butterworth’s textbook, representing the British experience,
uses a different labeling altogether, only having in common with the American’s
textbook the Plagal cadence term.
Table 5: Terminology of Cadences in Textbooks
Harmony Harmony and Tonal Harmony The Concise Music Harmony in

Voice Harmony in Context Musician’s Introduct Theory Practice
Leading Guide to ion to Remixed
Theory and Tonal
Analysis Harmony
Piston Aldwell, Kostka Roig- Clendinning Burstein Holm- Butterworth
Schachter and Francolí and Marvin and Hudson
and Payne Straus
Cadwallader
PERFECT YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Perfect
AUTHENTIC Cadence
CADENCE
PAC
IMPERFECT YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Perfect
AUTHENTIC Cadence
CADENCE
IAC
23
Table 5: Terminology of Cadences in Textbooks (continued)
Harmony Harmony and Tonal Harmony The Concise Music Harmony in

Voice Harmony in Context Musician’s Introduct Theory Practice
Leading Guide to ion to Remixed
Theory and Tonal
Analysis Harmony

Schachter and Francolí and Marvin and Hudson
and Payne Straus
Cadwallader
HALF YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Imperfect

CADENCE Also: Also: Cadence
HC Semicadenc Semicadence
e
DECEPTIVE YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Interrupted

CADENCE
DC
PLAGAL YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
CADENCE
PC
PHRYGIAN Phrygian Phrygian YES Phrygian Phrygian Phrygian YES No name
HALF Cadence. Cadence Cadence Cadence Cadence included
CADENCE Description
PHC
6
3.3 Types of 4
Chords
The importance of labeling 64 chords with a term that specifies its function and
context is that their harmonic and structural role could be better understood. In American
literature, this chord is usually labeled as cadential, passing, neighboring/pedal, and
arpeggiated, terms that intend to describe the chord in the contexts it is commonly found.
Table 6: Terminology of 64 Chords in Textbooks
Harmony Harmony and Tonal Harmony The Musician’s Concise Music Harmony in
Voice Leading Harmony in Context Guide to Theory Introduction to Theory Practice
and Analysis Tonal Harmony Remixed
Piston Aldwell, Kostka Roig- Clendinning Burstein and Holm- Butterworth

Schachter and and Francolí and Marvin Straus Hudson
Cadwallader Payne
CADENTIAL Cadential Cadential Cadential Cadential Cadential Cadential Cadential Cadential

Cad. 6/4
24
Table 6: Terminology of 64 Chords in Textbooks (continued)
Harmony Harmony Tonal Harmony in The Concise Music Harmony in

and Voice Harmony Context Musician’s Introduction Theory Practice
Theory and Harmony
Analysis
Piston Aldwell, Kostka and Roig- Clendinning Burstein Holm- Butterworth
Schachter Payne Francolí and Marvin and Straus Hudson
and
Cadwallader
PASSING Passing Passing Passing Passing Passing Passing Passing Passing

(P6/4)
NEIGHBOR Auxiliary Neighboring Neighboring. Neighbor Pedal Pedal Pedal Auxiliary

OR Pedal (7th (N6/4) or
PEDAL edition, Embellishing Neighboring
2013) Pedal
ARPEGGIATED Arpeggiating Arpeggio but Arpeggiated Arpeggiated Arpeggiating Arpeggiated Arpeggiating No name
it uses a
description
Table 6 shows the differences and similarities found in the assessed terminology,
indicating that the labeling of the cadential and passing 64 chords have the higher level of
standardization, following by the arpeggiated 64 . The labeling of the neighboring/pedal 64
on the other hand, shows the lower level of standardization because authors use either the
term neighboring or pedal to label it. Roig-Francolí adds the term embellishing, being
also the only author using the term neighbor. Clendinning/Marvin use neighboring, as
well as pedal. The use of neighboring or neighbor shows a slight difference in the lexical
item, but also the discrepancies concerning the labeling of this type of 64 . The tendency in
latest editions is to use the term pedal: Kostka/Payne (2013), Clendinning/Marvin (2016),
Burstein and Straus (2016), and Holm-Hudson (2017). Piston is the only American author
that completely disagrees because his use of the term is auxiliary instead. This term is
also used by Butterworth, whose work represents the British experience.
25
3.4 Augmented Sixth Chords
Augmented sixth chords are widely used in music from the Classical and
Romantic eras. Early examples of the augmented sixth chords can be found in the pre-
tonal era as contrapuntal or linear structures with chromatic characteristics. Mark Ellis’s
book on the evolution of the augmented sixth traces its use as early as the fifteenth
century.38 During the late eighteenth and nineteenth-century, chords structures featuring
the augmented sixth were then established and classified in the three main chord types
previously mentioned. According to Daniel Harrison, the first use of the terms Italian,
French, and German to label augmented sixth chords was made by the English composer
and theorist John W. Calcott, who describes those chords in his Musical Grammar, first
published in 1806 in London;39 its American edition was published in 1810. The
relevance of augmented sixth chords, then, is found in its practical and historical uses,
from Classical to folk and popular music, developing from linear progressions in the pre-
tonal era to become clear chordal structures by the end of the eighteenth-century. If
Harrison is accurate, then the terminology used to refer to the augmented sixth chords
currently in use originated from and for the English language. The issue in question is
whether the textbooks assessed in this research have a consensus in the use of the
terminology coined more than two hundred years ago.
38
Mark Ellis, A Chord in Time: The Evolution of the Augmented Sixth from Monteverdi
to Mahler (Farnham, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2010).
39
Daniel Harrison, "Supplement to the Theory of Augmented-Sixth Chords," Music
26
Table 7: Terminology of the Augmented Sixth Chords in Textbooks
Harmony Harmony Tonal Harmony The Concise Music Harmony in

and Voice Harmony in Context Musician’s Introduction Theory Practice
Theory and Harmony
Analysis

Schachter and Payne Francolí and Marvin and Straus Hudson
and
Cadwallader
GERMAN German 6 German German German German German German

German
Ger. 5 Ger+6 Ger+6 Ger6 Ger+6 Ger+6 Ger.
6
Ger
5
FRENCH French 4 French French French French French French

French
Fr. 3 Fr+6 Fr+6 Fr6 Fr+6 Fr+6 Fr.
4
Fr
3
ITALIAN Italian 6 Italian Italian Italian Italian Italian Italian

Italian
It. 3 It+6 It+6 It6 It+6 It+6 It.
6
It
3
FUNCTION First n/a Predominant Predominant Predominant n/a Predominant n/a

Edition:
Predominant
Fifth edition
(DeVoto):
Secondary
Dominant
Table 7 shows that all the assessed textbooks, including Butterworth’s textbook
from the British experience, label the three augmented sixth chords as Italian, French,
and German. Only Aldwell/ Cadwallader/Schachter’s textbook differs in its use of chord
inversion labeling, referring to the augmented sixth chords in question as Italian 36 ,
French 43, and German 65, showing the author’s view about the importance of the figured
bass tradition. However, the tendency in more current textbooks is to label these chords
without inversion numbers because of the lesser emphasis on figured bass realization and
part writing. Another important issue to consider is the harmonic function of these
chords. Most authors assign a predominant function to the augmented sixth chords, and
while Aldwell/ Cadwallader/Schachter and Burstein/Straus only offer a tacit reference to
27
the predominant function of the augmented sixth chords, Kostka/Payne, Roig-Francolí,
Clendinning/Marvin, and Holm-Hudson clearly state these chords have a predominant
function. Piston’s Harmony is a special case because the early editions of the textbook
regard these structures as having predominant function but its fifth edition (1987), having
Mark DeVoto as editor, consider those chords as representing dominant harmonies.40
Authors also use abbreviations to refer to the augmented sixth chords. Those
abbreviations, becoming artificial terms/signs in themselves, do not always match among
textbooks. Kostka/Payne, Roig-Francolí, Burstein/, and Holm-Hudson use It+6, Fr+6,
and Ger+6, and while Clendinning/Marvin’s abbreviations do not use the + symbol (It,
Fr, Ger), Piston and Butterworth use neither the + symbol nor the number six but a dot (.)
after the abbreviations of the words (It. - Fr. - Ger.).
3.5 Tonicization and Modulation
The concepts of tonicization and modulation are clearly defined in American-
English literature. Even though authors may not agree while analyzing a given musical
excerpt, some regarding the passage in question as tonicization and another as
modulation, the terms in themselves are clearly defined. Tonicization is seen as a short-
term change of tonal center, mostly evident by the use of secondary dominants, and
modulation as a longer change of the tonal center. As Table 8 illustrates, the assessed
American textbooks show a complete standardization of both terms, demonstrating at the
same time the broader acceptance of those terms in American-English literature. On the
40
See Walter Piston, Harmony, (New York: Norton, 1941), 278. Piston, Harmony, ed.
Mark DeVoto, 5th ed. (New York: Norton, 1987), 420.
28
other hand, while giving a description of tonicization, Butterworth’s textbook only agrees
with the term modulation.
Table 8: Terminology of Tonicization and Modulation in Textbooks

and Voice Harmony in Musician’s Introduction Theory Practice
Leading Context Guide to to Tonal Remixed
Theory and Harmony
Analysis

Schachter and Francolí and Marvin and Straus Hudson
and Payne
Cadwallader
TONICIZATION YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Description
MODULATION YES YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
3.6 Phrase Structure: Period and Sentence
The topic of phrase structure plays an important role in the music curriculum of
undergraduate and graduate studies. These models help students to understand the form
and structure of most tonal music including harmonic implications and the role that
cadences play in their classification. Textbooks were assessed comparing their
terminology labeling parallel and contrasting periods, as well as the sentence structure.
Out of the seven American textbooks consulted, five of them include chapters dedicated
to periods and sentences. Only Piston and Aldwell/ Cadwallader/Schachter, which
represent the oldest published textbooks dedicated to harmony, not form, do not include
them. Table 9 shows a complete similarity in the terminology used by the rest of the
29
American textbooks. Butterworth’s textbook does not include this material.
Table 9: Terminology of Periods and Sentence in Textbooks

and Voice Harmony in Musician’s Introduction Theory Practice
Leading Context Guide to to Tonal Remixed
Theory and Harmony
Analysis

and Payne
Cadwallader
PARALLEL n/a n/a YES YES YES YES YES n/a

PERIOD
CONTRASTING n/a n/a YES YES YES YES YES n/a

PERIOD
SENTENCE n/a n/a YES YES YES YES YES n/a
3.7 Binary Form
The topic of binary form and its types is necessary material to be included in the
current music curriculum because it is one of the most used formal designs in tonal
music. The form is not only found in Renaissance, Baroque, Pre-Classical, Classical, and
Romantic music but also in atonal twentieth and twentieth-first century music, as well as
in folk and popular genres. Moreover, some types of binary form developed throughout
history to became larger musical structures. Such is the case of the continuous rounded
binary form and the simple binary form, the first being developed into the Sonata Form,
and the second used to create the Classical trio-minuet and then, the Romantic scherzo.
Hence the relevance of this material to be included in the undergraduate music
curriculums is significant. Only Piston’s and Aldwell/ Cadwallader/Schachter’s
textbooks, representing an older vision of the music curriculum, do not include the study
30
of musical forms at all. Butterworth’s textbook does not include the material either.
Table 10: Terminology of Binary Form in Textbooks

and Voice Harmony in Context Musician’s Introduction Theory Practice
Theory and Harmony
Analysis
and Payne
Cadwallader
SIMPLE n/a n/a Binary YES YES YES YES n/a

BINARY
ROUNDED n/a n/a YES YES YES YES YES n/a

BINARY
SECTIONAL n/a n/a YES Tonic Type YES Description YES n/a
Recognizes
the use of
the term
“sectional”
CONTINUOUS n/a n/a YES Dominant YES Description YES n/a

Type
Recognizes
the use of
the term
“continuous”
Table 10 shows the similarities and differences of the terminology used to label
the binary form. Most textbooks agree, but some of them give a description of the form
instead of using a lexical item. However, the descriptions or terms given by those authors
match with the concepts represented by the terminology used by the rest of the textbooks.
For instance, Roig-Francolí’s textbook labels the sectional and continuous binary form in
a major key as tonic and dominant type respectively, lexical items that represent the same
concepts implied in the terms sectional and continuous used by the other textbooks. Roig-
Francolí also recognizes the use of the term sectional and continuous. Burstein/Straus
agree with the terms simple and rounded binary, but they do not use lexical items but
descriptions to refer to the harmonic frame of those forms, namely sectional and
31
continuous.
3.8 Sonata Form
As well as with cadences, the topic of sonata form has seen a revived interest in
the past decades. The most important contribution to the study of the form has come from
James Hepokoski and Warren Darcy’s new approach to the form. Their ideas not only
show a most informed view of it but also an historical perspective of the form, alluding to
works of composers and theorists from the Classical era such as Riepel’s Grundregeln
zur Tonordnung Insgmein (1755) and Koch’s Versuch (1793), as well as demonstrating
how the form has been understood throughout history by other theorists, including those
of the twentieth-century such as Rothstein’s Phrase and Rhythm in Tonal Music (1989),
and Caplin’s Classical Form (1998). This new approach, which has become widespread
since the 2006 publication of Hepokoski’s and Darcy’s theory, is only included in the
most recent textbooks; hence the importance of updated textbooks summarizing the latest
developments of the domain. The assessment presented here compares the terminology
promoted by Hepokoski and Darcy to label the exposition of the sonata form with that in
use by the textbooks. The discrepancy in the terminology labeling the sections of the
exposition does not affect the concepts implied. For instance, Hepokoski and Darcy use
the term primary-theme zone (P) or only primary theme (P). This term implies both a
melodic idea and a tonal area. Other authors refer to this section of the sonata as the
primary key area or first tonal area, implying the same concepts. The innovations of
Hepokoski and Darcy in labeling the exposition of the sonata form lies in their
description of (1) the transition as dependent/independent, (2) the value of the perfect
32
authentic cadence (PAC) as an essential structural element after the secondary theme,
and (3) the recognition and labeling of the medial caesura (MC) as a “brief, rhetorically
reinforced break or gap to divide and exposition in two parts, tonic and dominant (or
tonic and mediant in most minor-key sonatas).41
Table 11: Terminology of the Exposition of the Sonata Form in Textbooks

and Voice Harmony in Context Musician’s Introductio Theory Practice
Leading Guide to n to Tonal Remixed
Theory and Harmony
Analysis
Piston Aldwell, Kostka Roig- Clendinning Burstein and Holm- Butterworth

Schachter and Payne Francolí and Marvin Straus Hudson
and
Cadwallader
PRIMARY n/a n/a Primary Primary First Theme Primary Primary n/a
THEME ZONE Theme Key Area Group Theme Theme
(P) (P) (P) (FTG)
DEPENDENT / n/a n/a Transition Dependent/ Dependent/ Transition Transition n/a

INDEPENDENT Independent Independent
TRANSITION Transition Transition
(TR)
MEDIAL n/a n/a n/a Description Medial Medial Caesura n/a
CAESURA Caesura Caesura
(MC)
SECONDARY n/a n/a Secondary Secondary Second Secondary Secondary n/a

THEME ZONE Theme Key Area Theme Group Theme Theme
(S) (S) (S) (STG)
ESSENTIAL n/a n/a Description Description Description Description Descriptio n/a

EXPOSITIONAL n
CLOSURE
(EEC)
CLOSING ZONE n/a n/a Closing Closing Closing Closing Closing n/a
(C) Section Section Theme Section Section
(CT)
Piston’s Harmony, Aldwell/ Cadwallader/Schachter’s Harmony and Voice
Leading, and Butterworth’s Harmony in Practice do not include the study of sonata form,
nor any other formal structures, but are intended solely for the study of harmony. The
remaining textbooks were assessed only in the exposition of the sonata form, evaluating
41
Hepokoski and Darcy, 24.
33
the terminology used to label the primary theme zone (P), dependent and independent
transition (TR), medial caesura (MC), secondary theme zone (S), essential expositional
closure (EEC), and closing zone (C). As Table 11 shows, textbooks agree in recognizing
all the parts of the exposition but the medial caesura, which it is not mentioned nor
described by Kostka/Payne. The first edition of Roig-Francolí’s Harmony in Context
(2003) makes a short mention of the caesura in the chapter dedicated to the sonata form,
describing it as a cadence and citing Hepokoski’s and Darcy’s work to be consulted;42
Roig-Francolí does not use a term to designate it, showing that by the time this textbook
was published this term had not yet gained a broad acceptance. Different is the case with
the most recent publications, which clearly include the term/concept of the medial
caesura (Clendinning/Marvin 2016, Burstein/Straus 2016, and Holm-Hudson 2017).
Another important issue to consider is that textbooks do not always offer a complete
explanation of musical forms and their sections/elements, but rather only a concise and
short description of them, or none. A more detailed study of these topics would be
offered in specialized undergraduate or graduate courses.
The primary theme (P) and secondary theme (S) terms are used by three
textbooks, Kostka/Payne, Burstein/Straus, and Holm-Hudson. Kostka/Payne are the only
authors to additionally use the symbols (P) and (S) as auxiliary terms. Roig-Francolí
refers to them as primary/secondary key areas, also using the symbols (P) and (S).
Clendinning/Marvin labels them as first theme group (FTG) and second theme group
(STG). While Kostka/Payne, Burstein/Straus, and Holm-Hudson only use the term
transition, Roig-Francolí and Clendinning/Marvin are the only authors using the concept
42
Roig-Francolí, Harmony in Context, 771.
34
of dependent/independent transition, adding an extra explanation to this material. In the
case of the essential expositional closure (EEC), authors only offer a description,
emphasizing the role of the perfect authentic cadence (PAC) as structural element. The
closing zone is labeled by most authors as closing section, with only Clendinning/Marvin
offering a different term: closing theme (CT).
The differences and similarities in the terminology used to label the elements of
the exposition of the sonata form, the most characteristic and commented form of the
Classical era, demonstrate two facts: first, the impact in the terminology produced by new
developments in the understanding of the form, creating a period of ambiguity in the use
of lexical items until most participants accept the new proposed term; second, this
process demonstrates the way music terminology has been created throughout history as a
descriptive terminology, assimilating any prescriptive terminology into it, and only
established after a period of instability until it is widely accepted in the domain.
However, even though the differences in the terminology used to label the exposition of
the sonata form, most authors recognize all the sections and elements, a fact that
emphasizes once again the value of updated literature while teaching music materials.
35
Chapter 4: Music Theory Literature Used in Chile
4.1 Introduction
Tonal music is still at the core of the theory curriculum of most music schools,
serving as a theoretical and practical base for the training of composers, theorists,
musicologists, performers, and music educators around the world. It has seen revived
interest in the past few decades because of the wide dissemination and acceptance of the
theories of Heinrich Schenker, Hugo Riemann, and the new approach to sonata form
already commented in the previous chapter. Additionally, as commented in chapter two,
new publications on the understanding of cadences and phrase structure have led the
discipline of music theory to adopt a holistic analytical approach to understand the
compositional practice of each era. Roman numeral analysis overlaps the concepts of
tonic, predominant, and dominant harmonies, and the study of counterpoint is
fundamental to understand Schenkerian analysis. Thus, the use of an updated literature is
essential to the practice of today’s music theory, tonal and atonal alike, considering the
continued development of analytical models that have brought new ideas to
understanding tonal music. Therefore, the common literature used to teach written music
theory in Chilean institutions is an important dataset to be analyzed.
4.2 Common Literature Used by Chilean Instructors
The importance of knowing the literature used by Chilean instructors for this
research lies in its influence on the use and development of terminology. At the same
time, an outdated literature would no longer align with current developments of the
understanding of tonal music nor with modern methods of teaching, and depending on the
dates of publication this literature tends to use an unstandardized terminology. Thus, the
36
lack of updated materials is a disadvantage for both instructors and students, and it is
essential that new publications originated in the Spanish language would bring attention
to these new developments of the domain.
Appendix B includes the list of the most common publications used by Chilean
instructors for teaching harmony and analysis. Publications specializing in solfeggio and
aural skills are not commented upon because these materials are not surveyed by this
research. However, these publications are listed in Appendix C, including a total of forty-
four sources: twenty in French, eleven in English (including one source from Canada and
one from New Zealand), four in Spanish, three in Hungarian, two in Italian, two in
Swedish, one in German, and one in Dutch. Subjects were not required to give a
bibliographical list during the survey. The list was provided separately by either the
subjects themselves, another Chilean music theory faculty, or taken from the websites of
the universities in which subjects serve as instructors. The list in Appendix B includes
twenty-seven entries on written theory, out of which only eight (29.6 percent) were
originally published in Spanish (including two editions of Manual de Armonía by María
Soledad Morales), one in French (3.7 percent), two in Italian (7.4 percent), two in
Russian (7.4 percent), three in German (11.1 percent), and eleven (40.7 percent) in
English, three British and eight American including the 5th edition and its translation into
Spanish of Piston/DeVoto’s Harmony (1987). The list only includes three (11.1 percent)
Chilean publications, out of which two (7.4 percent) were originally published in the
1980s: Estructuras y Formas de la Música Tonal (Varas, 1981), Manual de Armonía
(Morales, 1988 and 2000), and Desde el Piano...la Armonía (Contreras and Grandela,
2005). Additionally, out of the twenty-seven sources listed, only three (11.1 percent)
37
sources were originally published after the year 2000: Cuaderno de Análisis: Iniciación
al Análisis (Eguílaz and Santos, 2005), Desde el Piano...la Armonía (Contreras and
Grandela, 2005), and Armonía Tonal Funcional (Szekely, 2006); all of them originally
published in Spanish. These data highlight three main facts: (1) most publications used by
Chilean instructors are not originally in the Spanish language but are translations (70.4
percent). (2) Translations from English literature are the most commonly used by Chilean
instructors, either from British or American authors (40.7 percent). (3) Most sources
currently used by instructors are outdated, and do not include the latest developments in
the study of tonal music. Another important piece of information is that the time span of
the eight American publications listed in Appendix B extends from the 1940s to 1980s,
the most recent being Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis by Forte and Gilbert,
originally published in 1982. Moreover, Appendix B lists six (22.2 percent) sources
published after the year 2000; eighteen (66.6 percent) sources published between 1951-
1999–out of which four (14.8 percent) sources were originally published before 1950–
and three (11.1 percent) sources before 1950. Therefore, a total of seven (25.9) sources
were originally published before 1950.
The most updated source included in the Appendix B is the book Armonía Tonal
Funcional by Katalin Szekely, published in 2006. It is followed by five other items
published at the beginning of the century (2005, 2003, 2002, and 2000); however, three
of these sources are either a later edition or translations into Spanish of books originally
published during the 1980s: Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis by Allen Forte and
Gilbert (1982), Formenlehre der Musik by Clemens Kühn (1987), and Manual de
Armonía by María Soledad Morales (1988). Six (22.2 percent) items were published
38
during the 1990s, including the translation into the Spanish language of Piston/DeVoto’s
Harmony (1987), and De la Motte’s Harmonielehre (1977). Five (18.5 percent) sources
were published during the 1980s, including the translation of Rimsky-Korsakov’s
Practical Manual of Harmony (1885), and the reprinting of the facsimile edition of
Santiago De Murcia’s Resumen de Acompañar la parte con la Guitarra (1714); Rimsky-
Korsakov’s book is also listed in its 1946 translation. Five (18.5 percent) sources were
published during the 1970s, including the translation of Schoenberg’s Harmonielehre
(1911), and Giulio Bas’s Trattato Di Forma Musicale (1920). Two (7.4 percent) sources
were published during the 1960s, including the translation of Hindemith’s A
Concentrated Course in Traditional Harmony (1943); Hindemith’s book is also listed in
its 1949 translation. Finally, the revised first edition of Piston’s Harmony (1948) is also
listed.
4.3 General Evaluation
The above dataset indicates three main issues related to the sources provided: (1)
instructors do not have available the most current publications including the latest
developments of the North American music theory discipline, (2) the bibliography
indicates a consistent use of sources published between 1951-1999 (eighteen sources,
66.6 percent), and (3) there is an overreliance on items originally published before 1950,
(seven, 25.9 percent), including two translations into Spanish of Rimsky-Korsakov’s
Practical Manual of Harmony (1946, 1982). These last sources no longer align with the
current developments of the field, nor with its teaching approaches and methods. They
represent an historical view of the subjects covered by the discipline of music theory.
39
Therefore, they should be studied with a critical approach and mostly in graduate courses,
and not be included in the curricula as a model/textbook for undergraduate students; this
literature cannot offer a complete historical overview of the material required as a
minimum knowledge for undergraduate programs, neither summarize current
developments of the music theory discipline. Such sources include De Murcia’s Resumen
de Acompañar la parte con la Guitarra (1714 reprint, 1984), Rimsky-Korsakov’s
Practical Manual of Harmony (1885), Schoenberg’s Harmonielehre (1911), Giulio Bas’s
Trattato Di Forma Musicale (1920), Hindemith’s A Concentrated Course in Traditional
Harmony (1943), and Piston’s Harmony (1948). Considering these facts, it is also
important to observe that translations may create inconsistencies among the terminology
transmitted by those publications because lexical items (terms) intended to represent
musical concepts/elements do not always match across languages. The variables
impacting the choice of a term when translating are many. The most relevant of these
variables are: the background of the translator, the editorial criteria, and even the edition
number of a given work (including or excluding updated information about the
concept/element in question). Thus, two translations of publications originally written in
German may use lexical items that in the new language refer to different concepts, or
have different and/or many connotations. For example, the term used to refer to the
deceptive cadence by Schoenberg in his Harmonielehre —a common reference text used
by Chilean instructors— is “Trugschluss”43 (deception/fallacy/false conclusion), and it
implies the concept involving a cadential progression from the dominant to a chord other
than the tonic. However, when translated into Italian in 1973 translation, two lexical
43
Arnold Schoenberg, Harmonielehre (Vienna: Universal Edition, 1922), 167.
40
items implying the same concept are used: “evitate” (avoided) and “d’inganno”
(deception).44 The 1974 Spanish translation uses the term “interrumpida” (interrupted).45
Another example of this issue may be found when concepts/terms are translated into
Spanish from two different languages such as French and Italian, two source languages of
literature commonly used by Chilean instructors (see Appendix B and C). In that case,
translations may not likely match in the new language because the terms translated have
different connotations in each of the source languages, even though the concept intended
to be represented is the same. This may also occur if the original term can be represented
by several lexical items in the new language. For example, the term “rompue”
(broken/rota in Spanish) is the lexical item used to refer to the deceptive cadence in
French. The Spanish terms used by the participants of the survey to describe this cadence
seem to have been influenced by those languages, and subjects refer to it with the terms
“rota” from the French “rompue,” “evitada,” and “de engaño” from the Italian “evitate”
and “d’inganno” respectively (see chapter 5, Table 12). This example of the use of a
variety of lexical items to refer to a unique musical element/concept, together with other
instances that will be detailed in chapter 5, shows a practice of using unstandardized
terminology in languages that have not developed their own.
Considering the lack of available sources originating in Spanish, the contributions
in the areas of analysis and harmony of a few Chilean theorists such as Carlos Poblete’s
Estructuras y Formas de la Música Tonal (1981), and Silvia Contreras’s Desde el
44
Schoenberg, Manuale di Armonia, trans. Giacomo Manzoni, 2nd ed. (Milano: Il
Saggiatore, 1973), 169.
45
Schoenberg, Tratado de Armonía, trans. Ramon Barce (Madrid: Real musical, 1974),
154.
41
Piano…La Armonia (2005), are remarkable. Additionally, the Chilean-Spaniard Joaquín
Zamacois’s Curso de Formas Musicales, originally published in 1960 (third edition,
1975), is a worth mentioning because it represents an early attempt to produce music
theory materials in Spanish. This research has not listed sources produced in Spanish-
speaking countries other than Chile, Argentina (Ricordi), and Spain, because they are not
included in the bibliography provided by Chilean music theorists/musicologists in
Appendix B. However, we cannot exclude the possiblity that other countries may also
have local publications that have been neither added to international databases such as
ProQuest, WorldCat, RILM, and RISM, nor transmitted to other countries. Thus, the lack
of academic collaboration resulting from the absence of music theory associations and
periodicals in Spanish-speaking countries has resulted in isolation of local publications,
and stopped the development of a more standardized terminology. For example, the
Mexican theorist Carlos Flores published Principios de Melodía y de Armonía (1994),
and the Argentinian Maria del Carmen Aguilar published Formas en el Tiempo (2015);
neither of these publications appear in any international database, and thus they represent
publications that only serve local areas due to the lack of academic collaboration and
distribution. These publications are mainly available in the country where they were
originally published (Puerto Rico/USA, Argentina). On the other hand, even when the
English terminology has been influenced by other languages such as German and French,
the American music theory literature has reached a point in its development so that a
quite standardized terminology is shared by most participants of the discipline. This state
has been reached due to the large number of publications in the original language,
academic collaboration, the establishment of music theory associations, and the use of
42
textbooks as a tool to summarize and transmit the latest developments of the field.
43
Chapter 5: Survey Data, Questions and Methodology
5.1 Introduction: Participants and Materials Included
The main focus of this chapter is to examine the music theory terminology used in
Chile. Six Chilean music theory instructors participated in an online and anonymous
survey applied over Qualtrics, an online survey platform. These instructors were invited
to participate in this study because of their role in teaching music theory at four
influential institutions, each of which is ranked among the top ten best universities in the
country. Subjects 2 and 5, and subjects 3 and 4, are faculty members of the same
academic institution. The data was collected between April and October of 2017.
The questions included in the survey relate to the terminology used to refer to
music elements upon which current American music theory textbooks consistently agree:
types of cadences, periods, sentences, 64 chords, types of augmented sixth chords,
tonicization, modulation, binary form, and sonata form (exposition). These materials are
part of the basic core of knowledge that most undergraduate music students receive in
their first four semesters of training in accredited music programs in the Unites States,
and which have been included in music theory textbooks since the second part of the
twentieth-century.
5.2 Methodology
The survey distributed to the participants contained a total of thirty-one questions
divided in three main areas: (1) questions 1 to 5 were intended to provide information
about the development of the discipline in the country, as well as about the literature and
materials used by the instructors; (2) questions 6 to 20 relate to the study of written
44
theory, focusing on harmony; (3) questions 21 to 31 relate to phrases and musical forms.
These questions were intended to only address terminology, providing as much
information as possible, and indicating precisely the placement of the questioned
elements in each musical example. Additionally, some questions included hyperlinks to
audio examples of the excerpts. Subjects were asked to provide a specific term for each
questioned musical element, but allowed to give a prose description if the usage of a
specific term was unknown to them. For analysis purposes, subjects’ answers (terms,
signs, and descriptions) are regarded as lexical/graphical items in this research; therefore,
no translation is provided for a better analysis of the differences and similarities of the
terms.
5.3 Questions and Answers
A. The Music Theory Discipline in Chile
In questions 1 to 5, subjects state that the music theory degree is only offered at
the undergraduate level in the country. All six subjects declare to not be part of any music
theory association. Subjects 1 to 4 declare to not use any music theory textbook in their
teaching. Subjects 5 and 6 declare to use textbooks related to solfeggio and aural skills,
but not to harmony or analysis. Most subjects divide the discipline of music theory in
three main areas, referring to themselves as teachers of a specific area of the discipline:
(1) instructor of “teoría” (theory), solfeggio, notation, reading, and aural skills; (2)
instructor of “armonía” (harmony), and (3) instructor of “análisis” (analysis). Five
subjects declare that the concept of “teoría musical” (music theory) is seen in the country
mainly as covering the area of solfeggio, notation, reading, and aural skills.
45
B. Types of Cadences
Questions 6 to 11 relate to types of cadences. The key of all musical examples is
provided (C major), and excerpts are comprised of only in two or three chords. Table 12
shows the original answers of the subjects.
Table 12: Survey Results, Types of Cadences
SUBJECT 1 SUBJECT 2 SUBJECT 3 SUBJECT 4 SUBJECT 5 SUBJECT 6
PERFECT Auténtica Auténtica Auténtica Auténtica Auténtica Clasica/auténtica

AUTHENTIC Description: Perfecta Description: Description:
CADENCE V7-I Description: dominante- con dominante
PAC con V7 tónica séptima
IMPERFECT Auténtica Auténtica Auténtica Auténtica Auténtica Clasica/auténtica

AUTHENTIC Description: Perfecta Description:
CADENCE V-I dominante-
IAC tónica
HALF Semicadencia Plagal Semicadencia Semicadencia Semicadencia Inconclusa /
CADENCE Description: Description: suspensiva Description: Suspensiva
HC (falta la I-V, con notas llegada a la Description:
armadura) de paso dominante no resuelve a
tónica
DECEPTIVE Rota / Evitada Rota Rota / Evitada Rota / de engaño Rota / Rota
CADENCE Description: Interrumpida
DC I-V7-VI Description: al
sexto grado
PLAGAL Plagal Plagal Plagal Plagal Plagal Plagal
CADENCE Description: Description:
PC I-IV-I subdominante-
tónica
PHRYGIAN Semicadencia Frigia Semicadencia Semicadencia Semicadencia Suspensiva/ e

HALF Description: Suspensiva Description: inconclusa
CADENCE I-IV6-V Frigia tónica-
PHC subdominante
en primera
inversión y
dominante en
estado
fundamental
Question 6: Perfect Authentic Cadence (PAC)
 Five subjects use the term “auténtica” (authentic): subjects 1, 2, 3, 5, 6.
 One subject uses the term “auténtica perfecta” (perfect authentic): subject 4.
 Three subjects pay especial attention to the seven in the dominant (“séptima” or
46
“7”): subjects 3, 4, and 6.
 One subject uses both the term “auténtica” (authentic) and “clásica” (Classic):
subject 6.
 Four subjects give a description of the cadence: subjects 3, 4, 5, 6.
 No contraction/term is given by the subjects.
 Agreement of instructors from the same academic institution:
o Subjects 2 and 5, same: “auténtica.”
o Subjects 3 and 4, different but both including the word auténtica:
“auténtica” and “auténtica perfecta.”
Question 7: Imperfect Authentic Cadence (IAC)
 Five subjects use the term “auténtica” (authentic): subjects 1, 2, 3, 5, 6.
 One subject uses the term “auténtica perfecta” (perfect authentic): subject 4.
 One subject uses both the term “auténtica” (authentic) and “clásica” (Classic):
subject 6.
 Two subjects give a description: subjects 3 and 5.
o Subjects 2 and 5, same: “auténtica.”
o Subjects 3 and 4, different but both including the word auténtica:
“auténtica” and “auténtica perfecta.”
Question 8: Half Cadence (HC)
 Three subjects use the term “semicadencia” (half cadence): subjects 1, 3, 5.
 One subject uses the term “semicadencia suspensiva” (suspensive half cadence):
47
subject 4.
 One subject uses both the term “inconclusa” (unfinished) and “suspensiva”
(suspensive): subject 6.
 One subject refers to it as “plagal” (plagal), seeing the cadence in the dominant
key and not in the tonic (example shows a progression from I-V, in C major).
Subject states that the key signature is missing (“falta la armadura”): subject 2.
 Three subjects give a description: subjects 3, 5, 6.
o Subjects 2 and 5, different: “Plagal” and “semicadencia.”
o Subjects 3 and 4, different but both including the word semicadencia:
“semicadencia” and “semicadencia suspensiva.”
Question 9: Deceptive Cadence (DC)
 All six subjects use the term “rota” (broken).
 Two subjects use the term “evitada” (avoided) together with “rota:” subjects 1 and
3.
 One subject uses the term “de engaño” (of deceive): subject 4.
 One subject uses the term “interrumpida” (interrupted): subject 5.
o Subjects 2 and 5: same but subject 5 gives two terms, “rota/rota,
interrumpida.”
48
o Subjects 3 and 4: same (“rota”) but both subjects give two terms each,
“rota, evitada/rota, de engaño.”
Question 10: Plagal Cadence (PC)
 All six subjects use the term “Plagal.”
o Subjects 2 and 5, same: “Plagal.”
o Subjects 3 and 4, same: “Plagal.”
Question 11: Phrygian Half Cadence (PHC)
 Three subjects use the term “semicadencia” (half cadence): subjects 1, 3, 5.
 One subject uses the term “semicadencia suspensiva frigia” (suspensive Phrygian
half cadence): subject 4.
 One subject uses the term “Frigia” (Phrygian): subject 2.
 One subject uses both the term “suspensiva” (suspensive) and “inconclusa”
(unfinished): subject 6.
o Subjects 2 and 5, different: “Frigia” and “semicadencia.”
o Subjects 3 and 4, different but both including the word semicadencia:
“semicadencia” and “semicadencia suspensiva Frigia.”
49
C. Types of Chords
6 6
Questions 12 to 15 relate to types of 4
chords. Questions clearly state that all 4
chords in the excerpts are second inversions of the tonic chord in the key of C major.
Additionally, each question provided a hyperlink containing an audio example of each
excerpt. Table 13 shows the original answers of the subjects.
6
Chords
CADENTIAL Description: Cadencial Description: Cadencial Description: Cadencial

De preparación o Description: En este caso Apoyatura del Description:
apoyatura hacia Cadencia se entiende acorde de acorde con
la dominante Clasica mejor como dominante y quinta
una doble posterior duplicada,
apoyatura, 4-3 cadencia a debido a que es
(cuarta a tónica cadencial, se
tercera del privilegia nota
acorde de comun al pasar
dominante) y al siguiente
6-5 (sexta a acorde
quinta del
acorde de
dominante)
PASSING De Paso De Paso Description: De Paso Description: De Paso

En este caso No es Description:
se comprende cadencial sino acorde con notas
como un de inicio de de paso (bajo y
acorde de paso una frase soprano),
entre dos movimiento
estados del contrario y
acorde de duplicación de
subdominante. 5ta
NEIGHBOR Apoyatura De Anticipacion Description: De Notas de vuelta Cadencial

OR Aquí puede Paso/Suspensivo Description:
PEDAL entenderse acorde de 6/4
como un cadencial con
acorde bajo común
bordadura o (cadencia
"acorde de inconclusa)
vuelta" en
torno al acorde
de dominante.
50
6
Chords (continued)
ARPEGGIATED Description: Description: Description: Reafirmacion Description: Description:

Cambio de Es un adorno Aquí se trata Acorde cuyo figuración
estado del acorde melódico en el de un acorde bajo recorre en armónica sobre
por movimiento bajo que no 6/4 resultado arpegio una el acorde de
del bajo. compromete a la del octava. El DoM, en el bajo
armonía movimiento acorde de
de arpegio segunda
descendente inversión es
de tónica en el solo una
bajo. El resultante de
resultado total ese
es acorde en movimiento
fundamental
(5/3), en
segunda
inversión
(6/4), en
primera
inversión (6) y
en
fundamental
nuevamente
Question 12: Cadential
 Three subjects use the term “cadencial” (cadential): subjects 2, 4, 6.
 Three subjects give only a description: subjects 1, 3, 5.
 Two subjects give both a term and a description: subjects 2 and 6.
o Subjects 2 and 5: only subject 2 gives a term (“cadencial”); subject 5 gives
a description.
o Subjects 3 and 4: only subject 4 gives a term (“cadencial”); subject 3 gives
a description.
Question 13: Passing
 Four subjects use the term “de paso” (passing): subjects 1, 2, 4, 6.
 Two subjects give only a description: subjects 3 and 5.
51
 One subject gives both a term and a description: subject 6.
o Subjects 2 and 5: only subject 2 gives a term (“de paso”); subject 5 gives a
description.
o Subjects 3 and 4: only subject 4 gives a term (“de paso”); subject 3 gives a
description.
Question 14: Neighbor/Pedal
 One subject uses the term “apoyatura” (appoggiatura): subject 1.
 One subject uses the term “de anticipación” (of anticipation): subject 2.
 One subject uses the term “notas de vuelta” (loosely translated “neighboring
notes”): subject 5.
 One subject uses the term “cadencial” (cadential): subject 6.
 One subject uses both the term “de paso” (passing) and “suspensivo”
(suspensive): subject 4.
 One subject gives only a description: subject 3.
o Subjects 2 and 5: different, “de anticipación/notas de vuelta.”
o Subjects 3 and 4: subject 4 gives two terms (“de paso” and “suspensivo”);
subject 3 gives a description.
Question 15: Arpeggiated
 One subject uses the term “reafirmación” (re-assurance/re-statement): subjects 5.
 Five subjects give only a description: subjects 1, 2, 3, 5, 6.
52
o Subjects 2 and 5: both subjects give a description.
o Subjects 3 and 4: only subject 4 gives a term (“reafirmación”); subject 3
gives a description.
D. Augmented Sixth Chords
Questions 16 to 18 relate to types of augmented sixth chords. Excerpts given to
the subjects show that all augmented sixth chords resolve in the dominant (Roman
numeral V) in a harmonic sequence of two (French/Italian) or three (German) chords.
The placement of the augmented sixth chords is clearly indicated in the excerpts by the
symbol *. Table 14 shows the original answers of the subjects.
Table 14: Survey Results, Augmented Sixth Chords
GERMAN Sexta Alemana 6a Aumentada Sexta 6 n/a Sexta Alemana

Alemana
Alemana Alemana 5
FRENCH Sexta Francesa 6a Aumentada Sexta 4 n/a Sexta Francesa

Francesa
Francesa Francesa 3
ITALIAN Sexta Italiana 6a Aumentada Sexta Italiana Italiana 6 n/a Sexta Italiana
Italiana
Question 16: German Augmented Sixth Chord
 Three subjects use the term “sexta alemana” (German sixth): subjects 1, 3, 6.
 One subject uses the term “6a aumentada alemana” (German augmented 6th):
subject 2.
 One subject uses the term “alemana 65” (German 65 ): subject 4.
53
 One subject did not answer: subject 5.
o Subjects 2 and 5: only subject 2 gives a term (“6a Aumentada Alemana”);
subject 5 does not answer.
o Subjects 3 and 4, different: “Sexta Alemana” and “Alemana 65 .”
Question 17: French Augmented Sixth Chord
 Three subjects use the term “sexta francesa” (French sixth): subjects 1, 3, 6.
 One subject uses the term “6a aumentada francesa” (French augmented 6th):
subject 2.
 One subject uses the term “francesa 43 ” (French 4

3
): subject 4.
o Subjects 2 and 5: only subject 2 gives a term (“6a Aumentada Francesa”);
o Subjects 3 and 4, different: “Sexta Francesa” and “Francesa 43 .”
Question 18: Italian Augmented Sixth Chord
 Three subjects use the term “sexta italiana” (Italian sixth): subjects 1, 3, 6.
 One subject uses the term “6a aumentada Italiana” (Italian augmented 6th):
subject 2.
 One subject uses the term “Italiana 6” (Italian 6): subject 4.
o Subjects 2 and 5: only subject 2 gives a term (“6a Aumentada Italiana”);
54
o Subjects 3 and 4, different: “Sexta Italiana” and “Italiana 6.”
E. Tonicization and Modulation
Questions 19 and 20 relate to tonicization and modulation respectively. The
excerpts included in each question show a change of the tonal center. Key and Roman
numeral analysis are provided, and both questions contain a hyperlink with an audio
example of each excerpt. The musical example of question 19 shows a progression
modulating momentarily to the dominant (V) by means of an applied dominant. The
excerpt starts and ends in the original key (D major). Question 20 contains an excerpt
showing a longer change of the tonal center, from tonic (G major) to dominant (D major).
The excerpt begins and ends in different keys. Table 15 shows the original answers of the
subjects.
Table 15: Survey Results, Tonicization and Modulation
TONICIZATION Función Doble Función Función n/a Función

transitoria dominante/ transitoria transitoria transitoria
Función
transitoria
MODULATION Modulación Modulación Modulación Modulación Modulación Modulación
Question 19: Tonicization
 Five subjects use the term “función transitoria” (transitional function): subjects 1,
2, 3, 4, 6.
55
 One subject use both the term “doble dominante” (double dominant) and “función
transitoria” (transitional function): subject 2.
o Subjects 2 and 5: subject 2 gives two terms (“doble dominante” and
“función transitoria”); subject 5 does not answer.
o Subjects 3 and 4, same: “función transitoria.”
Question 20: Modulation
 All six subjects use the term “modulación” (modulation).
F. Phrase Structure
Questions 21 to 23 relate to phrase structure, the parallel period, contrasting
period, and sentence respectively. Musical examples are single melodies of eight
measures each. Roman numerals representing the harmony of the beginning and ending
of each phrase were provided. Names and composers of the excerpts were also given to
the participants, as well as a hyperlink containing an audio example of the score. Table
16 shows the original answers of the subjects.
Table 16: Survey Results, Periods and Sentence
PARALLEL Frase / Description: Description: Description: Período Description:

PERIOD Periodo Dos frases: Frase de 8 cc con A-A' Description: melodía simple
antecedente y estructura antecedente (con alzar) con
consecuente antecedente/consecuente y un antecedente y
(4+4) consecuente consecuente
A-A'
56
Table 16: Survey Results, Periods and Sentence (continued)
CONTRASTING Tema Description: Description: Description: Description: Description:

PERIOD 1a frase, Frase de 8 cc con A-B Antecedente Melodía
antecedente y estructura bipartita (4,4) y consecuente simple: con
consecuente de A-B antecedente y
un minueto consecuente
SENTENCE Periodo Description: Sentencia Desarrollo n/a n/a
Lo mismo en Description: continuo
un rondó Frase de 4 cc con
estructura de (2+2+4)
Question 21: Parallel Period
 Two subjects use the term “periodo” (period): subjects 1 and 5.
 One subject uses both the term “frase” (phrase) and “periodo” (period): subject 1.
 Four subjects give only a description: subjects 2, 3, 4, 6.
 One subject gives a description and a term: subject 5.
 Subject 4 describes using symbols only: A-A’.
o Subjects 2 and 5: only subject 5 gives a term (“período”); subject 2 gives a
description.
o Subjects 3 and 4: description only.
Question 22: Contrasting Period
 One subject uses the term “tema” (theme): subjects 1.
 Four subjects give only a description: subjects 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
 Subject 4 describes using symbols only: A-B.
57
Question 23: Sentence
 One subject uses the term “sentencia” (sentence): subject 3.
 One subject uses the term “periodo” (period): subject 1.
 One subject uses the term “desarrollo continuo” (continuous developing): subject
4.
 One subject gives both a description and a term: subject 3.
 Two subjects did not answer: subjects 5 and 6.
o Subjects 2 and 5: subject 2 gives a description; subject 5 does not answer.
o Subjects 3 and 4, different: “sentencia” and “desarrollo continuo.”
G. Binary Form
Questions 24 and 25 relate to two types of binary form: the simple sectional, and
the continuous rounded respectively. Names of each musical example and their
composers were provided. The excerpt of question 24 was Bach’s Minuet Anh. 114 from
the Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach, and Mozart’s Minuet in F major K. 22 the
excerpt of question 25. Subjects were asked to identify the form of the two examples.
Subject were not advised to identify the excerpt as a type of binary form, or as any other
a prior structure. A hyperlink containing an audio example of the excerpt was also
provided. Table 17 shows the original answers of the subjects.
58
Table 17: Survey Results, Binary Form
SECTIONAL Minueto / Minueto Binaria Description: Binaria Minueto

BINARY FORM Binaria Description: A-A' :// B-C //
A//B//
CONTINUOUS Ternaria Minueto Ternaria Description: Ternaria Minueto

ROUNDED reexpositiva A :// B - A'
BINARY FORM Description:
A//BA//
Question 24: Sectional Binary Form
 Three subjects use the term “binaria” (binary): subjects 1, 3, 5.
 Three subjects use the term “minueto” (minuet): subjects 1, 2, 6.
 One subject uses both the term “minueto” (minuet) and “binaria” (binary): subject
1.
 Two subjects give a description using symbols: subjects 3 (A//B//), and 4 (A-A' ://
B-C //).
o Subjects 2 and 5, different: “minueto” and “binaria.”
o Subjects 3 and 4, different: subject 3 gives a description and a term
(“binaria”); subject 4 gives a description using letters (A-A' :// B-C //).
Question 25: Continuous Rounded Binary Form
 Three subjects use the term “ternaria” (ternary): subjects 1, 3, 5.
 Two subjects use the term “minueto” (minuet): subjects 2 and 6.
 Two subjects give a description using symbols: subjects 3 (A//BA//)
59
and 4 (A :// B - A').
o Subjects 2 and 5, different: “minueto” and “ternaria.”
o Subjects 3 and 4, different: subject 3 gives a term (“ternaria reexpositiva”)
and a description (A//BA//); subject 4 gives a description only (A:// B-A’).
H. Sonata Form
Questions 26 to 31 relate to the exposition of the sonata form. The musical
example given to the subjects was the Andante of Beethoven’s Piano Sonata in G minor,
Op. 49, no.1. The work’s name and its composer was provided. Each questioned section
was highlighted, and a hyperlink containing an audio example was also attached. Table
18 shows the original answers of the subjects.
Table 18: Survey Results, Exposition of the Sonata Form
PRIMARY Primer tema, Primer tema Primera idea Description: Primer tema, Description:
THEME ZONE primera frase Description: Exposición del primera frase Exposición del
(P) 1a idea en sol tema 1 en tema 1
menor tonalidad de
origen
DEPENDENT Primer tema, Puente Puente Puente Segunda Description:
TRANSITION segunda frase. Description: modulatorio phrase, primer modulación a
(TR) Puente al Description: tema SibM para tema
segundo tema Puente 2
modulatorio
compuesto por
la variación del
tema principal
para llegar a la
tonalidad
relativa
60
Table 18: Survey Results, Exposition of the Sonata Form (continued)
MEDIAL Nexo Puente Codetta Description: Puente Description:

CAESURA Description: V de la Cadencia con
(MC) funciona como tonalidad una nota de
nexo a la relativa vuelta sobre la
nueva tónica dominante del
(SIb) tono (SibM)
SECONDARY Segundo tema Segundo tema Segunda idea Description: Segundo tema Segundo tema
THEME ZONE Exposición del
(S) tema 2 en la
tonalidad
relativa
ESSENTIAL Nexo Puente Codetta Description: Cadencia Description:
EXPOSITIONAL Description: V de la Nota de vuelta
CLOSURE Codetta de la tonalidad. Inicio sobre la
(EEC) 2a idea de la sección cadencia
PERFECT cadencial
AUTHENTIC
CADENCE
CLOSING Coda Coda Sección Cadencia Coda Consecuente del
ZONE conclusiva Description: segundo tema
(C) Fin de la
Exposición
Question 26: First Tonal Area/Theme
 Two subjects use the term “primer tema, primera frase” (first theme, first phrase):
subjects 1 and 5.
 One subject uses the term “primer tema” (first theme): subject 2.
 One subject uses the term “primera idea” (first idea): subject 3.
o Subjects 2 and 5, almost same: “primer tema” and “primer tema, primera
frase.” The term given by subject 5 includes an extra compound-lexical
item/concept after the comma (“primera frase”).
o Subjects 3 and 4: only subject 3 gives a term (“primera idea”); subject 4
61
gives a description.
Question 27: Dependent Transition
 Two subjects use the term “primer tema, segunda frase” (first theme, second
phrase): subjects 1 and 5.
 Two subjects use the term “puente” (bridge): subjects 2 and 3.
 One subject uses the term “puente modulatorio” (modulating bridge): subject 4.
 Two subjects give both a description and a term: subjects 2 and 4.
o Subjects 2 and 5, different: “puente” and “segunda frase, primer tema.”
The term given by subject 5 includes a description after the comma.
o Subjects 3 and 4, same: “puente” and “puente modulatorio.” Subject 4 add
the word “modulatorio” (type of description: modulatory).
Question 28: Medial Caesura
 Two subjects use the term “puente” (bridge): subjects 2 and 5.
 One subject uses the term “nexo” (nexus/link): subject 1.
 One subject uses the term “codetta” (codetta): subject 3.
o Subjects 2 and 5, same: “puente.”
o Subjects 3 and 4: only subject 3 gives a term (“codetta”); subject 4 gives a
description.
62
Question 29: Second Tonal Area/Theme (STA)
 Four subjects use the term “segundo tema” (second theme): subjects 1, 2, 5, 6.
 One subject uses the term “segunda idea” (second idea): subject 3.
o Subjects 2 and 5, same: “segundo tema.”
o Subjects 3 and 4: only subject 3 gives a term (“segunda idea”); subject 4
gives a description which includes the term “tema 2.”
Question 30: Essential Closing, Perfect Authentic Cadence
 One subject uses the term “nexo” (nexus/link): subject 1.
 One subject uses the term “Puente” (bridge): subject 2.
 One subject uses the term “codetta” (codetta): subject 3.
 One subject uses the term “cadencia” (cadence): subject 5.
o Subjects 2 and 5, different: “puente” and “cadencia.”
o Subjects 3 and 4: only subject 3 gives a term (“codetta”); subject 4 gives a
description.
Question 31: Closing Section
 Three subjects use the term “coda” (coda): subjects 1, 2, 5.
 One subject uses the term “sección conclusiva” (closing section): subject 3.
 One subject uses the term “cadencia” (cadence): subject 5.
63
o Subjects 2 and 5, same: “coda.”
o Subjects 3 and 4, different: “sección conclusiva” and “cadencia.”
64
Chapter 6: Discussion
6.1 General Considerations
The dataset collected by the survey, as well the literature commented upon in
chapter 4, show that the domain of music theory in Chile has not yet reached a point in its
developments to be regarded as a standalone discipline. However, and even though the
terminology has not been standardized or developed to indicate most musical elements in
their contexts, instructors manage all the basic information needed it to prepare
undergraduate students as professional musicians. Four main factors have contributed to
this state: (1) There is no music association nor periodical dedicated exclusively to music
theory in the country, resulting in a lack of academic collaboration among the participants
of the discipline. (2) There is a lack of updated publications supporting the instructors’
teachings such as textbooks or other materials including the later development of the
discipline. (3) The concept of “teoría musical” (music theory) is seen in the country as
covering mainly (sometimes only) the area of practical skills (solfeggio, notation,
reading, and aural skills); therefore, harmony and analysis are regarded as part of
different domains, excluding a holistic view of the discipline and preparation of
instructors. Theory and musicology will always share common topics; however, it is
essential to make the distinction that these disciplines have a different point of departure.
Their topics spin-out and overlap with the interests of the other: theory’s point of
departure is essentially the musical phenomena itself but for musicology it is the
relationship that extra musical elements and concepts have over music. Participants of the
survey (theorists and musicologists) identify themselves with only one area of the
discipline: instructor of solfeggio/aural skills, harmony, or analysis. This division may
65
lead to very specialized instructors to the detriment of a broader and knowledgeable
discipline, impacting academic collaboration and isolating instructors in their own
subjects. (4) The music theory degree is only offered at undergraduate level in the
country, indicating that upper level courses and research have not yet been implemented
in academic institutions. These factors have impacted the development of a more accurate
and standardized terminology shared by most participant of the discipline, instructors,
and students alike.
It is important to make the distinction between the necessities of undergraduate
music students such as performers and music educators, whose training requires a more
practical training, from those requiring research skills as an essential element in their
training: theorists, musicologists, and composers. At the same time, graduate students of
all areas are also in need of a higher level of research training. All undergraduate students
are in need of an accurate and precise information on basic theory materials such as the
6
ones assessed in this research: types of cadences, periods, sentence, types of 4
chords,
types of augmented sixth chords, tonicization, modulation, binary form, and sonata form.
On the other hand, research-related undergraduate students, as well as graduate and
professional musicians, are also in need of deeper explanations about musical
phenomena. Let us exemplify this assertion, taking as an example some questions about
the cadences: Is the V-I motion enough to label a progression as a cadence? Are the
plagal and deceptive cadences actually cadences, or is their role more a prolongation than
a closing? Do cadences only serve as closings? Can larger sections of a musical piece
66
have the role of cadences?46 We can also make philosophical questions about cadences,
such as Schoenberg once did stating that “in a general way every piece of music
resembles a cadence, of which each phrase will be a more or less elaborate part.”47 At the
same time, questions about sonata form still remain, the most representative form of the
Classical Era: Is it binary or ternary, or both at the same time? Hepokoski and Darcy have
divided the categorized Classical sonata form in five different types,48 so the answer is
more evasive than we usually think. However, is this the type of information that most
undergraduate music students need as a fundamental in their training? The answer is
clearly not because what those students need is a summarized knowledge, similar to that
found in most current music theory textbooks, where the essential elements of music are
clearly identified by terms having a high rate of standardization. Hence the importance of
a standardized terminology in the training of undergraduate students.
The results of this survey related to terminology itself shows that subjects tend to
use both lexical items and descriptions to represent musical concepts/elements, using
them together or choosing one or the other to answer. When the term is hidden in the
description, this research regards it as “description” only, and not as a term. Common
terms are not shared by most participants of the survey. However, there are instances in
46
See William E. Caplin, "The Classical Cadence: Conceptions and Misconceptions,"
Journal of the American Musicological Society 57, no. 1 (2004): 51-118. Koch (1749-
1816), a music theorist and composer from the Classical era, states that a “cadence must
end on a tonic chord with scale-step I in both bass and melody, preceded by a root-
position dominant chord and any variety of antepenultimate chords...Anything else is a
caesura that ends an inconclusive phrase,” cited by Joel Lester, Compositional Theory in
the Eighteenth-Century (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1994),
279.
47
Arnold Schoenberg, Fundamentals of Musical Composition (London: Faber and Faber,
1970), 16.
48
See the preface of Elements of Sonata Theory by Hepokoski and Darcy.
67
which lexical items reach higher levels of standardization: modulation, authentic,
deceptive, and Plagal cadences. Descriptions and terms are not translated because they
are evaluated as lexical items. The level of knowledge, as well as the accuracy of the
term/descriptions, are not discussed.
Four main characteristics are presented along with the answers of the subjects: (1)
subjects tend to answer giving together a term and a description, (2) there are some
musical elements/structures for which subjects do not have a term at all, (3) subjects’
descriptions do not exactly match between them but in general their content is the same,
and (4) some terms are either wrong or do not completely represent the element/structure
questioned. This last issue is mainly seen in the section related to musical forms. For
example, there is no reference to the differences between a parallel and contrasting
period, and the subjects’ answers describe them as antecedent and consequent
(“antecedente” and “consecuente”) only. Also, the continuous rounded binary form is
seen as a ternary form by three subjects, and two others only refer to it as a “minuet
form,” a generic labeling that does not characterize the form.
6.2 Music Theory as a Three-Part Discipline
Participants in the survey distinguish themselves as instructors of “teoría”
(theory), “armonía” (harmony), and “análisis” (analysis). It is inferable from the fact that
instructors refer to themselves as teachers of one of these areas only instead of as “music
theory instructors.” Also, the concept of an “instructor de teoría musical” (music theory
teacher) is associated with the area of reading, aural skills, and music fundamentals under
the name of “lectura y auditivo” (reading and ear training), “lenguaje musical” (musical
68
language), or “solfeggio.” On the other hand, the materials related to part-writing and
harmony are enclosed under the teachings of “armonía” (harmony). Phrasing, form, and
general analysis is under the teaching of “análisis” (analysis). This division of the music
theory practice has made specialized instructors for each area, having many advantages
because specialized instructors would be expected to: (1) manage the latest development
of the discipline they teach, (2) know the latest literature pertained to their area, and (3)
have a historical view of the development of the discipline in question. However, it
would create a situation in which instructors would lack the necessary knowledge of the
areas that are not taught by them, avoiding the holistic training of instructors. Further
research is necessary to verify if specialized instructors in Chile have been able to
develop these characteristics since this study does not focus on the level of knowledge of
the instructors but rather on the terminology used by them. The Universidad de Chile and
the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile are the only academic institutions offering
the degree of music theory in the country, but only at undergraduate level.
6.3 Music Theory Associations and Periodicals in Chile
There is neither a music theory association nor a specialized journal in music
theory in the country. All six subjects responded that they are not part of any national or
international music theory association. The Revista Musical Chilena, published by the
Universidad de Chile since 1945, and the Revista Resonancias, published by the Instituto
de Música de la Universidad Católica de Chile (IMUC) since 1997, are the only
specialized, peer-review music journals in the country. Their areas of interest cover
mainly Latin American and Chilean music from their historical, social, and cultural
69
contexts. Both publications also offer reviews on new music as well as on the general
field of music but do not specialize in music theory as an independent discipline.
However, they occasionally publish articles related to music theory/analysis alone. The
lack of associations and specialized music theory publications in the country —two of the
main factors indicated in this research as contributing to the development of a standardize
terminology— has impacted the development of the field as a stand-alone discipline in
the country. This lack has also contributed negatively to the creation of instances of
academic collaboration among the participants of the discipline that, if implemented,
would bring benefits such as (1) the alignment of the materials taught to students,
undergraduate and graduate, with competitive standards at the international level, and (2)
the establishment of a more standardized terminology, creating a coherent vocabulary
among the participants of the disciple, both instructors and students alike.
6.4 Types of Cadences
The results of this survey related to cadences, phrase structure, types of binary
form, and sonata exposition shows that there are missing elements or gaps about current
developments of the domain. Most subjects recognize these musical elements/structures,
but their roles in the musical context is overlooked because the terms used do not
completely represent their features. Therefore, the terminology has not developed to
represent them in their particular context or according to their contexts. For example, five
subjects match their terms to refer to both the perfect and the imperfect authentic
cadences, labeling them with the same lexical item: “auténtica” (authentic) or “auténtica
perfecta” (perfect authentic). The level of standardization is high in this matter. However,
70
these terms do not differentiate between the particular roles of the “perfect” and the
“imperfect” authentic cadences; thus, subjects regard them as equal, when they are not.
The perfect authentic cadence (root-position V or V7 resolving to a tonic chord in root-
position with the tonic note in the soprano) has a more relevant structural role than the
imperfect authentic cadence (root-position V or V7 ending in a tonic chord in root-
position with scales degrees 3 or 5 in the soprano) in defining periods, sentences, and
groups of phrases, and in serving as a formal structural closure in the sonata form. Even
melodically, the perfect authentic cadence is stronger than the imperfect authentic
cadence because the latter leaves the melodic line unclosed whereas the first does not,
emphasizing the sense of closure and tonality.49 The problem with using the same term
for these cadences is that the contexts of the musical discourse can be easily overlooked.
This fact indicates that subjects are missing some pieces of information regarding the role
and features of each of these cadences. Only the deceptive and Plagal cadences are
labeled with standardized terms by the subjects. All other cadences terms are non-
standardized. Subjects that are part of the same academic institutions (subject 2, 5 and
subjects 3, 4) agree in the labeling of the plagal cadence. The labeling of all other
cadences either differ, has partial agreement in which one of the subjects adds an extra
word/words to the main term, or one of the subjects gives an extra term. For example,
subject 2 labels the deceptive cadence as “rota,” while subject 5 as “rota” and
“interrumpida.” Likewise, subject 3 labels the Phrygian half cadence as “semicadencia,”
whereas subject 4 labels it the “semicadencia suspensiva Frigia.”
49
Caplin, 56-58.
71
6
6.5 Types of 4
Chords

Data related to 64 chords shows that subjects prefer to answer with descriptions
instead of terms, and sometimes terms are hidden in the description. Table 13 shows that
four subjects give descriptions instead of a term for the cadential 64 chord; three subjects
give a description for the passing 64 chord (a term is hidden in the answer of subject 3, “de
paso,” and subject 5 gives both a description and a term); two subjects give a description
for the neighbor/pedal 64 chord (once again a term is hidden in the answer of subject 3,
“acorde de bordadura/de vuelta,” and subject 5 gives both a description and a term); five
subjects give a description for the arpeggiated 64 chord (no term is hidden in the
descriptions). All descriptions agree in their basic content, showing quite similar
perspectives of the subjects on the questioned musical elements. Only the term used to
label the passing 64 chord has a high level of standardization with five instances, including
one hidden in a description (subject 3). The dataset also shows that three subjects use the
common term “cadencial” for labeling the cadential 64 chord; there is neither agreement
for the labeling of the neighbor/pedal 64 chord, nor of the arpeggiated 64 chord.50 Subjects
that are part of the same academic institutions (subject 2, 5 and subjects 3, 4) do not agree
in any of their answers, showing a possible misalignment or lack of academic
collaboration that would impact the materials imparted to the students. The dataset
prompts us to ask why subjects prefer to answer giving descriptions, which brings a
certain level of ambiguity because they are different in each answer, instead of a specific
term. Two assumptions may be possible, either subjects “prefer” descriptions over terms
50
A similar low level of standardization for the labeling of these chords is found in the
American music theory textbooks evaluated in chapter three, pp. 23-24.
72
as a common practice, or the knowledge of a term for labeling the musical elements
questioned is unknown to them; the later assumption seems to be the most possible.
6.6 Augmented Sixth Chords
The dataset shows that all subjects agree in the basic labeling of the three most
common augmented sixth chords, characterizing them with the words German, French, or
Italian in their Spanish translations (“Alemana,” “Francesa,” “Italiana”). However, Table
14 shows that only three subjects have a complete agreement in their answers: subjects 1,
3, and 6. Subjects that are part of the same academic institutions (subject 2, 5 and
subjects 3, 4) do not agree in any of their answers. Once again, the dataset shows a
possible misalignment or lack of academic collaboration in this respect.
6.7 Tonicization and Modulation
As Table 15 shows, the terminology used to label modulation has a total
agreement along the answers (“modulación”). Likewise, the labeling of tonicization has
almost the same high level of standardization but subject 2 gives an extra term (“doble
dominante”), and subject 5 does not answer. Among subjects that are part of the same
academic institutions, only subjects 3 and 4 agree in their answers, while subjects 2 and 5
do not because subject 5 does not answer. This high level of standardization shows that
the relationship between these lexical items and the musical concept intended to be
represented by them have been fully established in the Chilean terminology.
73
6.8 Phrase Structure, Binary Form, and Sonata Form
The following section of this research discusses the dataset showing the most
unstandardized terminology presented in the answers of the subjects; this involves the
terms used to refer to types of periods and sentence, binary form, and the exposition of
the sonata form. The first three questions discussed here related to the parallel period, the
contrasting period, and the sentence respectively. As Table 16 shows, subjects prefer to
describe these structures. Subjects 2 and 3 use only descriptions for all of the three
questions; however, subject 3 gives also a term to refer to the sentence (“sentencia”).
Subjects 4, 5, and 6 give descriptions for the parallel and contrasting periods. At the same
time, while subject 4 answers with the term “desarrollo continuo” to refer to the sentence,
subjects 5 and 6 do not answer. Subject 5 gives both a term and a description to refer to
the parallel period (“periodo”). Subject 1 is the only one answering with a term for all the
questions; however, this subject’s answers would be objected because the terms given do
not fully represent the element questioned. For example, subject 1 answers with the terms
“frase” and “periodo” to refer to the parallel period, “tema” (theme) to refer to the
contrasting period, and “periodo” again to refer to the sentence; these terms do not
represent the questioned musical elements, and bring unclear meaning to the involved
concepts. For instance, the term “tema” (theme) would involve a period or sentence, and
be constructed with many or few musical ideas. Additionally, most subjects describe the
questioned period structures as “antecedente” and “consecuente” (antecedent and
consecuent), recognizing them as two phrases (“frases”) but not differentiating them as
two different types of period. Subjects that are part of the same academic institutions
(subject 2, 5 and subjects 3, 4) do not agree in the usage of a term to refer to the parallel
74
and contrasting periods but their descriptions contain the same basic information. This
dataset indicates that the practice of using a specific term to refer to these two types of
periods has not been established, and that the terminology has not evolved to represent
the characteristic features of each of them. Only subject 3 uses the term “sentencia” to
refer to the sentence structure, while other subjects either do not answer, describe, or use
any other term (subject 1, “periodo;” subject 2 describes, comparing the structure with a
rondo; subject 4, “desarrollo continuo;” subjects 5 and 6 do not answer. There is no
agreement in the usage of a term to refer to the sentence structure.
Subjects were asked to recognize two types of binary form: the sectional binary,
and the continuous rounded binary forms. The dataset in Table 17 shows that most
subjects recognize the sectional binary form only as binary (“binaria”), a term that by
itself is not enough to fully characterize the form and its singularities (sectional, the A
section ending in tonic); Subject 4 only gives a description using letters for the binary
form, implying the term (A-A’://B-C//). The continuous rounded binary form is regarded
a ternary form by three subjects, either by the usage of a term (“ternaria”) or by a
description. Subject 4 only uses letters (A://B-A’) without clearly stating if the rounded
binary is a bipartite or tripartite structure. Subject 3 uses the same labeling, apparently
describing a binary form, but using the term “ternaria” instead. This fact indicates that
subjects are not aware of the importance of the continuous rounded binary form as a
frame that resembles a ternary form but has specific characteristics that differentiate it
from the ternary. A misunderstanding of the binary form and its types would also result in
gaps about the historical role of this form in the evolution of the most representative form
of the Classical period, the sonata form. Another important issue is that subjects 1, 2, and
75
6 refer to these two binary forms with the generic term “minueto” (minuet), which in
itself does not reflect the specific characteristics of these binary forms. There is no
agreement in the terminology used by the subjects that are part of the same academic
institutions (subject 2, 5 and subjects 3, 4).
The dataset referring to the sections of the sonata’s exposition indicates that the
primary and secondary theme zones are recognized with a term. For the primary theme,
the terms are “primer tema” (first theme), “primera idea” (first idea), and “tema 1”
(theme 1). Correspondingly, the secondary theme zone is labeled as “segundo tema”
(second theme), “segunda idea” (second idea), and “tema 2” (theme 2). What we have
here is an interesting instance of the flexibility of the language because even though these
lexical items are different, their meaning is the same in the Spanish language. On the
contrary, the terminology used to label the other areas shows a low level of
standardization which is accompanied by an oversight of the roles of these elements/areas
and their context. This apparent unawareness of roles may be attributed to the lack of
updated literature managed by the subjects, an issue already commented upon in chapter
4. For example, only subject 5 recognizes the PAC as the main element on the question
related to the essential expositional closure; all other subjects refer to this area/element as
“nexo” (nexus), “puente” (bridge), “codetta,” or giving just a description that does not
highlight the main feature of it: the perfect authentic cadence. At the same time, there is
an overuse of lexical items serving as a common term to refer to different sections. Thus,
subject 1 uses twice the term “nexo” (nexus) to refer to both the medial caesura, and the
essential expositional closure; subject 2 uses three times the term “puente” (bridge) to
refer to the transition, the medial caesura, and the essential expositional closure; subject 3
76
uses twice the term “codetta” to refer to the medial caesura, and the essential expositional
closure. Is it possible to use a single lexical item to label these areas? Probably yes, if the
terminology allows it; however, this would bring a misrepresentation and oversight of the
roles of these elements, as well as a certain level of inaccuracy.
Among subjects that are part of the same academic institution, the terminology
does not always agree. Out of the six terms evaluated, subjects 2 and 5 have four
instances of agreement: the terms used to label the primary and secondary theme areas
(“primer tema” and “segundo tema”), medial caesura (“puente”), and closing zone
(labeled by these subjects as the “coda”). Subjects 3 and 4 only have three instances of
agreement: the terms used to label the primary and secondary theme areas (“primer tema”
and “segundo tema”), and transition (“Puente,” subject 4 attaches the word “modulatorio”
[modulating] to it).
6.9 Conclusion: Benefits and Implications
Music vocabulary has been identified by this research as a descriptive
terminology, coming from the accumulation of concepts related to the domain. These
concepts have then developed into a system of concepts and lexical items. Also, music
theory literature and academic collaboration have been identified as the main contributors
to the creation of these terms, as well as in their standardization. At the same time, music
theory textbooks are indicated as essential for the training of undergraduate students
because they tend to summarize the most updated knowledge, as well as transmit an
already accepted terminology. Therefore, the publication of literature in the original
language of the participants of any discipline, in this case, music, is essential to establish
77
a terminology. A high level of standardization will produce better communication among
the participants of the discipline, instructors and students alike. This standardization is in
close relationship with academic collaboration, influencing and being influenced by it in
a cyclical process.
As seen in chapter 4, most of the literature used by Chilean music theory
instructors is outdated, not considering the later developments in the understanding of
tonal music. It would result in a disadvantage for all the participant of the discipline in
the country, instructors and students alike. Therefore, it is not out of the question to
conclude that issues related to the use of outdate literature, as well as the lack of current
publications in the original language of the subjects, have affected the quality of
knowledge managed by the subjects. At the same time, questions about the terms
themselves need to be addressed in future research, such as the use of the term “coda” to
label small closing sections at the end of the exposition of the sonata form; the use of
“puente” to designate the first transition of the exposition, a term that by itself does not
indicate if this transition shares or not the same musical material with the theme, neither
describes all the features. Future research would also focus on other Spanish-speaking
countries in the region, comparing their experience and promoting international academic
cooperation. At the same time, most publications used by Chilean instructors are not
originally in the Spanish language but are translations.
The dataset discussed in this research indicates that the need for a more
standardized terminology, especially among instructors of the same academic institution,
is necessary. It is essential to transmit accurate and current knowledge to undergraduate
and graduate students alike. However, it is not enough to implement a standardized
78
terminology in the teaching of fundamental elements of music, particularly for
undergraduates; the terminology needs to align with the most current development of the
music theory discipline. Therefore, the terminology, as well as the participants of the
discipline, need to be flexible to adapt to those developments.
The American system has created many academic instances for the development
of music theorists and musicologists. Regional and national symposiums, as well as
journals, have been promoted and established. Not only Classical music is covered but
also folk, rock, and popular, a practice of crossing borders that has enriched the
discipline. Therefore, the goal of this research in comparing the American experience
with the Chilean is no other than to highlight the strength of a discipline that has reached
a high status of academic rigor as a stand-alone disciple. The hope is to motivate Chilean
instructors to adopt the best of other experiences, contribute to the publishing of
pedagogical music theory materials, as well as to strive for academic collaboration in the
country. What is proposed in this research is not to abandon the Chilean tradition in the
teaching of music theory by adopting the American. Instead, though critical at some
points, its goal is to promote a healthy discussion and evaluation of the discipline of
music theory among its participants, especially instructors, to enrich their teaching
experience. It advocates for academic collaboration, creation of all kinds of music theory
publications in Spanish (books, textbooks, reviews, and articles), and the establishment of
a coherent terminology in the teaching of essential undergraduate materials pertaining to
notation, harmony, and analysis. These advancements in the music theory discipline from
and for Chilean theorists and musicians would position the Chilean experience as a model
for other Spanish-speaking countries in the region since the use of an unstandardized
79
terminology and lack of updated literature is not a particular Chilean problem but of the
Spanish language literature. Therefore, similar problems related to terminology and
updated literature would be found in other Spanish-speaking countries in the region.
Further research is necessary to corroborate this assertion.
80
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Music Periodicals

The Musical Times and Singing Class Circular 1844 - 1903
Bouwsteenen 1869 - 1874
Proceedings of the Musical Association 1874 - 1943
Tijdschrift der Vereeniging voor Noord-Nederlands Muziekgeschiedenis 1882 - 1959
Sammelbände der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft 1899 - 1914
Journal of the Folk-Song Society 1899 - 1931
The Musical Times 1904 - 2013
Studien zur Musikwissenschaft 1913 - 2010
The English Folk-Dance Society's Journal 1914 - 1915
Music Supervisors' Bulletin 1914 - 1915
Music Supervisors' Journal 1915 - 1934
The Musical Quarterly 1915 - 2011
Bulletin de la Société française de musicologie 1917 - 1921
Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 1918 - 2015
Music & Letters 1920 - 2011
Revue de Musicologie 1922 - 2013
The Journal of the English Folk Dance Society 1927 - 1931
Mitteilungen der Internationalen Gesellschaft für Musikwissenschaft / Bulletin de la Société internationale de Musicologie 1928 - 1930
Jahrbuch für Volksliedforschung 1928 - 1999
Acta Musicologica 1931 - 2013
Journal of the English Folk Dance and Song Society 1932 - 1964
Music Educators Journal 1934 - 2013
Notes 1934 - 2013
Advisory Council Bulletin (Music Teachers' National Association) 1936 - 1937
Papers Read by Members of the American Musicological Society at the Annual Meeting 1936 - 1939
Bulletin of the American Musicological Society 1936 - 1948
Bulletin of the Music Teachers National Association 1938 - 1950
Tempo 1939 - 2011
Papers of the American Musicological Society 1940 - 1941
Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 1944 - 1984
Journal of Renaissance and Baroque Music 1946 - 1947
Revue belge de Musicologie / Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Muziekwetenschap 1946 - 2011
Mitteilung (Gesellschaft für Musikforschung) 1947 - 1948
Newsletter (African Music Society) 1948 - 1951
The Galpin Society Journal 1948 - 2011
Die Musikforschung 1948 - 2011
Musica Disciplina 1948 - 2013
Journal of the American Musicological Society 1948 - 2015
Journal of the International Folk Music Council 1949 - 1968
American Music Teacher 1951 - 2013
The African Music Society Newsletter 1952 - 1953
Bulletin d'Information (International Association of Music Libraries) 1952 - 1953
Journal of Research in Music Education 1953 - 2013
Ethnomusicology 1953 - 2017
African Music 1954 - 2011
Fontes Artis Musicae 1954 - 2015
Jahrbuch für Liturgik und Hymnologie 1955 - 2015
Journal of Music Theory 1957 - 2011
The World of Music 1957 - 2012
The Choral Journal 1959 - 2015
Tijdschrift van de Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis 1960 - 1994
R.M.A. Research Chronicle 1961 - 1976
Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 1961 - 2006
College Music Symposium 1961 - 2009
Perspectives of New Music 1962 - 2016
Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 1963 - 2017
Anuario 1965 - 1969
Folk Music Journal 1965 - 2013
Rivista Italiana di Musicologia 1966 - 2014
Asian Music 1968 - 2011
Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council 1969 - 1980
Anuario Interamericano de Investigacion Musical 1970 - 1975
Bach 1970 - 2016
81
International Review of Music Aesthetics and Sociology 1970
Il Flauto dolce 1971 - 1988
International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 1971 - 2016
Contributions to Music Education 1972 - 2012
The Black Perspective in Music 1973 - 1990
Early Music 1973 - 2011
The Maynooth Review / Revieú Mhá Nuad 1975 - 1989
RIdIM/RCMI Newsletter 1975 - 1997
Musica Judaica 1975 - 2003
Theory and Practice 1975 - 2012
Computer Music Journal 1977 - 2011
19th-Century Music 1977 - 2015
Studies in Popular Culture 1977 - 2015
Indiana Theory Review 1977 - 2016
Royal Musical Association Research Chronicle 1978 - 2010
Revista de Musicología 1978 - 2017
Music Theory Spectrum 1979 - 2013
The Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education 1980 - 1999
Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana 1980 - 2013
Black Music Research Journal 1980 - 2015
Early Music History 1981 - 2011
Popular Music 1981 - 2011
Yearbook for Traditional Music 1981 - 2016
Music Analysis 1982 - 2011
The Journal of Musicology 1982 - 2015
Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal 1983 - 2015
American Music 1983 - 2017
Journal of the Royal Musical Association 1986 - 2011
Intégral 1987 - 2014
Philosophy of Music Education Newsletter 1988 - 1992
Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles 1988 - 2006
Cambridge Opera Journal 1989 - 2011
Recercare 1989 - 2013
Leonardo Music Journal 1991 - 2011
Neue Zeitschrift für Musik (1991-) 1991 - 2014
International Journal of Musicology 1992 - 2000
British Journal of Ethnomusicology 1992 - 2003
Philosophy of Music Education Review 1993 - 2017
Musurgia 1994 - 2006
Il Saggiatore musicale 1994 - 2013
Lenox Avenue: A Journal of Interarts Inquiry 1995 - 1999
Tijdschrift van de Koninklijke Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis 1995 - 2014
Music in Art 1998 - 2013
Journal of Historical Research in Music Education 1999 - 2013
Lied und populäre Kultur / Song and Popular Culture 2000 - 2012
Tav+: Music, Arts, Society / ‫ חברה‬,‫ אמנויות‬,‫ מוסיקה‬:+‫תו‬ 2003 - 2010
Ethnomusicology Forum 2004 - 2009
Studia Musicologica 2007 - 2011
Cahiers d'ethnomusicologie 2007 - 2014
Music and the Moving Image 2008 - 2017
82
Appendix B: Common Literature of Harmony and Analysis Used in Chile
Literature Used by Instructors Original Publication Name and Date Original

Language
Bas, Giulio. Tratado de la Forma Musical. Buenos Aires: Bas, Giulio. Trattato Di Forma Musicale.
Italian
Ricordi Americana, 1975. Milano: Ricordi, G. & C., 1920.
Butterworth, Anna. Harmony in Practice. London: The
same English/British
Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music, 1999.
Butterworth, Anna. Stylistic Harmony. London: The
Associated Board of The Royal Schools of Music, 1994. same English/British
Contreras, Silvia y Julia Grandela. Desde el Piano...la
same Spanish/Chile
Armonía. Santiago: Facultad de Artes U. de Chile, 2005.
Cristensen, J.B. Les Fondements de la Basse Continue au
XVIIIe Siécle: Un méthode basée sur les sources dépoque. same French
Basel: Barenreiter-Verlag, 1995.
De la Motte, Diether. Armonía. Barcelona: Editorial Labor, De la Motte, Diether. "Harmonielehre: 1600-
1994. 1730-1790-1810-1840-1860-1880-1910-
German
1930." Leipzig: Deutscher Verl. fúr Musik,
1977.
De Murcia, Santiago. Resumen de acompañar la parte con la
De Murcia, Santiago. Resumen de acompañar
guitarra. Madrid, 1714. Reprint, Madrid: Música Facsímil, Spanish
la parte con la guitarra. Madrid, 1714
1984.
Del Sordo, Federico. Il Basso Continuo. Padova: Edizioni
same Italian
Musicali Euganea, 1996.
Eguílaz, Rafael y Alicia Santos. Cuaderno de Análisis:
Iniciación al Análisis Musical. Madrid: Enclave Creativa, same Spanish
2005.
Forte, Allen. Tonal Harmony in Concept and Practice. 3rd Forte, Allen. Tonal Harmony in Concept and
ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1979. Practice. 3rd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart English/USA
and Winston. 1962.
Forte, Allen y Steven Gilbert. Introducción al Análisis Forte, Allen, and Steven E. Gilbert.
Schenkeriano. Trad. Pedro Purroy Chicot. Barcelona: Idea Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis. New English/USA
Books, 2002. York: Norton, 1982.
Hindemith, Paul. Armonía Tradicional. Buenos Aires: Hindemith, Paul. A Concentrated Course in
English/USA
Ricordi Americana, 1969. Traditional Harmony. London: Schott, 1943.
Hindemith, Paul. Armonía Tradicional. Buenos Aires: Hindemith, Paul. A Concentrated Course in
English/USA
Ricordi, 1949. Traditional Harmony. London: Schott, 1943.
Kühn, Clemens. Tratado de la Forma Musical. Trad. Luis Kühn, Clemens. Formenlehre der Musik.
Romano. Barcelona: Idea Books, 2003. München: Dt. Taschenbuch-Verl., 1987. German
(seventh edition, 2004)
Lloyd, Ruth & Norman. Creative Keyboard Musicianship.
same English/USA
New York: Dodd, Meadd & Company, 1975.
Morales, María Soledad: Manual de Armonía. Ed. Musicales
same Spanish/Chile
Fac. de Artes, U. de Chile, Santiago, 1988.
Morales, María Soledad. Manual de Armonía. 3rd. ed. Morales, María Soledad: Manual de Armonía.
Santiago: Ed. Musicales Fac. de Artes, U. de Chile, 2000. Ed. Musicales Fac. de Artes, U. de Chile, Spanish/Chile
Santiago, 1988.
Morris, R. O. Figured Harmony at the Keyboard. Oxford:
same English/British
Oxford University Press, 1960.
Piston, Walter. Armonía. España: Ed. Labor, 1995. Piston, Walter. Harmony. Edited by Mark
English/USA
DeVoto. 5th ed. New York: Norton, 1987.
Piston, Walter. Harmony. Edited by Mark DeVoto. 5th ed.
same English/USA
New York: Norton, 1987.
Piston, Walter. Harmony.Rev. ed. New York: Norton and
same English/USA
Company, 1948.
Poblete Varas, Carlos. Estructuras y Formas de la Música
Tonal. Valparaíso: Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso, same Spanish/Chile
1981.
Rimsky-Korsakov, N. Tratado Práctico de Armonía. Buenos Практический учебник гармонии, 1885.
Aires: Ed. Ricordi Americana, 1982. Practical Manual of Harmony. First English Russian
edition published by Carl Fischer in 1930.
Rimsky-Korsakov, N. Tratado Práctico de Armonía. Buenos Практический учебник гармонии, 1885.
Aires: Ricordi, 1946. Practical Manual of Harmony. First English Russian
edition published by Carl Fischer in 1930.
Schoenberg, Arnold. Tratado de Armonía. Madrid: Real Schoenberg, Arnold. Harmonielehre. Vienna: German
83
Musical Editores, 1974. Universal Edition, 1911.
Szekely, Katalin. Armonía Tonal Funcional. Valencia: Ed.
same Spanish
Piles, 2006.
Zamacois, Joaquín. Curso de Formas Musicales. 3rd ed. Zamacois, Joaquín. Curso de Formas
Spanish
Barcelona: Labor, 1975. Musicales. Barcelona: Labor, 1960.
84
Appendix C: Common Literature of Solfeggio and Practical Skills Used in Chile
Bibliography Used by Instructors Original Publication Name and Date Original

Language
Andreani, G. Lettura melodica, Percorsi nella musica. Vol. I
Italian
and II. Milano: Ed. Ricordi, 2001.
Arbaretaz, M.C. Lire la Musique par la Connaissance des
French
Intervalles. Vol. I and II. Paris: Chapell, 1979.
Association des Enseignants du C.N.R. Etude du Rythme. Vol
I. Paris: Editions Coumbre, 1984. French
Beaucamp Albert. Solfeos con Acompañamiento de Piano en Beaucamp, Albert. Le solfège contemporain
Cinco Volumenes. Paris: Gérard Billaudot, 1955. en cinq volumes avec accompagnement de French
piano. París: Gérard Billaudot, 1954.
Benward, Bruce. Basic/Advance Sightsinging and Ear
English/
Training: Strategies & Applications. Dubuque, Iowa: W.C.
USA
Brown Publishers, 1989.
Bitsch, Marcel. Douze lecons de Solfege Rythmique. Paris:
French
Alphonse Leduc & Cie, 1955.
Callier, Yves. 24 Lectures Rythmiques. Paris: Heugel, 2003. French
Cole, Samuel and Leo Lewis. Melodia, a Course in Sight- English/
Singing. Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1903. USA
Compagnon, G. Y. and M. Thomet. Educación del Sentido Education du sens rythmique: enfants de 4 à 8
French
Rítmico. Buenos Aires: Ed. Kapelusz, 1975. ans. Paris: Editions Bourrelier, 1951.
Contreras, Silvia. Repertorio Didáctico Musical: Una
Propuesta Globalizadora. Santiago, Chile: Editorial Facultad Spanish/Chile
de Artes Universidad de Chile, 2002.
Copland, A. Como Escuchar la Música. Santa Fé de Bogotá, What to listen for in music. New York: English/
Colombia: Fondo de la Cultura Económica, 1992. McGraw Hill Book Co., 1939. USA
Davison, A. T. and Willi Apel. Historical Anthology of
English/
Music. Vol. I. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
USA
Press 1972.
Divers, Auteurs. Mélimélodies. Vol 5. Paris: Gérard Billaudot
French
Editeur, 1994.
Edlund, Lars. Modus Novus. Ed. New York: Wilhelm Hansen Modus novus: Lärobok i fritonal
& Chester Music, 1964. melodiläsning. Stockholm: Nordiska Swedish
Musikförlaget, 1963.
Edlund, Lars. Modus Vetus. Stockholm: Edition Wilhelm
Swedish
Hansen, 1967.
Gallon, Noel. Solfege a 2 voix. Paris: Henry Lemoine, 1927. French
Gartenlaub, O. 79 Rythmes a une ou deux voix. Vol II. Paris:
French
Éditions Musicales Hortensia, 1981.
Gates, Everett. Odd meter etudes. New York: Sam Fox Odd meter etudes for all instruments in treble
English/
Publishing, 1982. clef. New York: David Gornston; Sam Fox
USA
Pub. Co., 1962.
Gervais, Francoise. 60 Lecons de Solfege rythmique. Paris,
French
Editions Henry Lemoine, 1967.
Hemsy de Gainza, V. La Improvisación Musical. Buenos Spanish/
Aires: Ricordi, 1983. Argentina
Henry, Earl and James Mobberley. Musicianship: Ear
English/
Training, Rhythmic Reading, and Sight Singing. New Jersey:
USA
Prentice-Hall, 1986.
Hindemith, Paul. Adiestramiento Elemental para Músicos. Elementary training for musicians. New English/
Buenos Aires: Ricordi Americana, 1949. York: Associated Music, 1946. USA
Holstein, Jean Paul. Les langages Musicaux par l’Audition,
par la lecture Instrumentale, Livres I a VI. Paris: Editions French
Chouden, 1976.
Jollet, J.C. Jeux de Rythmes 6. Paris: Gérard Billaudot
French
Editeur, 1995.
Kodály, Zoltan. Bicinia Hungarica. Vol. I. Budapest: Editio
Hungarian
Musica Budapest, 1958.
Kodaly, Zoltan. Tricinia: 29 progressive three-part songs.
Hungarian
New York, Boosey & Hawkes, 1964.
Kreter, Leo. Sight & Sound: A Manual of Aural Musicianship. English/
Vol. 1 and 2. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1976. USA
L’Association des Enseignants du C.N.R. de Lyon. Etude du French
85
Rythme. Vol. III. Paris: Combre, 1984.
Lambert, Joan B, Frederic Alfonso, and Joaquim Zamacois.
Spanish
Laz: Método Graduado de Solfeo. Barcelona: Boileau, 1941.
Lussy, Mathis. El Ritmo Musical. Buenos Aires: Ricordi, Traité de l'expression musicale. Paris: Heugel,
French
1986. 1874.
Messiaen, Olivier. Technique de mon langage musical. Paris:
French
Alphonse Leduc, 1966.
Molnár, A. Cánones Clásicos. Budapest, Editio Musica
Hungarian
Budapest, 1955.
Nowak, Leopold. Bicinien der Renaissance. Basel:
Originally published in 1949 German
Barenreiter Kassel, 1975.
Ottman, Robert W. Music for Sight Singing. New Jersey: English/
Prentice- Hall, 1956. USA
Pichaureau, Claude. Seize Lecons de Solfege. Paris: Rideau
French
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VITA
EDUCATION
DMA Performance, University of Kentucky (expected) August 2018
MA Master of Arts, Music Theory (expected) August 2018
MM Guitar Performance, Andrews University May 2014
BM Guitar Performance Pontifical Catholic University of Chile February 2009
BM General Music, Pontifical Catholic University of Chile December 2005
IMUC- Pontifical Catholic University of Chile

College-Conservatory of Music: Guitar 1996-1999
PROFESSIONAL POSITIONS
UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY 2014-2017

Lexington, Kentucky
Teaching Assistant
ANDREWS UNIVERSITY 2010-2013

Berrien Springs, Michigan
Teaching Assistant
RUTH MURDOCH ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 2011-2014

Berrien Springs- Michigan
Guitar Instructor
PONTIFICAL CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF CHILE-DGE 2005-2010

Santiago, Chile
Guitar Instructor
SANTIAGO NORTE ADVENTIST MIDDLE AND HIGH SCHOOL 2006-2010

Santiago, Chile
Music Teacher
MANUEL MAGALLANES MORE ART CENTER 1999-2010

Santiago-San Bernardo, Chile
Guitar Instructor
91
PROFESSIONAL HONORS AND AWARDS
2014-2017: Lyman T. Johnson Academic Fellowship for contribution to academic
diversity, University of Kentucky.
2014-2017: Teaching Assistantship Scholarship at the University of Kentucky.
2012: Andrews University Concerto Competition.
ENRIQUE SANDOVAL-CISTERNAS
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University of Kentucky

Theses and Dissertations--Music Music

UNDERGRADUATE MUSIC THEORY TERMINOLOGY USED BY

REVIEW, APPROVAL AND ACCEPTANCE

Enrique Sandoval-Cisternas, Student

Dr. Karen Bottge, Major Professor

Dr. Michael Baker, Director of Graduate Studies

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Co-Directors: Dr. Karen Bottge, Professor of Music Theory

Copyright  Enrique Sandoval-Cisternas 2018

UNDERGRADUATE MUSIC THEORY TERMINOLOGY

Six Chilean music theory instructors participated in an anonymous survey applied

KEYWORDS: Music Theory, Terminology, Textbooks, United States, Chile

April 11, 2018

Dr. Karen Bottge

Dr. Kevin Holm-Hudson

Dr. Michael Baker

April 11, 2018

opportunities for future work.

1.2 Terminology: General Definition and Function.............................................2

1.3 Terminology and Its Function in Other Fields of Study.................................5

1.4 Descriptive and Prescriptive Terminology.....................................................7

1.5 Music Theory and the Development of Its Terminology................................7

1.6 Benefits of Terminology in Music Theory.....................................................9

Chapter 2: Development of Music Theory Terminology in English Language

2.1 Establishing a Terminology in Music Theory..............................................12

2.2 Music Periodicals in English Language........................................................13

2.3 Music Theory Associations in the United States..........................................14

2.4 Music Theory Textbooks in English: The American Experience.................16

2.5 Curriculum and Materials: The First Two Years of Undergraduate.............19

Chapter 3: Chapter Three: Assessment of American Textbooks

3.2 Types of Cadences........................................................................................22

3.4 Augmented Sixth Chords..............................................................................26

3.5 Tonicization and Modulation........................................................................28

3.7 Binary Form..................................................................................................30

3.8 Sonata Form..................................................................................................32

Chapter 4: Music Theory Literature Used in Chile

4.2 Common Literature Used by Chilean Instructors.........................................36

4.3 General Evaluation........................................................................................39

Chapter 5: Survey Data, Questions and Methodology

5.1 Introduction: Materials Included...................................................................44

5.3 Questions and Answers.................................................................................45

A. The Music Theory Discipline in Chile...............................................45

D. Augmented Sixth Chords...................................................................53

E. Tonicization and Modulation.............................................................55

6.1 General Considerations.................................................................................65

6.2 Music Theory as a Three-Part Discipline.....................................................68

6.3 Music Theory Associations and Periodicals in Chile...................................69

6.6 Augmented Sixth Chords.............................................................................73

6.7 Tonicization and Modulation.......................................................................73

6.8 Phrase Structure, Binary form, and Sonata Form........................................74

6.9 Conclusion: Benefits and Implications........................................................77

Appendix A: Music Periodicals..........................................................................81

Appendix B: Common Literature of Harmony and Analysis Used in Chile......83

Appendix C: Common Literature of Solfeggio and Practical Skills..................85

Table 1: Regional Music Theory Associations..................................................................15