ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT-1
QUANTUM MECHANICS

Limitations of Classical Mechanics – Photoelectric Effect - Einstein’s

Photoelectric Equation - Planck’s Quantum Theory (Qualitative) - Wave Particle Duality - de-
Broglie’s Wave – Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle - Time Independent and Time
Dependent Forms of Schrödinger Wave Equation – Particle in a Box (1D) – Quantum
Mechanical Tunneling – Scanning Tunneling Microscope -Quantum Well, Quantum Wire and
Quantum Dot.
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PROBLEMS
 Quantum Mechanics
• Newtonian Mechanics
→ Explained motion of celestial bodies & earthly objects
- The laws of thermodynamics & classical electrodynamics explained bulk
properties of matter.
→ Whether Classical Mechanics suitable for atomic particles?
- When same laws are applied to particles such as electrons, protons, nucleus
Newtonian Mechanics fails.
- The classical concepts are invalid in the region of atomic dimensions.

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 Inadequacy of Classical Mechanics
✔ Classical Mechanics fails to explain stability of atom
(Rutherford model of atom)

✔ Fails to explain
spectrum of Hydrogen atom

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 Continued..

✔ Fails to explain black body radiation

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✔ Fails to explain photoelectric effect

✔ C.M cannot explain discrepancy of decrease in specific heat

at low temperature for solids. The calculated and experimental values
are not in accord

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✔ C.M cannot explain electrical conductivity of semiconductors
and insulators

✔ The electrical conductivity (σ) and thermal conductivity (K)

varies in different ways. Thus {K/(σT)} is not a constant,
However, based on classical free electron theory it is constant
at all temperatures.

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 Photoelectric Effect
• Photoelectric Effect
- Ejection of electrons from metal or semiconductor surface when
illuminated by light or any other radiation of suitable wavelength is
called Photoelectric Effect.

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 Laws of Photoelectric Emission

1. For each photo sensitive material, there is a minimum

frequency known as the threshold frequency, below which
emission of photoelectrons stops completely, whatever may be
the intensity.

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 Continued..

• The number of photoelectrons emitted per sec (photocurrent)

is directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation.

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 Continued..

• The velocities of emitted electron have a value between zero

to a definite maximum.
• The electrons are emitted almost instantaneously (time lag <
10-8 sec)

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 Continued..

• For a given metal, stopping potential V0, which is the retarding

potential difference between two electrodes that is sufficient
to halt the most energetic photoelectrons is directly
proportional to frequency but is independent of the intensity of
incident radiation.

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• Einstein explained photoelectric effect based on quantum theory
of light
• The energy of light travels as bundles called photon
• The energy of single photon is hϑ
• A part of photon energy is used by electron to come out of metal
surface and remaining energy is used for kinetic energy
• Thus hϑ = W0 + (1/2)mv2
• W0 – photoelectric work function of metal, which is minimum
energy required to eject electron from metal surface. This is
called as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
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 Planck’s Quantum theory
● The matter is composed of large number of oscillating particles
● The oscillators vibrate with different frequency
● The energy of oscillating particle is quantised. The energy is E = nhϑ
where ϑ-frequency of emitted radiation,
h-Planck’s constant, n- number of oscillators
● The oscillator emits energy when it moves from one quantised state to
other state
● The oscillator absorbs radiation and gets excited to another quantised
state.
● The oscillator emits or absorbs radiation of energy in packets of hϑ

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• Based on Planck’s theory, the exchange of energy between
quantised state is not continuous but discrete
• The quantised energy is in small packets or bundle, which is called
as quanta
• The packet of energy propagates like a particle with speed of light
• The energy density of black body radiation (ρv)

This equation is Planck’s equation for black body radiation.

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 Properties of Photon

✔ The energy of photon E = hϑ

✔ The speed of photon is equal to speed of light
✔ The existence of photon is similar to existence of electron
✔ Photons are electrically neutral
✔ They can be destroyed or created by many natural processes, for
instance when radiation is absorbed or emitted
✔ They can have interactions with other particles such as electrons as in
the case of the Compton effect (scattering of photon by charged
particle such as electron, leading to decrease in energy of photon and
part of photon energy is transferred to recoiling electron).

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 Wave Particle Duality of nature

• What is a wave?
Wave is a spread-out over a large region of space. It cannot be
located just here or there.
Wave is specified by frequency, wavelength, phase, wave velocity,
amplitude and intensity.

What is particle?
Particle (matter) has mass. It can be located at some definite point.
Particle is specified by mass, velocity, momentum and energy.

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• Radiation is a wave – spread out in space
• Radiation is particle – can be localised at a point in space.

What is the proof for wave-particle duality of radiation?

Experimental results of black body radiation, photoelectric effect,
X-ray adsorption supports particle nature.
Photon character is supported by
black body radiation, emission & absorption of line spectra, Compton
Scattering of X-rays

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• Evidence for wave nature of radiation
- Electromagnetic waves, which includes visible light, IR, UV
radiations, X-rays and γ-rays exhibits wave nature supported
by interference and diffraction experiments.

Hence, radiation exhibits a dual wave-particle nature.

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 Matter Waves

• What is Matter Wave?

The wave associated with the moving particles of matter such as
electrons, protons are called as matter waves or pilot waves or de
Broglie waves.

de Broglie’s hypothesis
1. The entire universe consists of matter and energy (radiation) only.
2. The two physical entities., Matter and Energy must be mutually
symmetrical.

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 de Broglie equation

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 Wave Packet

• Wave packet or wave train is a short burst or envelope of wave motion, which travels as
unit

• An infinite set of component of sinusoidal waves of different wave number

• The phase and amplitudes interfere constructively only over a small region of space

• Destructive interference happens elsewhere

• In quantum mechanics, it is interpreted as “probability wave”

• It describes the probability that a particle is measured to have a given position and
momentum

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• In coordinate representation, the position of wave is given by the position
of the packet

• Narrower the spatial wave packet, better defined the position of wave
packet

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 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

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•

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 Special features of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle

• It is not possible to determine accurately & simultaneously the

values of position & momentum of a particle at any time.
When position of an electron is measured accurately, error
will be involved in momentum measurement

• Uncertainty principle sets limits on measurement accuracy in

the case of atomic particles only and there is no limit for
heavy objects whatever may be the measuring procedures

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• Matter and light are like two faces of a coin. At a time only
one face can be displayed not both faces simultaneously

• Uncertainty principle helps us to understand several

phenomena related to subatomic particles

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 Continued..

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 Continued..

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 Acknowledgement

• https://javalab.org/en/photoelectric_effect_2_en/
• https://chemistryonline.guru/rutherfords-atomic-model/
• https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages
/6-1-blackbody-radiation

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 Schrӧdinger Wave Equation

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 Schrödinger Wave Equation

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 Schrödinger Wave Equation

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 Schrödinger Wave Equation

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 Schrödinger Wave Equation

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 Schrödinger Wave Equation

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 Schrödinger Wave Equation

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 Schrödinger Wave Equation

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 Schrödinger Wave Equation

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 Schrödinger Wave Equation

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 Schrödinger Wave Equation

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 Schrodinger Wave Equation

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 Particle in a box problem
Energy levels of an electron in an infinitely deep
potential well – particle in one dimensional infinite
square well

• Consider an electron is trapped in an infinitely deep

potential well with width ‘a’
• The movement of electron is restricted by the side walls
and assume that electron is moving only in ‘x’ direction.
• When the electron collides with side walls, there is no loss
of energy. Hence the collision is perfectly elastic.
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• The electron is moving freely inside the well and its potential
energy V=0. But V is infinitely high on both sides of well and
outside well. Hence electron cannot escape from the well.

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 Particle in a box

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 Particle in a box

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 Particle in a box

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 Particle in a box

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 Particle in a box

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 Particle in a box

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 Particle in a box

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 Results

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 Results

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 Results

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 Quantum Mechanical Tunneling

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 Quantum Mechanical Tunneling

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 Quantum Mechanical Tunneling

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 Quantum Mechanical Tunneling

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 Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)

• STM is used for imaging surfaces at atomic level.

• STM exhibits good resolution 0.1 nm lateral resolution and 0.01
nm depth resolution.
• Based on Quantum Mechanical tunneling STM is operated.
• When conducting tip is kept near to surface under examination
and a bias voltage applied between surface and tip to allow the
electrons to tunnel through the vacuum between them.
• The tunneling current is a function of tip position, applied voltage
and local density of states of sample.

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 Continued..

• Information is obtained by monitoring current when tip scans across

the surface and displayed as image.
• STM is challenging technique, since it requires clean surface, sharp
tip and excellent vibration control.
• It can be operated in air, water, gas or other liquids with the
operating temperature near to 0 K to few hundred degree Celsius.
• STM Operation
- A voltage bias is applied between tip and sample and tip is kept
close to sample.
- A tip control is used to turn-off when the tip and sample are very
close.
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 - Piezoelectric vibration control is used to maintain proper distance
between tip and sample
- Usually tip-sample separation W is in the range of 4-7Å.
- For the attractive force acting between tip and sample the equilibrium
position is 3<W<10 Å, whereas for repulsive interactions W<3 Å
- In this condition electrons will tunnel between tip and sample
producing tunneling current.
- The tip is moved across the sample in x, y directions. The changes in
surface height and density of states makes the changes in current.

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 • Modes of operation
Constant current mode – In this mode, feedback electronics
adjust the height between tip and sample by piezoelectric height
control mechanism. The height is varied to maintain constant
current. The image is formed from tip topography that gives charge
density surface. The contrast in the image is owing to variation in
charge density.
Constant height mode – The height between tip and sample is
kept constant, whereas the current changes. Thus current change
is mapped as image.
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Ref: https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-642-35950-7_6596-4
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 • Which mode of operation is better?
Constant height mode, since in constant current mode, height
variation is required to maintain current constant. It requires
some time for piezoelectric movements to register change.
Instrumentation
- STM include sharp scanning tip, piezoelectric controlled
height, x-y scanner, sample to tip control, vibration control
system with computer.
- The image resolution is limited by radius of curvature of
scanning tip of STM.
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- Image artifacts occurs if tip is not sharp, this leads to double
tip imaging, where the image formed will not be clear.
- The tip is made of tungsten, platinum-iridium or gold.
- Computer controlled automated setup is used to maintain the
tip position with respect to sample.

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 Instrument module of STM

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 Physics of Low-dimensional materials

• If only one of 3D is small enough, then the structure is called as

Quantum Well (2D)
• If two of the dimensions are in nanometric range, it is called as
Quantum Wire (1D)
• If 3D are comparable to λB, the structure is called as Quantum
Dot (0D)

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 Quantum Well

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 Bulk, Quantum well. Quantum wire and quantum dot
with DOS spectrum

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 Quantum Wire

DOS spectrum have spikes like pattern

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 Quantum Dot

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Numerical problems
 Particle in a box problems

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 Uncertainty principle problems

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 Quantum Mechanics Problems

1. When an E. coli bacterial cell is examined by a student in the

lab he found the following details: E. coli swimming at a
velocity of 3.00 μm/s with an uncertainty in the velocity of 3%
and 1.46×10-9m uncertainty in position. E. coli bacterial cells are
around 1 μm length. What is the mass of the bacteria?
Answer:
Uncertainty in the velocity of the bacteria: We can multiply our
percentage (in decimal form) to our velocity:
Δv= (0.03)(3 μm /s) Δv=(0.03)(3 ×10-6 m/s)

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2. If a particle is in the first excited state, what is the
probability that it is between x=0.1L and x=0.2L?

A particle trapped in a box

Of all the confinement models used in quantum physics, the

simplest is the particle in a one-dimensional box. In this model,
the confined particle is free to move between x=0 and x=L. But
at the boundaries of the confining regions, it will encounter
potential barriers of infinite height and width.
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On solving the time-independent Schrodinger equation for this model we
see that the energy Eigenstates are given by,
ψn=√(2/L) sin(nπx/L)−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

The energy eigenvalues are given by,

En=n2h2/(8mL2)−−−−−−−−− (2). Here n=1, 2, 3,....

The complete probability information about the position of the particle is

contained in its wave function. The absolute square of the wave function
gives the probability density.
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Hence by integrating the absolute square over the required region the
probability for detection in that region may be determined. For the
first excited state, n=2. Therefore the wave function is,

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 ENERGY MOMENTUM MASS

1 eV = 1.609 x 10-19 J 1 eV/c = 5.36 x 10-28 kg-m/s 1 eV/c2 = 1.79 x 10-36 kg

1 keV = 1.609 x 10-16 J 1 keV/c = 5.36 x 10-25 kg-m/s 1 keV/c2 = 1.79 x 10-33 kg

1 MeV = 1.609 x 10-13 J 1 MeV/c = 5.36 x 10-22 kg-m/s 1 MeV/c2 = 1.79 x 10-30 kg

1 GeV = 1.609 x 10-10 J 1 GeV/c = 5.36 x 10-19 kg-m/s 1 GeV/c2 = 1.79 x 10-27 kg

1 TeV = 1.609 x 10-7 J 1 TeV/c = 5.36 x 10-16 kg-m/s 1 TeV/c2 = 1.79 x 10-24 kg

https://quarknet.fnal.gov/toolkits/new/whatgevs.html
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4. A proton in confined in an infinite square well of width 10 fm. (The
nuclear potential that binds protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom is often approximated by an infinite square well potential).

(a) Calculate the energy and wavelength of the photon emitted when the
proton undergoes a transition from the first excited state (n = 2) to the
ground state (n = 1).

(b) In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum does this wavelength

belong?

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?reload=9&v=2CKMW8qjz2A

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End of unit-1