COLEGIO DE MUNTINLUPA

Civil Engineering Department

LABORATORY MANUAL
in

HYDRAULICS

Compiled by:

__________________________

Edited by:
Engr. Ida P. Mandawe
 Experiment No. 1
Determination of Density of Common Liquid (Oil, Water, Glycerine)

I. Introduction
The density of a material is its mass per unit volume. Different materials have
different densities. Less dense fluids float above denser fluids if they do not mix.
Water’s density is 1 g/ml. If a fluid’s density is lesser that water, it will float while
fluids what have a greater density than water will sink. Density may change if the
temperature or pressure of a material will be changed.

II. Objectives
To identify the density of Oil, Water and Glycerine

III. Apparatus
1.) One graduated cylinder for each liquid
2.) Funnel
3.) Stirring Rod
4.) Weighing Balance
5.) Tissue / Clean Cloth
6.) Oil, Water and Glycerine

IV. Set-up of Apparatus

V. Procedure
1.) Weigh the empty Graduated Cylinders and record the weight.
2.) Carefully fill the graduated cylinders with oil, water and glycerine to your
desired volume not exceeding the capacity of graduated cylinder.
3.) After filling up with liquids, weigh the graduated cylinder filled with oil and
repeat the process with water and glycerine and record the weight
respectively
4.) Subtract the weight of empty graduated cylinder to the weight of filled
graduated cylinder to get the mass of the liquid.
5.) Obtain the volume of each liquid and record it.
6.) Compute the density by using the formula Density = mass/volume

VI. Data
Mass of
Mass of Mass of
Graduated Volume of
Graduated Liquid (ML Density
Liquid Cylinder Liquid in
Cylinder = MGL - (ML/V)
with Liquid ml (V)
(MG) MG)
(MGL)

Oil

Water

Glycerine

VII. Data Analysis

VIII. Conclusion

IX. References
 Experiment No. 2
Determination of Liquid Viscosity (Oil, Water, Glycerine)

I. Introduction
The transportation and accumulation of sediment in waterways and reservoirs,
the movement of dust and other pollutants in the atmosphere, and the flow of
liquids through porous media are examples of phenomenon in which specific
weight and viscosity play important roles.

Note that the expression given in Figure above for the drag force is derived from
Stoke’s Law and is valid only for small Reynolds number. According to Newton’s
Second Law (since the sphere is not accelerating):

𝐹 0

𝐹 𝐹 𝑊 0
𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
3𝜋𝜇𝑉𝑑 𝛾 𝛾 0
6 6

Algebraic manipulation yields an expression for μ in terms of γs , γl , d and V:

𝑑 𝛾 𝛾
𝜇
18𝑉
 The above equation is valid for a sphere falling far from a wall. The ‘wall effect’ occurs
when the falling sphere is close to a wall. The ‘wall effect’ affects the sphere when:

𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑 1
𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷 3

The observed fall velocity, Vo , must then be corrected using:

𝑉 9𝑑 9𝑑
1
𝑉 4𝐷 4𝐷

The drag force on a sphere may also be calculated by:

𝑉
𝐹 𝐶 𝐴 𝜌
2
Where Ap is the projected area of the sphere and CD is the coefficient of drag.

II. Objectives
Determine the specific weight and the viscosity of liquids at room temperature.
Also determine a relationship between the coefficient of drag and the Reynolds
number.

III. Apparatus
1.) Two liquids contained in three transparent vertical tubes: two large tubes and
one small tube. The small tube and one large tube should contain the first
liquid (oil), while the second large tube should contain the second liquid
(glycerin). Inside each tube is a bail bucket to catch the falling spheres. There
is also a hooked rod to retrieve the bucket by the handle.
2.) Calibrated volumetric containers of the above liquids.
3.) Tweezers.
4.) Thermometer, micrometer, meter stick, stopwatch
5.) At least five spheres of varying density and/or diameter (use marbles, shot-
filled balls, etc.)
IV. Set-up of Apparatus

V. Procedure
1.) Record the temperature of the liquids (use the ambient temperature if the
liquids have been in the room for a long period of time).
2.) Calculate the specific weight of each liquid by weighing a known volume. The
tare weight of the calibrated containers (not including the stoppers) is scribed
on the outside of each container.
3.) Weigh each sphere and measure its diameter with a micrometer (to account
for out-of-round conditions, take several measurements at various diameters
and average the result). Calculate the specific weight of each sphere. NOTE:
if the specific weight of the sphere is not greater than that of the fluid, it will
float and not fall – choose another sphere.
4.) Measure and record the inside diameter of the tubes.
5.) Measure and record a vertical fall distance on each tube (the distance need
no be the same for each tube). Use a scribed line or masking tape to locate
the distance. There should be ample liquid above and below the lines so that
the sphere will not be influenced by the bail bucket and to allow the person
with the stopwatch an adequate distance to visually identify the sphere
dropping. Check that the handle of the bucket will not interfere with the travel
of the sphere.
 6.) Drop a sphere into the liquid using the tweezers and time the descent through
the marked distance using the stopwatch. Record the travel time. The sphere
should be dropped just at the fluid level so that the sphere will achieve terminal
velocity prior to the marked distance.
7.) Repeat item 6 for each sphere. When all spheres have been dropped, retrieve
the bail bucket with the hooked rod. Remove the spheres from the bucket,
cleaning them thoroughly with towels or rags. Push the bucket back down
using the rod, then remove and clean the rod with towels or rags.
8.) Repeat 6 and 7 for each tube.Data

VI. Data

Liquid A Liquid B
Volume [ ]
Total Mass [ ]
Tare Mass [ ]
Mass of liquid [ ]
Specific Weight [ ]
Temperature [ ]

Sphere
Sphere # Mass Volume Specific Weight
Diameter
 Time
Liquid Tube Sphere Sphere Fall Terminal Corrected
of Viscosity
A/B Diameter # Diameter Distance Velocity Velocity
Fall

VII. Data Analysis

VIII. Conclusion

IX. References
 Experiment No. 3
Calibration of Pressure Gage Using Dead Weight Apparatus

I. Introduction
One of the fundamental quantities of interest in hydraulics is pressure. Because
of its importance, many methods have been developed to measure pressure.
Pressure may be expressed with reference to any arbitrary datum. The usual data
(plural of datum) are absolute zero and local atmospheric pressure. When a
pressure is expressed as a difference between its value and the local
atmospheric pressure, it is called gage pressure. Gage pressure can be negative
but absolute pressures are always positive.

II. Objectives
The objective of this experiment is to verify the accuracy of a pressure gage with
a dead weight gage tester.

III. Apparatus
Dead Weight Pressure Gage
Weights
Scale

IV. Set-up of Apparatus

V. Procedure
1.) Record the cross-sectional area and the mass of the plunger (piston) and the
weight platform. The details are written in the label fixed to the apparatus.
2.) Create a blank table of results.
3.) Ensure the apparatus is level and that you have no trapped air in the tube or
cylinder.
4.) Add the weights (masses) to the weight platform in approximately eight
increments up to a maximum of 5.2 kg, Do not exceed 5.2 kg. Always load
the reading as each mass is added. To prevent the piston sticking, rotate the
piston gently as each mass is added.
5.) Remove the masses in the reverse order as you added them. Record the
pressure gage reading as you remove each mass.
6.) From your results, calculate the actual pressure (p) and total mass (M). Plot
graphs of the gauge pressure against actual pressure and gauge error against
actual pressure.

VI. Data

Decreasing
Increasing Pressure
Pressure
Total
Mass Actual
mass on Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge
added to Pressure
piston Reading Error Reading Error
piston (P)
(M)
Kg Kg kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2
VII. Data Analysis

VIII. Conclusion

IX. References
 Experiment No. 4
Hydrostatic Force on Submerge and Semi-Submerge Rectangular Area

I. Introduction
A plane surface when submerged in liquid will be subjected to a hydrostatic force
which can be computed using the principle that force is a product of pressure
times the area in which the pressure acts. In a submerged plane, since the
pressure varies with height, the approach is to consider a differential area which
is a strip parallel to the liquid surface as presented to the liquid surface.
In the Semi – submerged condition:

hp = vertical height from fulcrum to center of pressure

z = depth of water surface to bottom of the quadrant plane surface

d = height of end face quadrant

b = width of end face quadrant

𝐹 𝛾ℎ𝐴

𝑧
ℎ
2

𝐴 𝑏𝑧

Taking moment about the pivot

 𝐹ℎ 𝑊𝑟

𝑧
ℎ 𝑆
3

For the fully submerged condition:

𝐹 𝛾ℎ𝐴

𝑑
ℎ 𝑧
2

𝐴 𝑏𝑑

II. Objectives
 To determine the hydrostatic force on a submerged and semi-submerged
rectangular area.

III. Apparatus / Equipment

Center of Pressure Apparatus

Set of Weights
Measuring Tape

IV. Set-up of Apparatus

V. Procedure

1.) The hydrostatic apparatus was set up on top the hydraulic bench. The
apparatus was leveled and was mounted by using the foot screw and the
spirit level.
2.) The weight carrier was attached to the beam and the counterweight was
adjusted to make the beam horizontal/
3.) The weight carrier was added weight. This would make the beam tip so
slowly pour water into the tank of the hydrostatic apparatus to restore the
beam to its horizontal position. The depth of water level was noted.
4.) For the semi-submerged condition, 4 different weight values hence 4
different water depths were used.
5.) For the submerged condition also 4 different weight values was used.

VI. Data

Fhp vs
Weight Force F x hp Wxr
Trial Z (cm) hbar (m) A(m2) hp (m) Wr
(g) (N) (N.m) (N.m)
(error)

Semi-Submerged Condition

Fully Submerged Condition

4
VII. Data Analysis

VIII. Conclusion

IX. References
 Experiment No. 5
Buoyancy and Stability of Floating Object

I. Introduction

Floating bodies are special case; only a portion of the body is submerged, with
the remainder poking of the free surface. The buoyancy, FA , which is the weight
of the displaced water, i.e., submerged body portion, is equal to its dead weight,
FG . The center of gravity of the displaced water mass is referred to as the center
of buoyancy, A and the center of gravity of the body is known as the center of
mass, S. In equilibrium position buoyancy force, FA, and the dead weight, FG ,
have the same line of action and are equal and opposite. A submerged body is
stable if its center of mass locates below the center of buoyancy. However, this
is not the essential condition for stability in floating objects.

II. Objectives 

Determination of center of buoyancy and metacentric height and investigation of

stability of objects
III. Apparatus

1.) Pontoon
2.) Water tank as float vessel
3.) Vertical sliding weight
4.) Horizontal sliding weight
5.) Knurled screws
6.) Draught
7.) Heel indicator

IV. Set-up of Apparatus

V. Procedure
1.) Set the horizontal sliding weight to position x = 8 cm.
2.) Move vertical sliding weight to bottom position
3.) Fill the tank with water and insert the floating body
4.) Gradually raise vertical sliding weight and note down the tilting angle.
5.) Plot the stability gradient versus vertical center of gravity position and using
the plot determine the metacentric height.
6.) Compare the result with the metacentric height.
VI. Data

VII. Data Analysis

VIII. Conclusion

IX. References
 Experiment No. 6
Energy Equation Experiment Using the Bernoulli Apparatus

I. Introduction
Bernoulli’s Principle is a physical principle formulated that states that “as the
speed of a moving fluid increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases”.
Bernoulli’s principle is named after the Swiss scientist Daniel Benoulli. Bernoulli’s
principle states that for an in viscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid
occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid’s
potential energy.
𝑝 𝑣
𝑧 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 2𝑔

II. Objectives
1.) To investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when applied to the steady
flow of water in a tapered duct.
2.) To measure the flow rates with venture meter and to demonstrate Bernoulli.
3.) To find the time taken to collect 3L of water, the volumetric flow rates of the
water, the pressure difference at all manometer tube, velocity, dynamic head
and also the total head.
4.) To determine a steady, continuous, incompressible, non-viscous fluid flow,
the total energy or total head remains constant at all the section along the fluid
flow provided there is no loss or addition of energy.

III. Apparatus
1.) Pad of Manometer tubes
2.) Venturi tube
3.) Air bleed screw
4.) Water inlet
5.) Pump and Pump switch
6.) Stopwatch
7.) Water hosts and tubes
8.) Water tank equipped with valves, Control Valve and measuring tube
9.) Hypodermic tube
 10.) Hydraulic Bench
11.) Union
12.) Air Bleed Screw
13.) Discharge water
14.) Sump tank
15.) Volumetric Tank

IV. Set-up of Apparatus

V. Procedure
1.) The clear acrylic test section was ensured installed with the converging
section upstream. The unions tightened and checked.
2.) The apparatus located on the flat top of the bench.
3.) A spirit level was attached to the baseboard and the unit level on the top of
the bench by adjusting the feet.
4.) The water was filled into the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench until
approximately 90% full.
5.) The flexible inlet tube was connected using the quick released coupling in the
bed channel.
6.) The flexible hose was connected to the outlet and it directed into the channel.
 7.) The outlet flow control partially opened at the Bernoulli’s Theorem
Demonstration Unit.
8.) The bench flow control valve, VI fully closed then the pump switched on.
9.) VI was gradually opened and water allowed filling until all air has been
expelled from the system.
10.) All the ‘trapped bubbles’ was checked in the glass tube or plastic transfer
tube. To remove air bubbles, the air was bled out using a pen or screwdriver
to press the air bleed valve at the top right side of the manometer board.
11.) Water flowing into the venturi and discharge into the collection tank of
hydraulic bench.
12.) The water flow rate proceeds to increased it. When all the water flow was
steady and there were no trapped bubbles, the discharge valve closed to
reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
13.) Water levels in the manometer were in different heights.
14.) VI and outlet control adjusted to obtain the flow through the test section and
the static pressure profile observed along the converging and diverging
sections is indicated on its respective manometers. The total head pressure
along the venture tube being measured by traversing the hypodermic tube.
Note: the manometer tube connected to the tapping adjacent to the outlet flow
control valve is used as a datum when setting up equivalent conditions for
flow through test section.
15.) The actual flow rate measured by using the volumetric tank with a stopwatch.

VI. Data

Volume (L)

Average Time (s) to collect

Q, Flow Rate (m3/s)

 Cross  Using 
Using Bernoulli Equation  Continuity  Difference 
Section  Equation 
𝐷 𝑄
h*=h11  ViB= 2 𝑔 ℎ∗ ℎ 𝐴 𝜋 𝑉   𝑉 𝑉  
#  hi (mm)  4 𝐴
(mm)  (m/s)  (m/s) 
(m2)  (m/s) 
A             
B             
C             
D             
E             
F             

VII. Data Analysis

 
VIII. Conclusion

IX. References 

 
 Experiment No. 7
Energy Equation Experiment Using the Bernoulli Apparatus

I. Introduction

In the classification of flow, one must determine whether fluid movement is

laminar or turbulent. In laminar flow, the fluid moves in parallel layers with no
crosscurrents. Meanwhile, turbulent flow is characterized by pulsatory
crosscurrents velocities which result in the formation of a more uniform velocity
distribution. However, it is also important to note that turbulent flow experiences
greater energy loss than laminar flow. In circular pipes, the maximum velocity for
laminar flow is twice the average velocity: whereas for turbulent flow, it is
approximately 1.25 times the average velocity.

II. Objectives

1.) To determine the Reynold’s Number of waters at any given flow condition.
2.) To determine the range of Reynold’s number between laminar and turbulent
flow.

III. Apparatus

1.) Thermometer
2.) Vernier Caliper
3.) Ruler
4.) Pipe
5.) Weighing Balance
6.) Stopwatch
IV. Set-up of Apparatus

V. Procedure
1. Measure the diameter of the pipe with vernier caliper
2. Determine the unit of water in N/m3 and kinematic viscosity include the room
temperature at deg C.
3. Measure the height of 10 cm, 30 cm, 20 cm and 40 cm. Then allow the water
to flow. The value should be adjusted. Take the time required for each height.
4. After gathering the required data, compute for Reynold’s number and
determine the flow w/c is laminar and turbulent. Fill the data sheets.

VI. Data

Pipe diameter -
Room temperature -
Mass density -
Weight -
Cross-sectional area of pipe -
Kinematic viscosity -
 Trial No. Vol. Time Q Velocity Re Remarks
1
2
3
4

VII. Data Analysis

VIII. Conclusion

IX. References
 Experiment No. 8
Water jet impinging on fixed blade

I. Introduction

Consider a jet of water striking a stationary plate as shown below. The jet
is deflected with a resulting exchange in momentum. From Newton‟s second
law of motion, the momentum flux in the control volume equals the magnitude
of the net reaction exerted by the plate.

Here it is assumed that the pressure in the streams that are leaving the
control volume is equal to that entering the control volume. It is also assumed
that surface resistance of the plate does not appreciably affect the velocity
of the jet. If the control volume is drawn so that only the jet is included,
the linear momentum equation can be applied to determine the reactive force
on the plate. A summation of surface forces in the vertical direction yields

𝐹 𝜌𝑄𝑉 𝜌𝑄𝑉

where F represents surface and body forces, 𝜌 is the mass density, Q is the
volumetric flowrate and Vy denotes the velocity in the vertical direction. If a force
W is applied to the plate and transmitted to the jet as a resistance, then
 𝑊 0 𝜌𝑄𝑉
𝑊 𝜌𝑄𝑉

II. Objectives
The main objective is to calculate the reactive force on a plate by means of the
linear momentum equation, and to compare computed results with observed
values.

III. Apparatus

1.) F1-10 hydraulics bench,

2.) F1-16 impacts of a jet apparatus with three flow deflectors with deflection
angles of 90, 120, and 180 degrees and
3.) Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement

IV. Set-up of Apparatus

V. Procedure

1.) Open the discharge valve and turn on the electrical switch to start the
pump motor.
2.) Fill the tank with water and record the diameter of the nozzle as 0.40 inches.
3.) Once a steady state condition has been reached, record the time required
to fill the 22” x 11.75” section of the tank to a particular depth. Using
the tank dimensions, depth of water in the tank, and elapsed time, the
volumetric flowrate can be computed.
4.) Pour a small amount of lead shot, to be used as the applied force (W),
into the designated cup and place the cup on the spring apparatus. The
corresponding experimental reactive force is found by weighing the cup and
the lead shot.
5.) Use the pump valve to incrementally increase or decrease the flow rate
and repeat steps (3) and (4) for approximately ten trials.

VI. Data
VII. Data Analysis

VIII. Conclusion

IX. References
 Experiment No. 9
Experimentation on Major and Minor Losses in Pipes

I. Introduction
The losses of energy, or head, in full-flowing conduits can be classified into
two components: (1) energy loss due to the frictional resistance of the conduit
walls to flow, and (2) energy loss due to the pipe fittings and appurtenances
(e.g., bends, contractions, and valves). The latter is referred to as minor, or
form, loss and is associated with a change in magnitude and/or direction of
the flow velocity. Generally, the more abrupt the change, the higher the
associated energy loss.
For a long pipeline (L/D > 2000), the energy loss is predominantly associated
with friction and minor losses are small. However, minor losses would comprise
a considerable part of the total energy loss for a system that is relatively short
and has many fittings. Therefore, it is important for a designer to carefully
consider both types of losses in the design of distribution systems.
To determine the head loss across a pipe appurtenance, consider the energy
equation written between two sections: immediately before (1), and after (2)
the pipe appurtenance,
 
𝑃 𝑉 𝑃 𝑉
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

where z is the elevation of the centerline of the pipe relative to an arbitrary

datum, V is flow velocity, g is the gravitational constant, p is pressure at the
centerline of the pipe, 𝛾 is the specific gravity of the fluid, and hl is the head
loss between sections 1 and 2. When only a short distance separates
sections 1 and 2, hl is a direct measure of minor loss. The velocities in
equation above can be evaluated if the flowrate and pipe dimensions are
known. If the pressure at sections 1 and 2 can be measured, the energy
equation can then be used to evaluate the unknown head loss through the
pipe.
The energy loss that occurs through a pipe fitting, is commonly expressed in
terms of velocity head in the form

𝑉
ℎ 𝐾
2𝑔

where K is the dimensionless minor loss coefficient for the pipe fitting, and V is
the mean velocity of flow into the fitting.

Because of the complexity of flow through various fittings, K is usually determined

by experiment. In this case, the head loss is calculated from two manometer
readings, taken before and after each fitting, and K is then determined as

𝛥ℎ
𝐾
𝑉
2𝑔

For contractions and expansions, an additional change in static pressure is

experienced due to the change in pipe cross-sectional area through the
enlargement and contraction. This change can be calculated as
𝑉 𝑉
2𝑔 2𝑔
where V1 and V2 are the upstream and downstream velocities, respectively. To
eliminate the effects of this area change on the measured head losses, this value
should be added to the head loss reading for an enlargement and subtracted from
the head loss reading for a contraction.
For a gate valve, pressure difference before and after a valve can be measured
directly using a pressure gauge. This can be converted to an equivalent head
loss using the equation

1 bar = 10.2 m water

II. Objectives
The objective is to determine the loss coefficients for flow through a range of pipe
fittings including bends, a contraction, an enlargement, and a gate valve.

III. Apparatus

1.) F1-10 hydraulics bench

2.) F1-22 Energy losses in bends apparatus
3.) Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement
4.) Clamps for pressure tapping connection tubes
5.) Spirit level
6.) Thermometer

IV. Set-up of Apparatus

V. Procedure

1. Open the bench valve, the gate valve and the flow control valve and start the
pump to fill the test rig with water.
2. Bleed air, if present, from the pressure tap points and the manometers by
adjusting the bench and flow control valves and air bleed screw.
3. Check that all the manometer levels lie within the scale when all the valves
are fully opened. Adjust the levels, if necessary, using the air bleed screw and
the hand pump.
4. For a selected flow rate, record the reading from all the manometers (that are
tapped before and after each appurtenance: enlargement, contraction, long
bend, short bend, elbow, miter) after the water levels have steadied.
5. Determine the flow rate by accumulating a fix volume of water in the
volumetric tank with help of a stopper. Use a digital stopwatch to record time
and the sight window of the bench to find the volume of water.
6. 6. Repeat steps (4) and (5) for two more flow rates.
7. Clamp off the connecting tubes to the miter bend pressure tappings (to
prevent air from being drawn into the system). Start with the gate valve fully
closed and the bench valve and control valve fully open. Open the gate valve
50% of its total opening (after taking up any backlash). Record the gauge
reading for the half open condition.
8. Adjust the flow rate with the control valve and measure pressure drop across
the gate valve from the pressure gauge. Also, measure the volume flow rate
by timed collection of water.
9. Repeat the step (8) for two more flow rates.

VI. Data
VII. Data Analysis

VIII. Conclusion

IX. References
 Experiment No. 10
Discharge Measurement Using an Orifice

I. Introduction
An orifice is an opening (usually) circular in the wall of a tank or in a plate normal
to the axis of a pipe either an end of pipe or in some intermediate location. An
orifice is characterized by the very small relation of wall or plate thickness
compared to the size of the opening.
A jet is a stream issuing from an orifice, nozzle, or tube. It is not enclosed by solid
boundary walls but surrounded by fluid of the same type, say a gas jet discharging
into a gas or a liquid. A submerged jet is buoyed up by the surrounding fluid and
is not directly under the action of gravity.

II. Objective
To measure discharge through an orifice by trajectory method and direct
measurement of jet diameter and velocity and velocity at vena contract by a Pitot
tube

III. Apparatus
1.) Stop watch
2.) Meter Stick
3.) Rectangular Weir
4.) Caliper

IV. Set-up of Apparatus

 V. Procedure
1.) Measure orifice area and vena contracts using caliper and orifice area.
2.) Determine the (water) height in m.
3.) Allow the H2O to flow in volumetric tank. Measure the volume and time as the
water reaches depth.
4.) With the aid of meter stick, determine the position of the vena contrata (x and
y).
5.) Compute for the three coefficients of orifice.

VI. Data

Ai Aa Cc H Vt V Cv Vol Time Q Qt X Y c Cc

VII. Data Analysis

VIII. Conclusion

IX. References
 Experiment No. 11
Hydraulic Jump

I. Introduction
A schematic of a hydraulic jump in an open channel of small slope is shown
below. In engineering applications, the hydraulic jump frequently appears
downstream from spillways or sluice gates where flow velocities are high. It may
be used as an effective dissipater of kinetic energy, and thus prevent scour of an
alluvial river bottom, or can be induced as a mixing device in water or sewage
treatment designs. In design applications, the engineer is concerned primarily
with predicting the occurrence, size, and location of the jump

A hydraulic jump is formed when liquid at high velocity discharges into a zone of
lower velocity, creating a rather abrupt rise in depth. The rapidly varying water
surface is typically accompanied by violent turbulence, eddying, air entrainment,
and surface undulations. The high velocity flow is known as supercritical, and
occurs at depths below critical depth, whereas the low velocity flow is subcritical,
and occurs at depths greater than critical depth. The critical depth, yc, is the depth
associated with the point of minimum energy in the associated control volume
and is an unstable depth that occurs within the jump. A parameter that further can
be used to characterize critical flow is the Froude number, Fr, expressed as
 𝑉
𝐹𝑟
𝑔𝐷
where V is the flow velocity, g is the gravitational acceleration, and D is the
hydraulic depth, defined as a ratio of flow area to top width at a given location.
For a channel of rectangular cross section, a discharge, Q, and constant width,
b, the hydraulic depth is equivalent to depth of flow, y, and equation (i) can be
rewritten as

𝑞 1
𝐹𝑟
𝑦 𝑔𝑦

where q = Q/b, the flowrate per unit width of the channel. Critical flow in open
channels occurs when the Froude number equals unity. The Froude number
further characterizes subcritical and supercritical flow as follows:

Fr > 1 Supercritical Flow

• Disturbances travel downstream
• Upstream water levels are unaffected by downstream controls

Fr < 1 Subcritical Flow

• Disturbances travel upstream and downstream
• Upstream water levels are affected by downstream controls

An equation relating the upstream and downstream depths of a hydraulic jump

can be derived from the momentum equation, assuming a uniform velocity profile
across the flow area, negligible boundary friction, and a small channel slope. This
hydraulic jump equation can be expressed as

𝑦
𝑦 1 8𝐹𝑟 1
2
 Equation (iii) demonstrates that y2/y1 >1 only when Fr1 > 1 and Fr2 < 1, thus
proving the necessity of supercritical flow for the formation of a hydraulic jump.
Another way to visualize this necessity is by using specific force, Fs, defined as

𝑞 𝑦
𝐹𝑠
𝑔𝑦 2

where the term q2/gy is the momentum of the flow passing through the channel
section per unit time per unit weight of water, and the term y2/2 is the force per
unit weight of water. It becomes evident from a plot of Fs as a function of depth
for a constant flowrate, or a specific force diagram, that the solution to equation
(iii) occurs when Fs,1 = Fs,2. The depths y1 and y2 at which Fs,1 and Fs,2 occur
are called sequent depths.
A stable hydraulic jump will form only if the three independent variables (y1, y2,
Fr1) conform to the relationship given in (iii). The upstream depth, y1, and the
Froude Number, Fr1, are controlled by an upstream headgate for a given
discharge. The downstream depth is controlled by a downstream tailgate and not
by the hydraulic jump. Denoting the actual measured downstream depth as y2,
and the computed sequent depth as y2’, found from (iii), the following
observations can be made;
If y2 = y2’ a stable jump forms;
If y2 > y2’ the downstream specific force is greater than that at the upstream
end, and the jump tends to move upstream;
If y2 < y2’ the downstream specific force is less than that at the upstream end,
and the jump tends to move downstream.

II. Objectives
The objective is to investigate the validity of the specific force and specific energy
equations for the hydraulic jump phenomenon.
III. Apparatus
1.) Horizontal, glass-walled flume with headgate and tailgate controls
2.) Metered water supply
3.) Point gages
4.) Scale

IV. Set-up of Apparatus

V. Procedure
1. Measure the flume width, b , and confirm that the flume is in a horizontal
position
2. Start the flow in the flume by turning on the pump.
3. After the system reaches a steady state, record the discharge
4. Position the upstream gate, or headgate, so that the upstream water level is
near the top of the flume.
5. Position the tailgate to create a hydraulic jump in the center of the flume
6. After the jump stabilizes, measure and record the depth at a point immediately
upstream of the jump and a point downstream of the undulating water surface
caused by the jump.
7. Repeat steps 4 – 6 for six headgate positions.
VI. Data

VII. Data Analysis

VIII. Conclusion

IX. References