Instrument Transformers

(Lecture Notes)

C ONTENTS

I Instrument Transformers 1
I-A Current Transformer (CT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
I-B Potential (Voltage) Transformer (PT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
I-C Testing of Instrument Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

I. I NSTRUMENT T RANSFORMERS
In power systems, currents and voltages handled are very large. It very difficult and costly to design the
measuring instruments for measurement of such high level voltage and current. Hence it is required to
step down currents and voltages with the help of instrument transformers so that they can be measured
with instruments of moderate sizes (Generally measuring instruments are designed for 5 A and 110 V).
Transformers used in conjunction with measuring instruments for measurement purposes are called
Instrument Transformers. Instrument Transformers are used in AC system for measurement of electrical

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quantities i.e. voltage, current, power, energy, power factor, frequency. They are also used with protective

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relays for protection of power system.

Advantages of Instrument Transformers: te

i) Moderate size instruments are used for metering i.e. 5A for current and 100 to 120 volts for voltage
measurements.
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ii) Standarized instruments to save costs and easy replacement of damaged instruments.
iii) Large range of current or voltage can be covered by single instrument when used with suitable
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multi range instrument transformers.

iv) Isolation of metering circuit from the high voltage power circuits is possible. Hence, the safety is
assured for the operators.
v) Low power is consumed in metering circuit.
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vi) Several instruments can be operated from a single instrument transformer.

Some of the terms used in the instrument transformer are defined here:
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Transformation Ratio (R):

P rimary phasor
R =
Secondary phasor
P rimary current
= for C.T.
Secondary current
P rimary voltage
= for P.T.
Secondary voltage
Nominal Ratio (Kn ): It is the ratio of rated primary winding current (voltage) to the rated secondary
winding current (voltage). The ratio marked on the transformers is their nominal ratio.
Rated primary current
Kn = for C.T.
Rated secondary current
Rated primary voltage
= for P.T.
Rated secondary voltage
Rated Primary/Secondary Current: The value of primary/secondary current which appears in the desig-
nation of the transformer and on which the performance of the current transformer is based. (i.e. Typical
values of secondary current are 1 A or 5 A.)
Turns Ratio (n):
N umber of turns of secondary winding
n = for C.T.
N umber of turns of primary winding
N umber of turns of primary winding
= for P.T.
N umber of turns of secondary winding
Ratio Correction Factor (RCF): The ratio correction factor of a transformer is the transformation ratio
devided by nominal ratio.
R
RCF =
Kn
Burden: The impedance of the secondary circuit of an instrument transformer. The burden is usually
expressed as the apparent power absorbed by the secondary circuit at a specified power factor at the rated
secondary current (or voltage).
Rated Burden: The value of the burden on which the accuracy requirements of a specification are based.
The apparent power of the secondary circuit in Volt-amperes expressed at the rated secondary current
and at a specific power factor (0.8 for almost all standards).
Rated Output: The value of the apparent power (in volt-amperes at a specified power (factor) which the

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current transformer is intended to supply to the secondary circuit at the rated secondary current and with

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rated burden connected to it.
Current Error: The error which a current transformer introduces into the measurement of a current and
which arises from the fact that the actual transformation ratio is not equal to the rated transformation
ratio.
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Voltage Error: The error which a voltage transformer introduces into the measurement of a voltage and
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which arises from the fact that the actual transformation ratio is not equal to the rated transformation
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ratio.
Ratio Error (%):
N ominal ratio − Actual ratio
= × 100 %
Actual ratio
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Kn − R
= × 100 %
R
[In ideal condition, without any error Kn = n = R]
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Phase Angle: The angle by which the secondary current phasor, when reversed, differs in phase from
the primary current, is known as the phase angle of the transformer.
Phase Displacement: The difference in phase between the primary and secondary currents (or voltages),
the positive direction of the primary and secondary currents (or voltages) being so chosen that this
difference is zero for a perfect transformer. The phase displacement is said to be positive when the
secondary current (voltage) leads the primary current.

A. Current Transformer (CT)

An instrument transformer in which the secondary current is substantially proportional to the primary
current (under normal conditions of operation) and differs in phase from it by an angle which is
approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the connections is called a Current Transformer
or simply CT. Therefore, the current transformer does the current conversion from high currents to a
measurable range of currents. The current being measured passes through the primary winding and the
secondary winding is connected to an ammeter. The C.T. steps down the current to the level of ammeter.

Construction of CT:
The core of the current transformer is built up with lamination of silicon steel. For getting a high degree
of accuracy the Permalloy or Mumetal is used for the making cores. The primary windings of the current
transformers carry the current which is to be measured, and it is connected to the main circuit. The
secondary windings of the transformer carry the current proportional to the current to be measured, and
it is connected to the current windings of the meters or the instruments. The primary and the secondary
windings are insulated from the cores and each other.

Burden on a Load:
The burden of a current transformer is the value of the load connected across the secondary transformer.
It is expressed as the output in volt-amperes (V A). The rated burden is the value of the burden on the
nameplate of the CT. The rated burden is the product of the voltage and current on the secondary when

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the CT supplies the instrument or relay with its maximum rated value of current.
Principle of Operation:

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The current transformer works on the principle of Variable Flux. In an “ideal” current transformer,
secondary current would be exactly equal (when multiplied by the turns ratio) and opposite to the primary
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current. When primary of the CT is energized, the primary side ampere turns produces a magnetic field
in the core. This magnetic flux (Φ) linking with secondary induces an emf (ES ), and this emf drives
the current in the CT secondary. The current in the secondary tries to balance the primary ampere turns.
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Hence, the relation between the primary and secondary is given as
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Ip Np = Is Ns
Ip Ns
=
Is Np
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Ip
= n
Is
Kn = n
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[Under ideal condition, without any error, Kn = n = R]. This is called as transformation ratio of the
current transformer, where IP and IS are the primary current and secondary current respectively, NP and
NS are the primary turns and secondary turns respectively and n is the turns ratio between secondary to
primary winding.
But, some of the primary current or primary ampere-turns is utilized for magnetizing the core, thus
leaving less than the actual primary ampere turns to be “transformed” into the secondary ampere-turns.
This naturally introduces an error in the transformation. The error is classified into current (ratio) error
and phase error.
Equvalent circuit of Current Transformers:

where,
VP = Primary Voltage or Supply voltage
IP = Primary current
rP = Resistances in Primary winding
XP = Reactances in Primary winding
RC = Resistances in Primary winding
I0 = Excitation component of no load current
IM = Magnetizing component of no load current
IC = Core component of no load current
EP = Induced voltages in primary windings
Φ = Flux link between primary ans secondary coils
ES = Induced voltages in secondary windings
IS = Secondary current
rS = Resistances in Secondary winding
XS = Reactances in Secondary winding
NP and NS = Number of turns in primary and secondary windings respectively
β = Phase angle error
n = Turns ratio = N2 /N1
RB and XB = Resistances and Reactances parts of burden respectively
In an ideal current transformer, primary to secondary current ratio is exactly equal to the secondary to
primary turns ratio and also currents in each winding produce equal mmf in exact anti-phase. However,

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in actual practice the current ratio diverges from turns ratio and also certain phase angle exist in between

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them from the opposition. These are called ratio errors and phase angle errors. To show the errors, the
equvalent circuit of CT is given with the phasor diagram. In case of CTs that are employed for high
accurate metering and measurement, these errors must be as small as possible.
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In order to keep the iron core excited, CT draws a primary current. This excitation current I0 consists
of two components, i.e. magnetizing component IM and wattful (core) component IC . The emf induced
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in the secondary circulates secondary current through the burden and due to the inherent resistance and
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reactance of the secondary winding causes voltage drop in secondary.

Phasor Diagram: The phasor diagram of the current transformer is shown in the figure below.
In the phasor, IP is referred to the primary so there exists an angle θ between primary and secondary
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currents.
The primary EP and secondary ES induced voltages are lagging behind the main flux Φ by 90◦ . The
magnitude of the primary and secondary voltages depends on the number of turns on the windings.
The excitation current Io induces by the components of magnetising IM and working core current IC
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The secondary current IS lags behinds the secondary induced voltage ES by an angle δ.
The secondary current relocates to the primary side by reversing the secondary current and multiply by
the turn ratio n.
The current IP flows through the primary is the sum of the exciting current Io and turn ratio n times of
the secondary current nIs .
od2 = ob2 + bd2
IP2 = [nIS + I0 cos(90 − (δ + α))]2 + [I0 sin(90 − (δ + α))]2
= [nIS + I0 sin(δ + α)]2 + [I0 cos(δ + α)]2
= n2 IS2 + I02 sin2 (δ + α) + 2nIS I0 sin(δ + α) + I02 cos2 (δ + α)
= n2 IS2 + 2nIS I0 sin(δ + α) + I02

IP = [n2 IS2 + 2nIS I0 sin(δ + α) + I02 ]1/2

IP [n2 IS2 + 2nIS I0 sin(δ + α) + I02 ]1/2

R = =
IS IS
When I0 << nIS

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[n2 IS2 + 2nIS I0 sin(δ + α) + I02 sin2 (δ + α)]1/2

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R '
IS
nIS + I0 sin(δ + α)
'
IS
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I0 sin(δ + α)
' n+
s
IS
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I0
' n + (sin δ cos α + cos δ sin α)
IS
IM sin δ + IC cos δ
' n+
IS
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where, IM = I0 cos α and IC = I0 sin α. We get the actual ratio R in terms of the vector components of
IS and I0 (in turn it depends on magnetizing IM and wattful components IC ).
Ratio Error (Current Error): Secondary current gets affected by its winding resistance, reactance and
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power factor of the burden. But the nominal or rated current ratio is exactly equal to the ratio of secondary
to primary turns. Therefore, the ratio error of the CT is defined as the variation in actual ratio of
transformation from nominal ratio.
Kn − R
Ratio Error = × 100%
R
Phase Angle Error: In a perfect current transformer the secondary current must be displaced exactly by
180◦ from the primary current (zero phase angle between IP and reversed IS ). In the phasor diagram,
the reversed secondary current leads the primary current by certain angle θ hence introduces phase angle
error. If the reversed secondary current lags the primary current, the phase displacement is negative while
it leads, the phase angle is positive.
Phase angle tan θ can be calculated as
bd I0 sin[90◦ − (δ + α)]
tan θ = =
ob nIS + I0 cos[90◦ − (δ + α)]
I0 cos(δ + α)
=
nIS + I0 sin(δ + α)
As θ is very small, tan θ ' θ,
I0 cos(δ + α)
θ ' (rad)
nIS + I0 sin(δ + α)
I0 is very small compared to nIS , Therefore
I0 cos(δ + α)
θ ' rad
nIS
I0 cos δ cos α − I0 sin δ sin α
' (rad)
nIS !
180 IM cos δ − IC sin δ
' (degree)
π nIS
The usual instruments burden is largely resistive with some inductance and therefore, δ is positive and
is small. Hence, sin δ = 0 and cos δ = 1. Therefore,
IC
R ' n+
IS
180 IM
 
θ ' (degree)
π nIS
But, IP ' nIS . Therefore,
nIC

s
R ' n+
IP

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180 IM
 
θ ' (degree)
π IP te
To reduce these errors in CTs, the exciting or no load current must be kept small and also the load angle
of the secondary load must be small. For having these requirements core should have a low core loss
and low reluctance to minimize the wattful and magnetizing components of the exciting current. Also,
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by decreasing the number turns in secondary and reducing the secondary impedance results these errors
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minimum.

Types of CT:
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Current transformers are classified into different types based on the factors like type of use, voltage of
the circuit, method of mounting etc. Based on construction, the current transformer can be Wound or Bar
type.
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Fig. 1: Wound Type Bar Type

The primary winding of the current transformer consists of one or more turns having a heavy cross
sectional area and is connected in series with the circuit in which the current flow is to be sensed.
Wound type CT is similar to the two winding conventional transformer. The primary winding consists
of more than one full turn or multiple turns which is wounded on the core. In bar type CTs, the primary
winding has only one turn that means the conductor itself acts as primary winding. The secondary
winding made with large number of turns of a fine wire having small cross sectional area. This winding
is connected to either operating coil of the relay or current coil of the instruments.
Depends on the core structure, these can be Ring, or Rectangular or Window type CTs. Since the ring
cores are of joint less and robust, hence they offer low reluctance.
The flux densities used in CTs are much less compared to the power transformers. Therefore, core
materials are selected such that they ensure low reluctance, low core loss and also to work with low
densities of flux. Common materials used for the cores include hot rolled silicon steel, cold rolled grain
oriented silicon steel, and nickel iron alloys. For high accuracy metering, core of the CT is made with
very high grade alloy steel called as Mu meal.
To provide insulation, varnish and tape materials are used for small line voltages. But for high line
voltages, compound filled or oil filled CTs are used. In case of CTs used in higher transmission voltages,
insulation between secondary windings and HV conductors uses oil-impregnated paper.
Applications of Current Transformers:
The specific application of current transformers involves in various considerations such as type of
mechanical construction, ratio of primary to secondary currents, type of insulation (oil or dry type),
thermal conditions, accuracy, service type, etc. The applications ranging from power system control to
the precise current measurement in industrial, medical, automotive and telecommunication systems. Some
of the applications include
i) C.T is used to convert the high currents from power circuit into a measurable current range of
instruments and control devices.

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ii) Extending the range of measuring instruments such as ammeter, energy meter, KVA meters, wattmeter,

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etc.
iii) C.T provides isolation to the ammeters, other measuring instruments and control devices from high
voltage power circuitry. Differential circulating current protection systems. Distance protection in power
transmission systems. Over current fault protection.
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iv) It is the cheapest and easiest method of current measurement above the range of digital meters and
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moving coil vane meters.
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Causes of errors:
In ideal transformer, the transformer ratio (R) would be equal to turn ratio (n). However, as a result of
physical limitations inherits in electrical and magnetic circuits of the transformer, the actual value are
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departures from this ideal value. Causes of these errors are:

i) The excitation mmf is required by primary winding to produce flux, therefore the transformer draws
a magnetizing current Im .
ii) Core loses (eddy and hysteresis) of the transformer windings (loose connection, joins, air gap etc).
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iii) The primary flux linkages are not equal to the secondary flux linkages.
iv) Flux density in the core is not linear function of the magnetizing force. So, the transformer core
become saturated.

Design features to reduce errors:

i) Core: To reduce error, Im and Ic must be small compared to Ip . Therefore, we need materials of high
permeability, short magnetic paths and large cross-section area of core to have low reluctance. (i.e. high
permeability nickel iron core, joint properly to reduce air gap etc.)
ii) Primary Current Ratings:
iii) Leakage Reactance: Leakage reactance tends to increase ratio error. Therefore, the primary and
secondary winding should be close enough to reduce the secondary leakage reactance. (i.e. ring shape
of core)
iv) Turn Compensation: Reduce the secondary winding turn one or two less than the number which
would make actual transformation ratio (R) equal to nominal ratio (Kn ).
In actual transformer
Ic
R = n+
Is
180 Im
θ = [in degree]
π nIs
Example:
If we let nominal ratio (Kn ) equal to turn ratio (n), then the actual transformer ratio becomes more than
the normal ratio.
i.e. consider current transformer of Kn = 1000/5 with loss component equal to 0.5 percent of the primary
current.
0.5
Kn = 1000/5 = 200 and loss component Ic = 100 × 1000 = 5A
Let Np = 1, and if nominal ratio (Kn ) equal to turn ratio (n) (Kn = n = 200)
then Ns = 200 × 1 = 200 and we know Is = 5A from Kn denominator.
Therefore,
5
R = 200 + = 201 [here error is 1]
5
If we let Ns = 199 turns instead 200
5
R = 190 + = 200
5
Thus, the transformer ratio R approaches to turn ratio n. But, this introduces a very little phase angle
error (allowable range). Moreover, this correction is only for a particular value of current and burden

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impedance. Therefore, CT is said to be called “Compensated”. The compensation method is good, but too
coarse. Fine correction (in fraction) can be achieved Wilson Compensation method that use the auxiliary

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secondary turns passed through hole in the core.
v) Wilson Compensation: te
vi) Use of Shunts:
vi) Two Stage Design: Applicable for energy meter
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Q. A current transformer with a bar primary has 300 turns in its secondary winding. The resistance and
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reactance of the secondary circuit are 1.5 Ω and 1.0 Ω respectively including the transformer winding.
With 5 A flowing in the secondary winding, the magnetizing mmf is 100 A and the iron loss 1.2 W.
Determine the ratio and angle errors.
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B. Potential (Voltage) Transformer (PT)
The instrument transformer used for the measurement of voltage are called Voltage transformer or
Potential Transformer or simply PT. The primary winding is connected to the voltage being measured

and the secondary winding to a voltmeter. The P.T. steps down the voltage to the level of voltmeter.
Potential Transformer is essentially the same as that of a power transformer. power loading in PT is very
small and consequently the exciting current is of the same order as the secondary current while in power
transformer the exciting current is a very small fraction of secondary load current. Equivalent circuit of
a PT:

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Phasor diagram to find magnitude and phase error in PT:

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VP cos(θ) = nVS + nIS rS cos ∆ + nIS xS sin ∆

+ IP rP cos β + IP xP sin β
Since phase angle θ is very small, both VP and reversed nVS are perpendicular to flux Φ. Therefore,
IS
IP cos(β) = IC + cos ∆
n
IS
IP sin(β) = IM + sin ∆
n
θ is very small (less than 1◦ ), therefore, cos(θ) = 1 and hence Vp cos(θ) = VP .
VP = nVS + nIS rS cos ∆ + nIS xS sin ∆
IS IS
+ (IC + cos ∆)rP + (IM + sin ∆)xP
n n
rP xP
= nVS + IS cos ∆(nrS + ) + IS sin ∆(nxS + )
n n
+ IC rP + IM xP
IS IS
= nVS + cos ∆(n2 rS + rP ) + sin ∆(n2 xS + xP )
n n
+ IC rP + IM xP
IS IS
= nVS + cos ∆RP + sin ∆XP + IC rP + IM xP
n n

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IS
= nVS + [cos ∆RP + sin ∆XP ] + IC rP + IM xP

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n
VP = nVS + nIS rS cos ∆ + nIS xS sin ∆
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IS IS
+ (IC + cos ∆)rP + (IM + sin ∆)xP
n n
rP xP
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= nVS + IS cos ∆(nrS + ) + IS sin ∆(nxS + )
n n
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+ IC rP + IM xP
rP xP
= nVS + nIS cos ∆(rS + 2 ) + nIS sin ∆(xS + )
n n
+ IC rP + IM xP
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= nVS + nIS cos ∆Rs + nIS sin ∆XS + IC rP + IM xP

= nVS + nIS [cos ∆Rs + sin ∆XS ] + IC rP + IM xP
Actual transformation (voltage) ratio
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IS
VP [cos ∆RP + sin ∆XP ] + IC rP + IM xP
R = =n+ n
VS VS
IS
[cos ∆RP + sin ∆XP ] + IC rP + IM xP
R−n = n
VS
or,
VP nIS [cos ∆Rs + sin ∆XS ] + IC rP + IM xP
R = =n+
VS Vs
nIS [cos ∆Rs + sin ∆XS ] + IC rP + IM xP
R−n =
Vs
Phase angle,
cb
tanθ =
ob
IP xP cos β − IP rP cos β + nIS xS cos ∆ − nIS rS sin ∆
=
nVS + nIS rS cos ∆ + nIS xS sin ∆ + IP rP cos β + IP xP sin β
IP xP cos β − IP rP cos β + nIS xS cos ∆ − nIS rS sin ∆
=
nVS
 IS IS
xP (IC + n
cos ∆) − rP (IM + n
sin ∆) + nIS xS cos ∆ − nIS rS sin ∆
nVS

IS cos ∆( xnP + nxS ) − IS sin ∆( rnP + nrS ) + IS xP − IM rP

=
nVS
IS cos ∆ IS sin ∆
n
(xP + n xS ) − n (rP + n2 rS ) + IS xP − IM rP
2
=
nVS
IS cos ∆ IS sin ∆
n
XP − n RP + IS xP − IM rP
=
nVS
IS
n
[XP cos ∆ − RP sin ∆] + IS xP − IM rP
θ =
nVS
or,
IS IS xP − IM rP
θ = [XS cos ∆ − RS sin ∆] +
VS nVS

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Difference between CT and PT:
i) PT is considered as parallel transformer whereas CT is series transformer.
ii) IP in CT is independent of the secondary circuit conditions while IP in PT certainly depends on the
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secondary burden.
iii) In PT, full line voltage is impressed upon its terminal, thus it has high voltage whereas CT is connected
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in series with one line and thus a small voltage exists across its terminals. However, CT carries the full
line current.
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iv) Under normal operation, line voltage is nearly constant, therefore flux density and hence exication
current I0 of PT varies in restricted range where IP and I0 of CT vary over wide range.
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C. Testing of Instrument Transformer

Testing of Instrument Transformer can be of Absolute MAthod and Comparison Method Deflection And
Null Method.
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a) Testing of Current Transformer (CT): There are three methods:

i) Mutual Inductance method: This is an absolute method using null deflection.
ii) Silsbee’s Method: This is a comparison method. There are two types; deflectional and null.
iii) Arnold’s Method: This is a comparison method involving null techniques.