C ONTENTS

I Measurement of Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance 1

I-A AC Bridge Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
I-B Maxwell Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
I-C Hay’s Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
I-D Anderson Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
I-E De Sauty Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
I-F Owen Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
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I. M EASUREMENT OF R ESISTANCE , I NDUCTANCE AND C APACITANCE

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A. AC Bridge Network
AC bridge circuits work on the same basic principle as DC bridge circuits that a balanced ratio of
impedances (rather than resistances) will result in a “balanced” condition as indicated by the null-detector
device.
→ Null detectors for AC bridges may be sensitive electromechanical meter movements, oscilloscopes
(CRT’s), vibration galvanometer (A.C. galvanometer), head phones (speaker) and tuned amplifier or any
other device capable of registering very small AC voltage levels. Like DC null detectors, its only required
point of calibration accuracy is at zero. Other types of detectors used in A.C. bridge are
→ AC bridge circuits can be of the “symmetrical” type where an unknown impedance is balanced by a
standard impedance of similar type on the same side (top or bottom) of the bridge. Or, they can be “non-
symmetrical,” using parallel impedances to balance series impedances, or even capacitances balancing
out inductances.
→ AC bridge circuits often have more than one adjustment, since both impedance magnitude and phase
angle must be properly matched to balance.
→ Some impedance bridge circuits are frequency-sensitive while others are not. The frequency-sensitive
types may be used as frequency measurement devices if all component values are accurately known.
→ A Wagner earth or Wagner ground is a voltage divider circuit added to AC bridges to help reduce
errors due to stray capacitance coupling the null detector to ground.

B. Maxwell Bridge
Maxwell bridge is an AC bridge which is consist of a source, balance detector and four arms. In AC
bridges, all the four arms consists of impedance. The AC bridges are formed by replacing the DC battery
with an AC source and galvanometer by detector of Wheatstone bridge. The bridge is based on the
principle of null deflection method. They are highly useful to find out inductance, capacitance, storage
factor, dissipation factor, self inductor, quality factor of the circuit etc.
The impedances Z1 , Z2 , Z3 and Z4 are the arms of the bridge. At balanced condition, the potential

difference between b and d must be zero. Therefore, the voltage drop from a to d equals to drop from
a to b both in magnitude and phase. Thus, we have e1 = e2 ,
i1 Z1 = i2 Z2
e
i1 = i3 =
(Z1 + Z3 )
e
i2 = i4 =
(Z2 + Z4 )
Therefore,
e e
Z1 = Z2
(Z1 + Z3 ) (Z2 + Z4 )
Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3

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If impedance are replaced by admittance, we have

Y1 Y4 = Y2 Y3
Now consider the basic form of an AC bridge. Suppose we have bridge circuit as shown below,

(r1 + jωl1 )R4 = (r2 + jωl2 )R3

Now equating the real and imaginary parts we get
R3
r1 = r2
R4
R3
l1 = l2
R4
Conclusions from the above equations:
i. We get two balanced equations that are obtained by equating real and imaginary parts this means that
for an ac bridge both the relation (i.e.magnitude and phase) must be satisfied at the same time. Both the
equations are said to be independent if and only if both equation contain single variable element.
ii. The above equations are independent of frequency that means we do not require exact frequency of
the source voltage and also the applied source voltage waveform need not to be perfectly sinusoidal.

Maxwell’s inductor bridge:

Let us now discuss Maxwell’s inductor bridge. It is simple and symmetrical inductance bridge.

In this bridge, the arms bc and cd are purely resistive while the phase balance depends on the arms ab
and ad. At balanced condition
r3
r1 = (r2 + R2 )
r4
r3
L1 = L2
r4
Maxwell’s inductor bridge is used to measure unknown inductances in terms of calibrated resistance
and capacitance. Calibration-grade inductors are more difficult to manufacture than capacitors of similar

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precision, and so the use of a simple “symmetrical” inductance bridge is not always practical. Because
the phase shifts of inductors and capacitors are exactly opposite each other, a capacitive impedance can
balance out an inductive impedance if they are located in opposite legs of a bridge. Therefore, to overcome
this limitation Maxwell’s inductor capacitance bridge or Maxwell’s L/C bridge or Maxwell’s-Wien bridge
is introduced in the next.

Maxwell’s inductor capacitance bridge (MAxwell’s L/C bridge or Maxwell’s-Wien bridge):

For easiest operation, the standard capacitor (C) and the resistor in parallel with it (R) are made variable,
and both must be adjusted to achieve balance. However, the bridge can be made to work if the capacitor
is fixed (non-variable) and more than one resistor made variable (at least the resistor in parallel with the
capacitor, and one of the other two). However, in the latter configuration it takes more trial-and-error
adjustment to achieve balance, as the different variable resistors interact in balancing magnitude and
phase. There are more variations beyond these designs.
Here, the unknown inductor is measured by the standard variable capacitor.

Here, L1 is unknown inductance, C4 is standard capacitor. At balanced condition, we have

Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3
r4
(r1 + jωL1 ) = r2 r3
(1 + jωC4 r4 )
r1 r4 + jωI1 r4 = r2 r3 + jωr2 r3 C4 r4
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we have
r3
r1 = r2
r4
L1 = r2 r3 C4
Now, the quality factor is given by
ωL1
Q = = ωC4 r2
r1
The balance of the Maxwell-Wien bridge is independent of source frequency, and in some cases this
bridge can be made to balance in the presence of mixed frequencies from the AC voltage source, the
limiting factor being the inductor’s stability over a wide frequency range.
Another advantage of using a Maxwell-Wien bridge to measure inductance rather than a symmetrical
inductance bridge is the elimination of measurement error due to mutual inductance between two induc-
tors. Magnetic fields can be difficult to shield, and even a small amount of coupling between coils in
a bridge can introduce substantial errors in certain conditions. With no second inductor to react with in
the Maxwell bridge, this problem is eliminated.

Advantages:
i. The frequency does not appear in the final expression of both equations, hence it is independent of
frequency.
ii. Maxwell’s inductor capacitance bridge is very useful for the wide range of measurement of inductor

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at audio frequencies.
Disadvantages:
i. The variable standard capacitor is very expensive.
ii. The bridge is limited to the measurement of low quality coils (1 < Q < 10) and it is also unsuitable
for low value of Q (Q < 1) from this we conclude that a Maxwell bridge is used suitable only for
medium Q coils.
(The above all limitations are overcome by the modified bridge which is known as Hey’s bridge which
does not use an electrical resistance in parallel with the capacitor.)
The quality factor relates the maximum or peak energy stored in the circuit (the reactance) to the
energy dissipated (the resistance) during each cycle of oscillation.
Pstored I 2X X
Q = = 2 =
Pdissipated I R R
Meaning, a ratio of resonant frequency to bandwidth.
fr
Q =
BW
where X Capacitive or Inductive reactance at resonance R Series resistance. The higher the circuit Q,
the smaller the bandwidth. The sharpness of the peak is measured quantitatively and is called the Quality
factor, Q of the circuit.

C. Hay’s Bridge
Maxwell bridge is only suitable for measuring medium quality factor coils however it is not suitable
for measuring high quality factor (Q > 10). The quality factor is a parameter which determines the
relation between the stored energy and the energy dissipated in the circuit. In order to overcome from
this limitation we need to do modification in Maxwell bridge so that it will become suitable for measuring
Q-factor over a wide range. This modified Maxwell bridge is known as Hay’s bridge.

In this bridge the electrical resistance is connected in series with the standard capacitor. Here L1 is
unknown inductor connected in series with resistance r1 . c4 is standard capacitor and r2 , r3 , r4 are pure
electrical resistance forming other arms of the bridge.
At balanced condition,
Z1 Z4 = Z3 Z2

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where
Z1 = r1 + jωL1
Z2 = r2
Z3 = r3
1 j
Z4 = r4 + = r4 −
jωc4 ωc4

j
(r1 + jωL1 )(r4 −) = r2 r3
ωc4
jr1 L1
(r1 r4 + jωL1 r4 − + ) = r2 r3
ωc4 c4
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get
r1 r4 c4 + L1
= r2 r3
c4
r1
L1 =
r 4 c4 ω 2
Solving these equations,
r1 r4 c4 ω 2 r4 c4 + r1
= r2 r3 c4
ω 2 r 4 c4
r1 r4 c4 ω 2 r4 c4 + r1 = r2 r3 r4 c24 ω 2
r2 r3 r4 c24 ω 2
r1 =
1 + r42 c24 ω 2
r2 r3 c4
L1 =
1 + r42 c24 ω 2
These equations are dependent on the source frequency hence, in order to find the accurate value of L1
and r1 we should know the correct value of source frequency. Now, Q-factor of a coil is given by
ωL1 1
Q = =
r1 ωc4 r4
Let us rewrite the expression for L1 ,
r2 r3 c4 r2 r3 c4
L1 = =
2 2 2
1 + ω c4 r4 1 + Q12
If we substitute Q > 10, then maximum value of 1/Q2 = 1/100 = 0.01 and hence we can neglect this
value. Thus, neglecting 1/Q2 we get L1 = r2 r3 c4 which is same as we have obtained in Maxwell bridge.
Hence Hay’s bridge circuit is most suitable for high inductor measurement.

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Phasor Diagram of Hay’s Bridge:

Let us know more about Hay’s bridge circuit diagram of Hay’s bridge that will be very useful in
understanding the Hay’s bridge phasor diagram. A meter is connected between points b and d of the
bridge. The arm ab consists of resistance r1 and inductor, i1 (total drop across this is e1 ) and arm ad
consists of pure resistance r2 (total drop across this is e2 ). The arm bc consists of pure resistance making
a drop of e3 while the arm cd consists of resistor r4 and a capacitor c4 making the total drop of e4 . Now
let us draw phasor diagram of Hay’s bridge, at null point e1 must be equal to e2 and also e3 must be
equal to e4 as the current flow through bd is zero. The phasor diagram of the Hay’s bridge is shown in
the figure below.

(i) The magnitude and the phase of the e3 and e4 are equal and hence they are overlapping each other
and draw on the horizontal axis.
(ii) The current i1 flow through the purely resistive arm bc.
Therefore, the current i1 and the potential e3 = i3 r3 are in the same phase and represented on the
horizontal axis.
(iii) Let us take i1 as the reference axis and thus current i2 leads by i1 by some angle because a capacitor
is connected in branch cd making current i2 lead by i1 .
(iv) Let us mark e1 and e2 and the resultant of e1 and e2 of course equal to e.
(v) The phase difference between the voltage drop across the electrical resistance r4 and capacitor c4 is
90◦ as shown in the phasor diagram of Hay’s Bridge.
The current passes through the arm ab produces a potential drop i1 r1 which is also in the same phase
of i1 . The total voltage drop across the arm ab is determined by adding the voltage i1 r1 and ωi1 L1 .
The voltage drops across the arm ab and ad are equal. The voltage drop e1 and e2 are equal in
magnitude and phase and hence overlap each other. The current i2 and e2 are in the same phase.
The current i2 flows through the arms cd and produces the I2R4 voltage drops across the resistance
and i2 /ωc4 voltage drops across the capacitor c4 . The capacitance c4 lags by the currents 90◦ .
The voltage drops across the resistance c4 and r4 gives the total voltage drops across the arm cd. The
sum of the voltage e1 and e3 or e2 and e4 gives the voltage drops e.
Advantages of Hay’s Bridge:
i. Hay’s bridge can measure unknown inductor of high value. The Hays bridges give a simple expression
for the unknown inductances and are suitable for the coil having the quality factor greater than the
10 ohms.
ii. It requires low value of r4 while Maxwell bridge requires high value of r4 . Consider the expression
of quality factor. As r4 presents in the denominator, r4 must be small to get high quality factor.
iii. It gives a simple equation for quality factor.
iv. The Hay’s bridge uses small value resistance for determining the Q-factor.
Disadvantages:
i. Hay’s bridge is not suitable for measurement of quality factor(Q < 10) for Q < 10 we should use
Maxwell bridge.

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D. Anderson Bridge
The main disadvantage of using Maxwell bridge (medium quality factor) and Hay’s bridge (high quality
factor) is that, they are unsuitable of measuring the low quality factor. So, there is need of bridge which
can measure low quality factor and this bridge is modified Maxwell’s bridge and known as Anderson’s
bridge. In this bridge double balance can obtained by fixing the value of capacitance and changing the
value of electrical resistance only. It is well known for its accuracy of measuring inductor from few micro
Henry to several Henry. The unknown value of self inductor is measured by method of comparison of
known value of electrical resistance and capacitance.

In this circuit the unknown inductor is connected between the point a and b with electrical resistance
r1 . The arms bc, cd and da consist of resistances r3 , r4 and r2 respectively which are purely resistive.
A standard capacitor is connected in series with variable electrical resistance r and this combination is
connected in parallel with cd. Now let us derive the expression for L1 and r1 : At balance point,
i1 = i3
i2 = ic + i4
Now equating voltages drops we get,
i1 (r1 + jωL1 ) = i2 r2 + ic r
ic
i1 r3 = ic Xc =
jωC
1
ic (r + ) = (i2 − ic )r4
jωC
Solving above equations, and then separating real and imaginary parts, we get
r2 r3
r1 =
r4
Cr3
L1 = [rr2 + rr4 + r2 r4 ]
r4
Choosing r2 = r4 ,
L1 = Cr3 [2r + r4 ]
(Or solve it by considering mesh circuit ABCDA, DECD and CEBC)

Phasor Diagram:
Let us mark the voltage drops across ab, bc, cd and ad as e1, e2, e3 and e4 as shown in figure above. Here
in the phasor diagram of Anderson’s bridge, we have taken i1 as reference axis. Now ic is perpendicular
to i1 as capacitive load is connected at ec, i4 and i2 are lead by some angle as shown in figure. Now
the sum of all the resultant voltage drops i.e. e1 , e2 , e3 and e4 is equal to e, which is shown in phasor

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diagram. As shown in the phasor diagram of Anderson’s bridge the resultant of voltages drop i1 (R1 + r1 )
and i1 .ωl1 (which is shown perpendicular to i1 ) is e1 . e2 is given by i2 . r2 which makes angle ’A’ with
the reference axis. Similarly, e4 can be obtained by voltage drop i4 . r4 which is making angle ’B’ with
reference axis.
Advantages:
i. It is very easy to obtain the balance point in Anderson’s bridge as compared to Maxwell bridge in
case of low quality factor coils.
ii. There is no need of variable standard capacitor. It requires only a fixed value capacitor.
iii This bridge also gives accurate compared with other bridge methods.
iv. r1 and L1 are independent of frequency
Disadvantages
i. The equations obtained for inductor is more complex as compared to Maxwell’s bridge.
ii. The addition of capacitor junction increases complexity as well as difficulty of shielding the bridge.
iii. This is not in the standard form A.C. bridge.
Considering above all the advantages and disadvantages, Maxwell bridge is preferred over Anderson’s
bridge whenever use of variable capacitor is permissible.

E. De Sauty Bridge
De Sauty Bridge provides most suitable method for comparing the two values of capacitor.

The capacitor c1 is the unknown capacitor. Resistors r3 and r4 are pure resistor (here pure resistor means
we assuming it non inductive in nature). The capacitor c4 is the standard capacitor whose value is already

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known to us.
At balance condition we have,
1 1
r4 = r3
jωc1 jωc2
r4
c1 = c2
r3
In order to obtain the balance point we must adjust the values of either r3 or r4 without disturbing any
other element of the bridge. This is the most efficient method of comparing the two values of capacitor
if all the dielectric losses are neglected from the circuit.
Phasor diagram:

Now instead of some advantages like bridge is quite simple and provides easy calculations, there are
some disadvantages of this bridge because this bridge give inaccurate results for imperfect capacitor (here
imperfect means capacitors which not free from dielectric losses). Hence we can use this bridge only for
comparing perfect capacitors.

Dissipation factors (D): A practical capacitor is represented as the series combination of small resis-
tance and ideal capacitance. From the vector diagram, it can be seen that the angle between voltage and
current is slightly less than 90◦ .

The dissipation factor is a measure of loss-rate of energy of a mode of oscillation in an oscillation system.
A dissipation factor is defined as tan(δ). It is the reciprocal of quality factor.

where ESR is the Equivalent Series Resistance.

R 1
D = tan(δ) = = ωCR =
Xc Q

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The dissipation factor in a good capacitor is usually small (for small value of δ). The angle δ is called
loss angle.
D ∼ δ ∼ Loss Angle
δ is in radians and D is often expressed as a percentage.

Here we are interested to modify the De Sauty’s bridge to have such a kind of bridge that will gives
us accurate results for imperfect capacitors also. This modification is done by Grover.

Here Grover has introduced electrical resistances r1 and r2 as shown in above on arms 1 - 2 and 4 -
1 respectively, in order to include the dielectric losses. Also he has connected resistances R1 and R2
respectively in the arms 1 - 2 and 4 - 1. Let us derive the expression capacitor c1 whose value is unknown
to us. Again we connected standard capacitor on the same arm 1 - 4 as we have done in De Sauty’s
bridge. At balance point on equating the voltage drops we have:
1 1
r4 (R1 + r1 + ) = r3 (R2 + r2 + )
jωc1 jωc2
Equating real parts and imaginary parts, we have
c1 r4
=
c2 r3
R2 + r2 r4
=
R1 + r1 r3
c1 R2 + r2 r4
= =
c2 R1 + r1 r3
Therefore,
r3 (R2 + r2 )
R1 + r1 =
r4
r4 c2
c1 =
r3
By making the phasor diagram we can calculate dissipation factor. Phasor diagram for the above circuit
is shown below
Let us mark δ1 and δ2 be phase angles of the capacitors c1 and c2 capacitors respectively. From the
phasor diagram we have tan(δ1 ) = dissipation factor = ωc1 r1 and similarly we have tan(δ2 ) = ωc2 r2 .
From equation (1) we have
c2 r2 − c1 r1 = c1 R1 − c2 R2
on multiplying ω both sides we have
ωc2 r2 − ωc1 r1 = ω(c1 R1 − c2 R2 )
c1 r4
=
c2 r3
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Therefore the final expression for the dissipation factor is written as

r4
tan(δ2 ) − tan(δ1 ) = ωc2 (R1 − R2 )
r3
Hence, if dissipation factor for one capacitor is known, other can be calculated. However, this method
gives quite inaccurate results for dissipation factor.
Advantages:
i. R1 + r1 (resistance in arm 1) and c1 are independent of frequency and they are independent of each
other.
ii. Source need not be pure sine wave.

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F. Owen Bridge
We have various bridges to measure inductor and thus quality factor, like Hay’s bridge is highly suitable
for the measurement of quality factor greater than 10, Maxwell’s bridge is highly suitable for measuring
medium quality factor ranging from 1 to 10 and Anderson bridge can be successfully used to measure
inductor ranging from few micro Henry to several Henry. So what is the need of Owen’s Bridge?. The
answer to this question is very easy. We need a bridge which can measure inductor over wide range. The
bridge circuit which can do that, is known as Owen’s bridge. It is AC bridge just like Hay’s bridge and
Maxwell bridge which use standard capacitor, inductor and variable resistors connected with AC source
for excitation. Let us study Owen’s bridge circuit in more detail. Theory of Owen’s Bridge

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