Fundamentals of Chemistry Chapter: 1

CHAPTER: 01
FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION:-
Science comes from latin word “Scientia” which means “knowledge”. This knowledge
is based on hypothesis, observation and experiments of universal science in which chemistry
purely deals with the matter.
The matter is undergoing changes continuously in nature as rusting of iron,
evaporation of spirit and burning of coal are examples of reaction in which new substance
are formed and energy is absorbed or released. All of these things are different by means of
composition, properties, interaction and structure of matter.
The chemists use chemistry to explain occurrence and description of things. They
investigate material and their interactions and propose theories to illuminate our
understanding from a particle to galaxies.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CHEMISTRY:

Time Chronology of Chemistry
Period/ Timeline Name of Contribution/ Invention Origin of
Scientists scientist
384 – 322 B.C Aristotle Proposed idea of a substance as a Greek
combination of matter and form. He
Describes theory of the Four Elements i.e.
fire, water, earth, air
347 – 428 B.C Plato Proposed term ‘elements’ as Greek
composition of organic and inorganic
bodies with particular shape.
357 – 460 B.C Democritus Proposed the idea of atom, an Greek
indivisible particle of matter.
721- 803 A.D Jabir Ibne- Invented experimental methods of Muslim
Haiyan nitric acid, hydrochloric acid and
white lead.
Extraction of metals from their
ores and dyeing clothes.
862 - 930 A.D Al-Razi Prepared ethyl alcohol by fermentation Muslim
process.
973 - 1048 A.D Al-Beruni Determined densities of different Muslim
substances.
980 - 1037 A.D Ibne –Sina Contributed in medicines, Muslim
philosophy and astronomy.
1627-1691 A.D Robert Boyle Put forward idea of chemistry as English
systematic investigation of nature.
Discovered the gaseous law.

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1728-1799 A.D J.Black Study of Carbon dioxide Scottish
1733-1804 A.D J.Priesly Discovered oxygen,sulphur dioxide English
and hydrogen chloride.
1742-1786 A.D Scheele Discovered chlorine German
1731-1810 A.D Cavendish Discovered hydrogen British
1743-1794 A.D Lavoisier Discovered that oxygen is one fifth French
of air
1766-1844 A.D John Dalton Proposed atomic theory of matter English
1778-1850 A.D Gay-Lussac Discovered that water is composed of two French
parts hydrogen and one part oxygen by
volume.
Discovered several chemical and physical
properties of air & other gases.
1776-1856 A.D Avogadro Proposed Avogadro’s law that equal Italian
volumes of gases under constant
temperature and pressure contain equal
number of molecules.
1746-1823 A.D Jacques Charles Described the gaseous law. French
1741-1820 A.D Petit Determined the classical expression for the French
molar specific [heat capacity] of certain
chemical elements.
1779-1848 A.D J.J. Berzellius Introduced symbols, formula and chemical Swedish
equation to make study more systematic
1824-1907 A.D Mendeleve Discovered periodic arrangement of Russian
elements.
1859-1927 A.D Arrhenius Proposed acid base theory and ions Swedish
dissociation.
1791-1867 A.D M. Faraday Contributed to the study of British
electromagnetism and electrochemistry.
1856-1940 A.D J.J. Thomson Discovered the electron by discharge tube British
experiments.
1885-1962 A.D Neil Bohr Proposed a theory for the hydrogen atom British
based on quantum Theory
1871-1937 A.D Rutherford Postulated the nuclear structure of the Scottish
atom.
Discovered alpha and beta rays, and
proposed the laws of radioactive decay.
1887-1961 A.D Schrodinger Proposed Quantum mechanical Australian
model of atom

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1892-1987 A.D De Broglie Proposed hypothesis about wave French
particle duality nature of electron.
1894-1974 A.D Stendra Nath Proposed fourth state of matter Indian
Bose
1879–1955 A.D Elbert Einstein Proposed fourth state of matter German German
1961- Alive Eric Cornell Produced the first true Bose- Einstein American
Condensate.
1951- Alive Carl weiman Produced the first true Bose-Einstein American
Condensate.

DEFINITION OF CHEMISTRY:
Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the Properties (i.e. colour,
taste etc.), composition (i.e. arrangement, type and ratio of atoms in a molecule), structure
and chemical changes of matter and the laws and Principles governing the chemical
reaction.

IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY IN DAILY LIFE:

Water is basic requirement of human, animals and plants. All the metabolic reactions
of living organisms need water. Disorder in these reactions may cause different diseases,
which may be overcome with the help of chemistry.
The role of chemistry in daily life is an unavoidable fact. Following are the different
process that involves chemistry in daily life.
 Cooking, eating and digestion of food are purely chemical processes.
 Construction, cleaning and washing of our homes.
 The production of fertilizers, glass, plastic synthetic fiber, polymer, ceramics,
petroleum products, soaps, and detergents are based on chemistry.
 Drinking water is treated with chlorine to kill disease causing pathogens which
spread cholera, typhoid, dysentery, skin and eye infections.
 Chlorine is commercially the most important chemical used to produce bleaching
agent, disinfectants, solvents, pesticides, refrigerates, PVC and drugs are miracles of
chemistry

BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY:
Chemistry has a wide scope in all aspects of life and is serving the humanity
day and night. Chemistry is divided into following main branches:
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with relationship between
composition and physical properties of matter with the changes in them. It deals with the
laws and principles governing the combination of atoms and molecules in chemical
reactions.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with hydrocarbons and
their derivatives. Organic chemistry is the study of structure, properties, composition,

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reactions, and preparation of carbon-containing compounds, which include hydrocarbons
except oxides, carbonates, bicarbonates and cynites.
The gasoline, plastics, detergents, dyes, food additives, natural gas, and medicines
are studied in the organic chemistry.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Inorganic chemistry is the branch of Chemistry which deals with the study of all
elements and their compound except hydrocarbons. These compounds are generally
obtained from non-living organisms. It is applicable in all areas of chemical industry. Such as
glass, cement, ceramics and metallurgy.

BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry is the branch of Chemistry which deals with the compounds of living
organisms. plants and animals and their metabolism and synthesis in the living body such as
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Biochemistry helps us to understand how living things
obtain energy from food. It tells that how disorder or deficiency of these biomolecules
causes diseases. This branch is useful in medicine, agriculture and food science.

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY:
It deals with the study of chemical processes involved in the industries for the
preparation of synthetic products like fertilizers, glass, cement and medicines.

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
Nuclear chemistry is the branch of Chemistry which deals with the radioactivity,
nuclear processes and properties. Radioactive elements are widely used in medicine as
diagnostic tools and as a means of treatment, especially for cancer, preservation of food and
generation of electric power through nuclear power reactors.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY:
It is the branch of Chemistry which deals with the study of the interaction of
chemical materials and their effect on the environment of animals and plants. Personal
hygiene, pollution, health hazards are the important areas of environmental chemistry.

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Analytical chemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with separation and
analysis of kind, quality and quantity of various components in given substance.
It is used in chromatography, electrophoresis and spectroscopy.

MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
The branch of Chemistry which deals with synthetic organic chemistry,
pharmacology and various biological specialties. The medicinal chemistry is used in synthesis
of chemicals, bioactive molecules (Drugs) and pharmaceutical agents.

QUANTUM CHEMISTRY
The branch of Chemistry which deals with application, mechanics and experiments of
physical models in chemical system. It is also called molecular quantum mechanics.

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GREEN CHEMISTRY
The branch of chemistry which deals with study of processes and designing products,
which are composed of less hazardous substances. Safer chemical (polyphenylsulfon), less
hazardous chemical (poly carbons) and safer solvents are examples of green chemistry. The
main purpose of this branch is to use waste material efficiently and improvement of energy
efficiency in chemical industry. It is also known as sustainable chemistry.

BASIC DEFINITIONS
MATTER:
“Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space”.
Anything around you is matter.
EXAMPLE:
STATES OF MATTER:
The different states of matter are due to increasing order of energy. There are four
states of matter i.e. solid, liquid, gas and plasma.

Matter

Mixture
Pure substance
Variable
Definite composition composition
(Homogenous)

Homogeneous mixture
Element Compound Heterogeneous mixture
Uniform throughout,
(e.g. Iron, (Example: Water, also called a solution Non uniform distinct
sulphur, carbon, Methane, Aluminium phase
(Example: air, tap water,
oxygen e.t.c.) silicate) (Example: soup, concrete)
Flow Chart of Matter gold alloy)

ATOM:
Matter is composed of smallest particles called
Atom. Atom is the basic unit of matter. Atom is made
of smallest particles called electron, proton and
neutron. Proton and neutron are present in the
nucleus and electrons are revolving around the
nucleus.

MOLECULES

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“A molecule is the smallest particle in a chemical element or
Compound that has the chemical properties of that element
or Compound”.
Molecules are made up of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds. These
bonds are formed as a result of the sharing or exchange of electrons among atoms.
Molecules are Mono, di and poly atomic molecules.
Examples of mono, di and Poly atomic molecules are as follows.

SUBSTANCE:
“A piece of matter in pure form is termed as substance”.
Every substance has fixed composition and have their own physical and
chemical properties. Substances can be elements and compounds.

EXAMPLES:
Tin, Sulfur, Diamond, Water, pure sugar (sucrose), Table salt (Sodium
Chloride), Baking soda(Sodium bicarbonate).

ELEMENT:
“An element is made up of same type of atoms, having same atomic number”.
 An atom cannot be decomposed in to simple substances by ordinary
chemical reaction.
 Elements present in nature are in free or combined form in solid, liquid
or gaseous states.
 118 elements have been discovered so far. Majority of them
are solid (copper, gold, zinc etc.), few are liquid (mercury, bromine) and gases
(hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen).
Elements on the basis of their properties are divided into metals, non-
metals and metalloids.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN METALS, METALLOID AND NON-METALS:

S.NO METALS METALLOID NON-METAL

1. They are solid at room They are solid They may be solid, liquid
temperature except or gas at room
mercury. temperature.
2. They are hard and They may have shiny or They are dull
shiny. dull appearance.
3. They have good They are semi- They do not have
electrical and thermal conductor. electrical and thermal
conductivity. conductivity.
4. They are ductile and They are non-ductile They are non-ductile
malleable. and malleable and malleable
Example: Iron, gold, Example: Boron, Example: Carbon,
silver, and aluminium, silicon, arsenic, nitrogen, sulfur chlorine
and alloys such as antimony and etc.
steel. polonium.

SYMBOL:
“Symbol is an abbreviation to represent the name of elements”. Sometimes
the symbol is derived from the Latin name or their origin region e.g., Au for aurum, gold,
and Na for natrium, sodium.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SYMBOL:
 Symbols are usually one or two letter long.
 Every symbol starts with capital letter as carbon with C or Sulfur as S.
 If chemical symbol is two letter long then starts with a capital letter, with the second
letter written in lower case as He for helium, Na for sodium, Cr for chromium.
The symbols of 30 elements in English derived from Latin, Greek and German are given in
the table below:
S.No. ELEMENT NAME IN ENGLISH LATIN NAME SYMBOL
1 Hydrogen Greek - Hydro & gene H
2 Helium Greek – Helios He
3 Lithium Greek – Lithos Li
4 Beryllium Greek – Beryllos Be
5 Boron Latin – Buraq/ Burah B
6 Carbon Latin – Charbone C
7 Nitrogen Greek – Nitronigene N
8 Oxygen Greek – Oxygeinomes O
9 Flourine Latin – Fluor F
10 Neon Greek – Neos Ne
11 Sodium Latin – Natrium Na

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12 Magnessium Greek – Magnesia Mg
13 Aluminium Latin – Alumen Al
14 Silicon Latin – Silex / Silicis Si
15 Phosphorus Greek – Phoros P
16 Sulfur Latin – Sulfre S
17 Chlorine Greek – Chloros Cl
18 Argon Greek – Argon Ar
19 Potassium Latin – Potash K
20 Calcium Latin – Calx Ca
21 Scandium Latin - Scandia Sc
22 Titanium Greek – Titan Ti
23 Vanadium Greek – Vanadis V
24 Chromium Greek – Chroma Cr
25 Manganese Greek – Magnesia Mn
26 Iron Latin – Ferrum Fe
27 Cobalt German – Kobold Co
28 Nickel German – Kopparnickel Ni
29 Copper Latin – Cuprum Cu
30 Zinc German – Zink Zn

VALENCY:
“The combining power of elements to form compounds is called valency.” The
valency depends upon the number of electrons in the outermost shell which can be gain,
lose or share between the atoms.

Some elements with their symbol and common valencies are given below in table:
S.No. Elements Symbol Atomic No. Valency

1 Hydrogen H 1 -1, +1

2 Helium He 2 0

3 Lithium Li 3 +1

4 Beryllium Be 4 +2

5 Boron B 5 +3

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6 Carbon C 6 +4, +2

7 Nitrogen N 7 -3

8 Oxygen O 8 -2

9 Flourine F 9 -1

10 Neon Ne 10 0

11 Sodium Na 11 +1
12 Magnessium Mg 12 +2
13 Aluminium Al 13 +3
14 Silicon Si 14 +4
15 Phosphorus P 15 ±3

16 Sulfur S 16 ±2

17 Chlorine Cl 17 ±1

18 Argon Ar 18 0
19 Potassium K 19 +1
20 Calcium Ca 20 +2
21 Scandium Sc 21 +3
22 Titanium Ti 22 +2,+3
23 Vanadium V 23 +2,+3,+4
24 Chromium Cr 24 +3
25 Manganese Mn 25 +2,+3,+6
26 Iron Fe 26 +2,+3
27 Cobalt Co 27 +2,+3,+4
28 Nickel Ni 28 +1,+2
29 Copper Cu 29 +1,+2,+3,
30 Zinc Zn 30 +2

CHEMICAL FORMULA:
“The chemical formula represent the symbol of elements and ratios of
elements to one another in a compound.”
Chemical formula tells us number of atoms of each element in a compound with
symbols.
For Example:

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i. Chemical formula of water is H2O which indicates that 2 atoms of hydrogen
combines with 1 atom of oxygen.
ii. Chemical formula of ammonia NH3 shows that one nitrogen atom combines
with 3 atoms of hydrogen.

COMPOUNDS:
“The compound is a substance formed when two or more elements are
chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio by mass”.
As a result a new entirely different properties possessing substance formed.
The type of bonds holding elements may be ionic bonds or covalent bonds
For Example: NaCl, CuSO4, KBr are ionic compound and H2O, CH4 H2SO4 are covalent
compounds.

SOME COMMON COMPOUNDS AND THEIR FORMULA:

S.NO COMPOUND FORMULA
1 Water H2 O
2 Silicon dioxide (sand) SiO2
3 Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) NaOH
4 Sodium chloride (common salt) NaCl
5 Sodium carbonate (washing soda) Na2CO3.10H2O
6 Calcium carbonate (lime stone) CaCO3
7 Sugar (sucrose) C12H22O11
8 Ammonia NH3
9 Sulphuric acid H2SO4
10 Calcium oxide CaO

MIXTURE:
When two or more than two elements or compounds physically combined
without any fixed ratio is known as mixture.”
 The components of mixture retain their chemical properties.
 Mixtures can be separated again by physical methods as Filtration, Evaporation,
Distillation and Crystallization.

TYPES OF MIXTURES:
There are two main types of mixtures:
• Homogeneous mixture and
• Heterogeneous mixture

HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE:
In a homogenous mixture all the substances are evenly distributed throughout the
mixture (Salt water, air, blood).

HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE:
In a heterogeneous mixture the substances are not evenly distributed (chocolate
chip cookies, pizza, rocks)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURE:

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COMPOUND MIXTURE
ELEMENT
Elements are made from Compound is formed by Mixture is formed by the
same atoms and discovered chemical combination of mixing of two or more
naturally. atoms of an element. substances.
Constituents of compound
Elements show unique Constituents of mixture
lose their properties and
properties due to similarity retain their properties in
form a new compound with
of atoms. mixture.
different properties.
Atoms of an elements have Compounds have fixed Mixtures do not have fixed
same atomic number. composition by mass. composition by mass.
Element cannot be
Components cannot be The components can be
decomposed into simple
separated by physical separated by physical
substance by ordinary
means. means.
methods.
As mixture consist of
Compounds are
Elements are represented physically separable
represented by chemical
by their symbol. components so it does not
formula.
show any chemical formula.
Mixtures have homogenous
Elements have homogenous Compounds have
as well as heterogeneous
composition homogenous composition.
composition.
Melting point of elements
Compounds have sharp and Mixtures do not have sharp
increase with increase in
fixed melting points. and fixed melting points.
atomic number.

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS AND ATOMIC MASS UNIT:

Relative Atomic mass:
The relative atomic mass of an atom is the average mass of naturally occurring
isotopes, compared to C-12
Average mass of one atom of the element
Ar = 1
X the mass of one atom of C−12
12

UNIT: It’s unit is atomic mass unit (a.m.u.)

1a.m.u=1.66 x 10−24 gram

EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND MOLECULAR FORMULA:

EMPIRICAL FORMULA:
“Empirical formula gives only the relative number of
each type of atom in a molecule.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF EMPIRICAL FORMULA:

 Empirical Formula shows simplest ratio of each atoms present in a molecule.
 It does not show the actual number of atoms in the molecule.
 It tells about the type of element present in it.

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For Example:
1. Benzene has molecular formula C6H6 in which the simplest ratio of hydrogen and carbon is
1:1, so the empirical formula becomes CH.
C6 H 6
6:6
1:1
2. Glucose has molecular formula C6H12O6. It shows the ratio as follows
C6H12O6
6:12:6
1: 2: 1
So the empirical formula of glucose is CH2O and have simple ratio 1:2:1 of atoms in molecule
of glucose.

MOLECULAR FORMULA:
“Molecular formula indicates the actual number and type of
atoms in a molecule.”
CHARACTERISTICS OF EMPIRICAL FORMULA:
 Molecular formula is derived from empirical formula.
 Molecular formula of a compound may be same or multiple of empirical formula.
 Molecular formula is an integral multiple (1,2,3 etc.) of the empirical Formula.

RELATION BETWEEN MOLECULAR AND EMPIRICAL FORMULA:

Molecular Formula = (Empirical Formula)n
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula
where n=1,2,3,etc

SOME COMPOUNDS WITH EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA:

MOLECULAR
S.No. COMPOUND EMPIRICAL FORMULA
FORMULA

1 Carbon dioxide CO2 CO2

2 Glucose CH2O C6H12O6

3 Hydrogen peroxide HO H2O2

4 Benzene CH C6 H 6

5 Acetic acid CH2O CH3COOH

ATOMIC NUMBER AND ATOMIC MASS:

ATOMIC NUMBER ( Z ):
“The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic
number.”
It is generally denoted by ‘Z’.

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EXAMPLE:
Atomic number of Carbon = 6 (6C)
Atomic number of Nitrogen = 7 (7N)

MASS NUMBER ( A ):
“The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called
mass number.”
It is generally denoted by ‘A’.
EXAMPLE:
Na atom has atomic number 11 and the mass number 23
i.e. 11Na23
FORMULA:
Mass Number (A) = Number of proton (Z) + Number of neutrons (N)
A=Z+n
FORMULA FOR CALCULATION OF NUMBER OF NEUTRONS:
Number of neutron (n) = Mass number (A) – Atomic number (Z)
n=A-Z
MOLECULAR MASS AND FORMULA MASS:
MOLECULAR MASS:
“Molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms
present in the molecular formula of a substance or molecule.”

EXAMPLE: The molecular mass of CO2 = 12 + (16)2.

= 12 + 32
= 44 a.m.u.
The molecular mass of H2O = (1)2 + 16
= 18 a.m.u.
Note: Molecular mass is applicable for molecular compounds only.

FORMULA MASS:-
“Formula mass of substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a
formula unit of the substance .”

EXAMPLE: The formula mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5

= 58.5 a.m.u.
Note: Formula mass is applicable for ionic compounds only.

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