Analogue systems

Analogue systems process analogue signals which can take any value within a range, for example the
output from an LDR (light sensor) or a microphone.

An audio amplifier is an example of an analogue system. The amplifier produces an output voltage
which can be any value within the range of its power supply.

Analogue signal
An analogue meter can display any value within the range available on its scale. However, the
precision of readings is limited by our ability to read them. For example the meter scale shows 1.25V
because the pointer is estimated to be half way between 1.2 and 1.3. The analogue meter can show
any value between 1.2 and 1.3 but we are unable to read the scale more precisely than about half a
division.

An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time-varying feature of the signal is a
representation of some other time-varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another time-varying signal.
For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous voltage of the signal varies continuously
with the pressure of the sound waves.

In contrast, a digital signal represents the original time-varying quantity as a sampled sequence

of quantized values. This imposes some bandwidth and dynamic range constraints on the
representation but, unlike the analog signal, can avoid further electronic noise and distortion.

The term analog signal usually refers to electrical signals;

however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey or be considered
analog signals.

Analogue meter display

All electronic circuits suffer from 'noise' which is unwanted signal mixed in with the desired
signal, for example an audio amplifier may pick up some mains 'hum' (the 50Hz frequency of
the UK mains electricity supply). Noise can be difficult to eliminate from analogue signals
because it may be hard to distinguish from the desired signal.

An analog signal is subject to electronic noise and distortion introduced by communication

channels, recording and signal processing operations, which can progressively degrade
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). As the signal is transmitted, copied, or processed, the
unavoidable noise introduced in the signal path will accumulate as a generation loss,
progressively and irreversibly degrading the SNR, until in extreme cases, the signal can be
overwhelmed. Noise can show up as hiss and intermodulation distortion in audio signals,
or snow in video signals. Generation loss is irreversible as there is no reliable method to
distinguish the noise from the signal.
Noise
In contrast, although converting an analog signal to digital form introduces a low-
level quantization noise into the signal due to finite resolution of digital systems, once in
digital form, the signal can be transmitted, stored, or processed without introducing
significant additional noise or distortion.
Noise accumulation in analog systems can be minimized by electromagnetic
shielding, balanced lines, low-noise amplifiers and high-quality electrical components.
In analog systems, it is difficult to detect when such degradation occurs. However, in digital
systems, degradation can not only be detected but corrected as well.

The effect of noise on an analogue circuit is a function of the level of noise. The greater the
noise level, the more the analogue signal is disturbed, slowly becoming less usable. Because
of this, analogue signals are said to "fail gracefully". Analogue signals can still contain
intelligible information with very high levels of noise. Digital circuits, on the other hand, are
not affected at all by the presence of noise until a certain threshold is reached, at which
point they fail catastrophically. For digital telecommunications, it is possible to increase the
noise threshold with the use of error detection and correction coding schemes and
algorithms. Nevertheless, there is still a point at which catastrophic failure of the link occurs.
[7][8]
In digital electronics, because the information is quantized, as long as the signal stays inside
a range of values, it represents the same information. In digital circuits the signal is
regenerated at each logic gate, lessening or removing noise.[9][failed verification] In
analogue circuits, signal loss can be regenerated with amplifiers. However, noise is
cumulative throughout the system and the amplifier itself will add to the noise according to
its noise figure.
Precision
A number of factors affect how precise a signal is, mainly the noise present in the original
signal and the noise added by processing (see signal-to-noise ratio). Fundamental physical
limits such as the shot noise in components limits the resolution of analogue signals. In
digital electronics additional precision is obtained by using additional digits to represent the
signal. The practical limit in the number of digits is determined by the performance of
the analogue-to-digital converter (ADC), since digital operations can usually be performed
without loss of precision. The ADC takes an analogue signal and changes it into a series
of binary numbers. The ADC may be used in simple digital display devices, e. g.,
thermometers or light meters but it may also be used in digital sound recording and in data
acquisition. However, a digital-to-analogue converter (DAC) is used to change a digital signal
to an analogue signal. A DAC takes a series of binary numbers and converts it to an analogue
signal. It is common to find a DAC in the gain-control system of an op-amp which in turn
may be used to control digital amplifiers and filters.
Design difficulty
Analogue circuits are typically harder to design, requiring more skill than comparable digital
systems to conceptualize.[13] This is one of the main reasons that digital systems have
become more common than analogue devices. An analogue circuit is usually designed by
hand, and the process is much less automated than for digital systems. Since the early
2000s, there were some platforms that were developed which enabled Analog design to be
defined using software - which allows faster prototyping. However, if a digital electronic
device is to interact with the real world, it will always need an analogue interface.[14] For
example, every digital radio receiver has an analogue preamplifier as the first stage in the
receive chain.

EXAMPLE OF ANALOG SYSTEM

An analog computer or analogue computer is a type of computer that uses the continuously
variable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical,
or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital
computers represent varying quantities symbolically and by discrete values of both time and
amplitude.
Analog computers can have a very wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomograms are
the simplest, while naval gunfire control computers and large hybrid digital/analog
computers were among the most complicated.[1] Systems for process
control and protective relays used analog computation to perform control and protective
functions.
Analog computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications even after the
advent of digital computers, because at the time they were typically much faster, but they
started to become obsolete as early as the 1950s and 1960s, although they remained in use
in some specific applications, such as aircraft flight simulators, the flight
computer in aircraft, and for teaching control systems in universities. More complex
applications, such as aircraft flight simulators and synthetic-aperture radar, remained the
domain of analog computing (and hybrid computing) well into the 1980s, since digital
computers were insufficient for the task.

Analog Circuits
Early analog circuits were built primarily using bipolar devices with vertical npn and
lateral pnp bipolar junction transistors (BJTs). In bipolar analog circuits, signals are often
carried in the form of current as BJTs have good linearity in the current domain. In MOS
devices, the infinite input resistance of the MOS capacitor makes it ideal for charge to be
the signal. The development of switched capacitor techniques and analog-to-digital
converters that employ charge as a signal has allowed high-performance analog CMOS
circuits compatible with dense logic circuits. The circuit design benefits of CMOSs for analog
applications are that the area required for operational amplifiers is much smaller than that
needed for NMOS or bipolar op amps; however, this is at the expense of bandwidth and
speed. The hybrid BiCMOS (bipolar and CMOS) technology combines the advantages of high
speed, analog capability, and high drive current of bipolar devices with the advantages of
low power dissipation, high packing density, and low noise margins of CMOS technology
(Alvarez 1989).

Analog circuits represent key components of communications and other systems in

widespread, growing commercial use. High-speed transistors are essential to the operation
of such circuits. The modest complexity of the analog circuits (e.g. hundreds of devices), and
the relaxed requirements on on/off ratio and other aspects, make SWNT array transistors
well suited to this application area, especially novel flexible analog devices. As described
above, RF transistors based on SWNT arrays have been demonstrated at frequencies up to
10 GHz, with relatively coarse device dimensions. They can therefore be further configured
as RF power amplifiers and oscillators, two of the most important building blocks of analog
electronic systems [72]. As an example, these devices can then be connected and
impedance matched to generate functional radio receiving systems, where the SWNT TFTs
provide all of the active components, even including the audio output amplifier stage
(Figure 4.13a). An optical image of a completed SWNT radio is shown in Figure 4.13(b) and
the SWNT chips are connected to an external antenna and a speaker through wire bonding.
This relatively simple system, and others like it, is fully functional and capable of receiving,
demodulating and amplifying signals broadcast by commercial radio stations. Figure 4.13(c)
presents the power spectrum recorded during a weather/traffic report that is directly
audible through headphones connected to the system.
Analogue circuits in general are not as susceptible to transient upset as digital, but may be
more susceptible to demodulation of RF energy. This can show itself as a DC bias shift which
results in measurement non-linearities or non-operation, or as detection of modulation,
which is particularly noticeable in audio and video circuits. Such bias shift does not affect
digital circuit operation until the bias is enough to corrupt logic levels, at which point
operation ceases completely. Improvements in immunity result from attention to the four
areas as set out below. The greatest RF signal levels are those coupled in via external
interface cables and so interface circuits should receive the first attention.
Analogue immunity principles
•
minimize circuit bandwidth
•
maximize signal levels
•
ensure a good circuit stability margin
•
use balanced signal configurations isolate particularly susceptible paths
Audio rectification
This is a term used rather loosely to describe the detection of RF signals by low frequency
circuits. It is responsible for most of the ill effects of RF susceptibility of both analogue and
digital products.
When a circuit is fed an RF signal that is well outside its normal bandwidth, the circuit can
respond either linearly or non-linearly (Figure 13.41). If the signal level is low enough for it
to stay linear, it will pass from input to output without affecting the wanted signals or the
circuit’s operation. If the level drives the circuit into non-linearity, then the envelope of the
signal (perhaps severely distorted) will appear on the circuit’s output. At this point it will be
inseparable from the wanted signal, and indeed the wanted signal will itself be affected by
the circuit’s forced non-linearity.

Bandwidth, level and balance

The level of the interfering signal can be reduced by restricting the operating bandwidth to
the minimum acceptable. You can achieve this (referring to Figure 13.42) by input RC or LC
filtering (1), feedback RC filtering (2), and low-value (10–33pF) capacitors (3) or resistors (4)
directly at the input terminals. RC filters may degrade stability (see section 13.3.6.4) or
worsen the circuit’s common mode rejection (CMR) properties, and the value of C must be
kept low to avoid this, but an improvement in RF rejection of between 10 to 35dB over the
range 0.15 to 150MHz has been reported [140] by including a 27pF feedback capacitor on an
ordinary inverting op-amp circuit. High frequency CMR is determined by the imbalance
between capacitances on balanced inputs, and the typical low-value tolerance of 10% may
make capacitive filtering unacceptable for this reason alone. If an increased input resistance
would be too high and might affect circuit DC conditions, a lossy ferrite-cored choke or bead
is an alternative series element.

Localized low-value series resistance (4) is a useful approach at the inputs of op-amps
and comparators – their high input impedance allows a series resistor of up to a few
hundred ohms to be applied at each input, literally at the pins. In conjunction with the input
capacitance, this attenuates any induced RF voltages that may be induced along the input
tracks. Since surface mount resistors are extremely cheap, it is worth implementing this as a
standard technique for all analogue circuits.
You should design for signal level to be as high as possible throughout, consistent with other
circuit constraints, but at the same time impedances should also be maintained as low as
possible to minimize capacitive coupling and these requirements may conflict. The decision
will be influenced by whether inductive coupling is expected to be a major interference
contributor. If it is (because circuit loop areas cannot be made acceptably small), then
higher impedances will result in lower coupled interference levels. Refer to the discussion
on inductive and capacitive coupling (section 11.1.1).
Balanced circuit configurations allow maximum advantage to be taken of the inherent
common mode rejection (CMR) of op-amp circuits. But note that CMR is poorer at high
frequencies and is affected by capacitive and layout imbalances, so it is unwise to trust too
much in balanced circuits for good RF and transient immunity.
A common fix for improving the immunity of a discrete transistor circuit is to incorporate
either or both of a resistor or ferrite chip in series with the base and a low-value (10–33pF)
capacitor directly across the base-emitter junction (Figure 13.43). The effect of this is to
reduce the RF applied across the junction, where the non-linearity occurs, but the
components need to be mounted right next to the transistor connections. As a matter of
standard design practice, you should put such components in place wherever there is a
circuit input that could be exposed to incoming RF.

Frequency response
Both analog and digital circuits have frequency limits. In digital circuitry, if frequency limits
are exceeded the signal level may rise and fall before a gate has a chance to switch states.
This may give the appearance that the signal is attenuated or that the receiving gate is “not
seeing” the signal. This too is a circuit design problem and not a PCB problem. In circuit
design, we need to make sure that the components selected are within design constraints.
When signals exceed the frequency limits of analog circuitry, the output signal will also be
attenuated, and distortion will result if the sine wave begins to look like a triangle wave at
the output of the frequency-limited component. This is a function of the amplifier’s slew
rate, −3 dB BW, and gain bandwidth product. Again these issues need to be handled at the
circuit design level, well before the PCB design stage.

Speed: Unity Gain Frequency

In analog circuits, DC gain is only half the story. While operation at subthreshold is beneficial
for gain and especially transconductance efficiency, in practice this is rarely acceptable
because of the reduction in the device speed. Only extremely slow circuits can tolerate
operating in this region. For most other circuits, operation in moderate or strong inversion is
desired.
The speed of a transistor is often measured using the device unity gain frequency fT, or the
frequency when the current gain of a transistor is unity.

Stability
Op-amps with gain bandwidths of hundreds of MHz or even GHz are routinely used in many
applications. The stability of wideband amplifiers was briefly mentioned in section
13.1.5.1 in the context of emissions, but a quasi-stable amplifier is also a threat to immunity.
If the circuit is close to oscillation but not actually unstable at a particular radio frequency,
this is equivalent to saying it has a peak in its frequency response at that frequency
(Figure 13.45). If an interfering RF signal is applied at this peak the amplifier will happily
respond to it, most probably saturating and corrupting its desired signal. This is not an
uncommon occurrence particularly on the conducted immunity test in the range 5–30MHz,
where peaks in susceptibility cannot be explained by the usual structural resonances of
higher frequencies.

Apart from inadequate design of feedback circuitry, amplifier instability is usually a result of

bad circuit layout or poor supply decoupling. You need to pay particular attention to these
aspects with wideband devices. Also, low-value capacitors at the input as recommended
above in Figure 13.42 can affect the feedback to worsen the stability of the circuit, so they
should be used with caution; the input pin series resistor method is preferable. Stability
problems can be diagnosed without access to RF immunity test facilities by feeding a square
wave with a fast rising edge into the circuit, and looking for ringing on the output.

Isolation
Signals may be isolated at input or output with either an opto-coupler or a transformer
(Figure 13.46). The ultimate expression of the former is fibre optic data transmission; given
that the major interference coupling route is via the connected cables, using optical
fibre instead of wire completely removes this route. This leaves only direct coupling to the
enclosure, and coupling via the power cable, each of which is easier to deal with than
electrical signal interfaces. Signal processing techniques will be needed to ensure accurate
transmission of precision AC or DC signals, which increases the overall cost and board area.

Digital systems
Digital systems process digital signals which can take only a limited number of values
(discrete steps), usually just two values are used: the positive supply voltage (+Vs) and zero
volts (0V).
Digital systems contain devices such as logic gates, flip-flops, shift registers and counters. A
computer is an example of a digital system.

Digital (logic) signal

 
A digital meter can display many values, but not every value within its range. For example
the display can show 6.25 and 6.26 but not a value between them. This is not a problem
because digital meters normally have sufficient digits to show values more precisely than it
is possible to read on an analogue display.

Logic signals
Most digital systems use the simplest possible type of signal which has just two values. This
type of signal is called a logic signal because the two values (or states) can be called true and
false. Normally the positive supply voltage +Vs represents true and 0V represents false.
Other labels for the true and false states are shown in the table.
Noise is relatively easy to eliminate from digital signals because it is easy to distinguish from
the desired signal which can only have particular values. For example: if the signal is meant
to be +5V (true) or 0V (false), noise of up to 2.5V can be eliminated by treating all voltages
greater than 2.5V as true and all voltages less than 2.5V as false.
Digital circuits
Digital circuits commonly use a binary scheme. Although data values are represented by just
two states (0s and 1s), larger values can be represented by groups of binary bits. For
example, in a 1-bit system, a 0 represents a data value of 0, and a 1 represents a data value
of 1. However, in a 2-bit system, a 00 represents a 0, a 01 represents a 1, a 10 represents a
2, and a 11 represents a 3. In a 16-bit system, the largest number that can be represented is
216, or 65,536. These groups of bits can be captured either as a sequence of successive bits
or a parallel bus. This allows large streams of data to be processed easily.
 
Unlike analog circuits, most useful digital circuits are synchronous, meaning there is a
reference clock to coordinate the operation of the circuit blocks, so they operate in a
predictable manner. Analog electronics operate asynchronously, meaning they process the
signal as it arrives at the input.
 
Most digital circuits use a digital processor to manipulate the data. This can be in the form
of a simple microcontroller (MCU) or a more complex digital signal processor (DSP), which
can filter and manipulate large streams of data such as video.
 
Digital signals are commonly used in communication systems where digital transmission can
transfer data over point-to-point or point-to-multipoint transmission channels, such as
copper wires, optical fibers, wireless communication media, storage media, or computer
buses. The transferrable data is represented as an electromagnetic signal, such as a
microwave, radio wave, electrical voltage, or infrared signal.
 
In general, digital circuits are easier to design, but they often cost more than analog circuits
that are intended for the same tasks.
 
MPS’s catalog of digital components includes the MP2886A, a digital multi-phase PWM
controller with a PWM-VID interface compatible with NVIDIA’s Open VReg specification.

Digital systems are designed to store, process, and communicate information in digital form.
They are found in a wide range of applications, including process control, communication
systems, digital instruments, and consumer products. The digital computer, more commonly
called the computer, is an example of a typical digital system.
A computer manipulates information in digital, or more precisely, binary form. A binary
number has only two discrete values — zero or one. Each of these discrete values is
represented by the OFF and ON status of an electronic switch called a transistor. All
computers, therefore, only understand binary numbers. Any decimal number (base 10, with
ten digits from 0 to 9) can be represented by a binary number (base 2, with digits 0 and 1).
The basic blocks of a computer are the central processing unit (CPU), the memory, and the
input/output (I/O). The CPU of the computer is basically the same as the brain of a human.
Computer memory is conceptually similar to human memory. A question asked to a human
is analogous to entering a program into the computer using an input device such as the
keyboard, and answering the question by the human is similar in concept to outputting the
result required by the program to a computer output device such as the printer. The main
difference is that human beings can think independently, whereas computers can only
answer questions that they are programmed for. Computer hardware refers ...
 Sr. Key Digital System Analog System
No.

Signal Type Digital System uses discrete signals as on/off Analog System uses continous
1
representing binary format. Off is 0, On is 1. signals with varying magnitude.

2 Wave Type Digital System uses square waves. Analog system uses sine waves.

Technology Digital system first transform the analog Analog systems records the
3 waves to limited set of numbers and then physical waveforms as they are
record them as digital square waves. originally generated.

Transmission Digital transmission is easy and can be made Analog systems are affected badly
4
noise proof with no loss at all. by noise during transmission.

Flexibility Digital system hardware can be easily Analog system's hardwares are
5
modulated as per the requirements. not flexible.

Bandwidth Digital transmission needs more bandwidth to Analog tranmission requires less
6
carry same information. bandwidth.

Memory Digital data is stored in form of bits. Analog data is stored in form of
7
waveform signals.

Power Digital system needs low power as compare Analog systems consume more
8
requirement to its analog counterpart. power than digital systems.

Best suited for Digital system are good for computing and Analog systems are good for
9
digital electronics. audio/video recordings.

10 Cost Digital system are costly. Analog systems are cheap.

Example Digital system are: Computer, CD, DVD. Analog systems are: Analog
11 electronics, voice radio using AM
frequency.

Digital Signals vs. Analog Signals: Advantages and Disadvantages

 
As with most engineering topics, there are pros and cons for both analog and digital signals.
The specific application, performance requirements, transmission medium, and operating
environment can determine whether analog or digital signaling (or a combination) should be
used.
 
Digital Signals: Advantages and Disadvantages
 
Advantages to using digital signals, including digital signal processing (DSP) and
communication systems, include the following:
 
● Digital signals can convey information with less noise, distortion, and interference.
● Digital circuits can be reproduced easily in mass quantities at comparatively low
costs.
● Digital signal processing is more flexible because DSP operations can be altered using
digitally programmable systems.
● Digital signal processing is more secure because digital information can be easily
encrypted and compressed.
● Digital systems are more accurate, and the probability of error occurrence can be
reduced by employing error detection and correction codes.
● Digital signals can be easily stored on any magnetic media or optical media using
semiconductor chips.
● Digital signals can be transmitted over long distances.
 
Disadvantages to using digital signals, including digital signal processing (DSP) and
communication systems, include the following:
 
● A higher bandwidth is required for digital communication when compared to analog
transmission of the same information.
● DSP processes the signal at high speeds, and comprises more top internal hardware
resources. This results in higher power dissipation compared to analog signal
processing, which includes passive components that consume less energy.
● Digital systems and processing are typically more complex.
 
Analog Signals: Advantages and Disadvantages
 
Advantages to using analog signals, including analog signal processing (ASP) and
communication systems, include the following:
 
● Analog signals are easier to process.
● Analog signals best suited for audio and video transmission.
● Analog signals are much higher density, and can present more refined information.
● Analog signals use less bandwidth than digital signals.
● Analog signals provide a more accurate representation of changes in physical
phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure.
● Analog communication systems are less sensitive in terms of electrical tolerance.
 
Disadvantages to using analog signals, including analog signal processing (ASP) and
communication systems, include the following:
 
● Data transmission at long distances may result in undesirable signal disturbances.
● Analog signals are prone to generation loss.
● Analog signals are subject to noise and distortion, as opposed to digital signals which
have much higher immunity.
● Analog signals are generally lower quality signals than digital signals.
 
Analog and Digital Signals: Systems and Applications
 
Traditional audio and communication systems used analog signals. However, with advances
in silicon process technologies, digital signal processing capabilities, encoding algorithms,
and encryption requirements — in addition to increases in bandwidth efficiencies — many
of these systems have become digital. They are still some applications where analog signals
have legacy use or benefits. Most systems that interface to real-world signals (such as
sound, light, temperature, and pressure) use an analog interface to capture or transmit the
information. A few analog signal applications are listed below:
 
● Audio recording and reproduction
 ● Temperature sensors
● Image sensors
● Radio signals
● Telephones
● Control systems
 
MPS has a broad portfolio of analog parts, including the MP2322, MP8714, MP2145,
and MP8712.
 
Although many original communication systems used analog signaling (telephones), recent
technologies use digital signals because of their advantages with noise immunity,
encryption, bandwidth efficiency, and the ability to use repeaters for long-distance
transmission. A few digital signal applications are listed below:
 
● Communication systems (broadband, cellular)
● Networking and data communications
● Digital interfaces for programmability