Complex Analysis: Problems With Solutions: August 2016

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Complex Analysis: Problems with solutions
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Complex Analysis
Problems with solutions
Juan Carlos Ponce Campuzano

Copyright
c 2016 Juan Carlos Ponce Campuzano
P UBLISHED BY J UAN C ARLOS P ONCE C AMPUZANO
ISBN 978-0-6485736-1-6
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

4.0 International License.
License at: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
First e-book version, August 2015. Last update 21/04/2021

Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1 Basic algebraic and geometric properties 7
1.2 Modulus 10
1.3 Exponential and Polar Form, Complex roots 13
2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Basic notions 19
2.2 Limits, Continuity and Differentiation 27
2.3 Analytic functions 31
2.3.1 Harmonic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 Complex Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1 Contour integrals 39
3.2 Cauchy Integral Theorem and Cauchy Integral Formula 43
3.3 Improper integrals 56
4 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1 Taylor and Laurent series 59
4.2 Classification of singularities 68
4.3 Applications of residues 74
4.3.1 Improper integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Foreword
This text constitutes a collection of problems for using as an additional learning resource
for those who are taking an introductory course in complex analysis. The problems are
numbered and allocated in four chapters corresponding to different subject areas: Complex
Numbers, Functions, Complex Integrals and Series. The majority of problems are provided
with answers, detailed procedures and hints (sometimes incomplete solutions).
Of course, no project such as this can be free from errors and incompleteness. I will
be grateful to everyone who points out any typos, incorrect solutions, or sends any other
suggestion for improving this manuscript.
Contact: [email protected]
2016
1. Complex Numbers
1.1 Basic algebraic and geometric properties

1. Verifythat
√ √
(a) 2 − i − i 1 − 2i = −2i
(b) (2 − 3i) (−2 + i) = −1 + 8i
Solution. We have
√ √ √ √
2 − i − i 1 − 2i = 2 − i − i + 2 = −2i,
and
(2 − 3i) (−2 + i) = −4 + 2i + 6i − 3i2 = −4 + 3 + 8i = −1 + 8i.

2. Reduce the quantity

5i
(1 − i)(2 − i)(3 − i)
to a real number.
Solution. We have
5i 5i i i 1
= = 2
= =−
(1 − i)(2 − i)(3 − i) (1 − i)(5 − 5i) (1 − i) −2i 2

8 Chapter 1. Complex Numbers
3. Show that
(a) Re(iz) = − Im(z);
(b) Im(iz) = Re(z).
Proof. Let z = x + yi with x = Re(z) and y = Im(z). Then
Re(iz) = Re(−y + xi) = −y = − Im(z)
and
Im(iz) = Im(−y + xi) = x = Re(z).

4. Verify the associative law for multiplication of complex numbers. That is, show that
(z1 z2 )z3 = z1 (z2 z3 )
for all z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C.
Proof. Let zk = xk + iyk for k = 1, 2, 3. Then
(z1 z2 )z3 = ((x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i))(x3 + y3 i)

= ((x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 + x1 y2 ))(x3 + y3 i)
= (x1 x2 x3 − x3 y1 y2 − x2 y1 y3 − x1 y2 y3 )
+ i(x2 x3 y1 + x1 x3 y2 + x1 x2 y3 − y1 y2 y3 )
and
z1 (z2 z3 ) = (x1 + y1 i)((x2 + y2 i))(x3 + y3 i))

= (x1 + y1 i)((x2 x3 − y2 y3 ) + i(x2 y3 + x3 y2 ))
= (x1 x2 x3 − x3 y1 y2 − x2 y1 y3 − x1 y2 y3 )
+ i(x2 x3 y1 + x1 x3 y2 + x1 x2 y3 − y1 y2 y3 )
Therefore,
(z1 z2 )z3 = z1 (z2 z3 )
5. Compute
2+i
(a) ;
2−i
(b) (1 − 2i)4 .
Answer: (a) (3 + 4i)/5, (b) −7 + 24i.
1.1 Basic algebraic and geometric properties 9
6. Let f be the map sending each complex number

x y
z = x + yi →
−
−y x
Show that f (z1 z2 ) = f (z1 ) f (z2 ) for all z1 , z2 ∈ C.
Proof. Let zk = xk + yk i for k = 1, 2. Then
z1 z2 = (x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 + x1 y2 )
and hence

x1 x2 − y1 y2 x2 y1 + x1 y2
f (z1 z2 ) = .
−x2 y1 − x1 y2 x1 x2 − y1 y2
On the other hand,

x1 y1 x2 y2 x1 x2 − y1 y2 x2 y1 + x1 y2
f (z1 ) f (z2 ) = = .
−y1 x1 −y2 x2 −x2 y1 − x1 y2 x1 x2 − y1 y2
Therefore, f (z1 z2 ) = f (z1 ) f (z2 ).
7. Use binomial theorem

n n n n n−1 n n−1 n n
(a + b) = a + a b + ... + ab + b
0 1 n−1 n
n
n n−k k
=∑ a b
k=0 k
to expand √
(a) (1 + √3i)2011 ;
(b) (1 + 3i)−2011 .
Solution. By binomial theorem,
√ 2011 2011 2011 √ k 2011 2011 k/2 k

(1 + 3i) = ∑ ( 3i) = ∑ 3 i.
k=0 k k=0 k
Since ik = (−1)m for k = 2m even and ik = (−1)m i for k = 2m + 1 odd,

√ 2011

2011 m
(1 + 3i) = ∑ 3 (−1)m
0≤2m≤2011 2m
√

2011
+i ∑ 3m 3(−1)m
0≤2m+1≤2011 2m + 1
1005 1005 √

2011 m 2011
= ∑ (−3) + i ∑ (−3)m 3.
m=0 2m m=0 2m + 1
Similarly,
2011 √ !2011
√

1 1 − 3i
(1 + 3i)−2011 = √ =
1 + 3i 4
1 2011 2011 √

= 2011 ∑ (− 3i)k
4 k=0 k
1 1005 2011

= 2011 ∑ (−3)m
4 m=0 2m
i 1005 2011 √

− 2011 ∑ (−3)m 3.
4 m=0 2m + 1
8. Suppose that z1 and z2 are complex numbers, with z1 z2 real and non-zero. Show that
there exists a real number r such that z1 = rz2 .
Proof. Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 with x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ R. Thus
z1 z2 = x1 x2 − y1 y2 + (x1 y2 + y1 x2 )i
Since z1 z2 is real and non-zero, z1 6= 0, z2 6= 0, and
x1 x2 − y1 y2 6= 0 and x1 y2 + y1 x2 = 0.
Thus, since z2 6= 0, then

z1 x1 + iy1 x2 + iy2
= ·
z2 x2 − iy2 x2 + iy2
x1 x2 − y1 y2 + (x1 y2 + y1 x2 )i
=
x22 + y22
x1 x2 − y1 y2
= .
x22 + y22
x1 x2 − y1 y2
By setting r = , we have the result.
x22 + y22
1.2 Modulus
1. Show that
|z1 − z2 |2 + |z1 + z2 |2 = 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 )
for all z1 , z2 ∈ C.
1.2 Modulus 11
Proof. We have
|z1 − z2 |2 + |z1 + z2 |2
= (z1 − z2 )(z1 − z2 ) + (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 )
= (z1 − z2 )(z1 − z2 ) + (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 )
= ((z1 z1 + z2 z2 ) − (z1 z2 + z2 z1 )) + ((z1 z1 + z2 z2 ) + (z1 z2 + z2 z1 ))
= 2(z1 z1 + z2 z2 ) = 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 ).
√
2. Verify that 2|z| ≥ | Re z| + | Im z|.
Hint: Reduce this inequality to (|x| − |y|)2 ≥ 0.
Solution. Note that
0 ≤ (| Re z| − | Im z|)2 = | Re z|2 − 2| Re z|| Im z| + | Im z|2 .
Thus
2| Re z|| Im z| ≤ | Re z|2 + | Im z|2 ,
and then
| Re z|2 + 2| Re z|| Im z| + | Im z|2 ≤ 2(| Re z|2 + | Im z|2 ).
That is
(| Re z| + | Im z|)2 ≤ 2(| Re z|2 + | Im z|2 ) = 2|z|2 ,
and therefore, √
| Re z| + | Im z| ≤ 2|z|.

3. Sketch the curves in the complex plane given by

(a) Im(z) = −1;
(b) |z − 1| = |z + i|;
(c) 2|z| = |z − 2|.
Solution. Let z = x + yi.

(a) {Im(z) = −1} = {y = −1} is the horizontal line passing through the point −i.
(b) Since
|z − 1| = |z + i| ⇔ |(x − 1) + yi| = |x + (y + 1)i|

⇔ |(x − 1) + yi|2 = |x + (y + 1)i|2
⇔ (x − 1)2 + y2 = x2 + (y + 1)2
⇔ x + y = 0,
the curve is the line x + y = 0.

(c) Since
2|z| = |z − 2| ⇔ 2|x + yi| = |(x − 2) + yi|
⇔ 4|x + yi|2 = |(x − 2) + yi|2
⇔ 4(x2 + y2 ) = (x − 2)2 + y2
⇔ 3x2 + 4x + 3y2 = 4
2 2

16
⇔ x+ + y2 =
3 9

2 4
⇔ z + =
3 3
the curve is the circle with centre at −2/3 and radius 4/3.

4. Show that
R4 − R
4 4
z + iz
≤ ≤ R +R
R2 + R + 1 z2 + z + 1 (R − 1)2
for all z satisfying |z| = R > 1.
Proof. When |z| = R > 1,
|z4 + iz| ≥ |z4 | − |iz| = |z|4 − |i||z| = R4 − R
and
|z2 + z + 1| ≤ |z2 | + |z| + |1| = |z|2 + |z| + 1 = R2 + R + 1
by triangle inequality. Hence

4 4
≥ R −R .
z + iz

z2 + z + 1 R2 + R + 1
On the other hand,
|z4 + iz| ≤ |z4 | + |iz| = |z|4 + |i||z| = R4 + R
and
√ ! √ !
−1 + 3i −1 − 3i
|z2 + z + 1| = z − z−

2 2

√ √
−1 + 3i −1 − 3i
= z − z −

2 2

−1 + √3i −1 − √3i
! !
≥ |z| − |z| −

2 2

= (R − 1)(R − 1) = (R − 1)2
Therefore,
4 4
z + iz
≤ R +R .
z2 + z + 1 (R − 1)2
5. Show that
| Log(z)| ≤ |ln |z|| + π (1.1)
for all z 6= 0.
Proof. Since Log(z) = ln |z| + i Arg(z) for −π < Arg(z) ≤ π,
| Log(z)| = | ln |z| + i Arg(z)| ≤ |ln |z|| + |i Arg(z)| ≤ |ln |z|| + π.
1.3 Exponential and Polar Form, Complex roots

1. Express the following in the form x + iy, with x, y ∈ R:
i 1−i
(a) + ;
1−i i
(b) all the 3rd roots of −8i;
i + 1 1337

(c) √
2
Solution. (a)
i 1−i i2 + (1 − i)2
+ =
1−i i (1 − i)i
−1 − 2i 1 − i
= ·
1+i 1−i
−1 + i − 2i − 2
=
2
−3 − i 3 i
= =− −
2 2 2
(b) We have that

−iπ
3
−8i = 2 exp
2
Thus the cube roots are

−iπ iπ 7iπ
2 exp , 2 exp and 2 exp .
6 2 6
That is √ √
3 − i, 2i, − 3−i
(c)
1337
iπ 1337

i+1
√ = exp
2 4
1337πi
= exp
4 π
= exp 167 · 2πi + i
4
π 1+i
= exp i = √ .
4 2

2. Find the principal argument and exponential form of

i
(a) z = ;
√1+i
(b) z = 3 + i;
(c) z = 2 − i.
Answer: √
(a) Arg(z) = π/4 and z = ( 2/2) exp(πi/4).
(b) Arg(z) = π/6 and z = 2 exp(πi/6).
√
(c) Arg(z) = − tan−1 (1/2) and z = 5 exp(− tan−1 (1/2)i).
3. Find all the complex roots of the equations:

(a) z6 = −9;
(b) z2 + 2z + (1 − i) = 0.
Solution. (a) The roots are

√ √ 6
√
3
z = 6 −9 = 9eπi = 3eπi/6 e2mπi/6 (m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
√ √ √ √
35/6 3
3 √3 35/6 3
3 35/6 3
3 √
3 35/6 3
3
= + i, 3i, − + i, − − i, − 3i, − i.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(b) The roots are
√
p
−2 +
4 − 4(1 − i)
z= = −1 + i
p 2
= −1 + eπi/2 = −1 + eπi/4 e2mπi/2 (m = 0, 1)
√ ! √ √ ! √
2 2 2 2
= −1 + + i, −1 − − i.
2 2 2 2
4. Find the four roots of the polynomial z4 + 16 and use these to factor z4 + 16 into two
quadratic polynomials with real coefficients.
Solution. The four roots of z4 + 16 are given by

√ √4
√4
4
−16 = 16eπi = 16eπi/4 e2mπi/4
= 2eπi/4 , 2e3πi/4 , 2e5πi/4 , 2e7πi/4
for m = 0, 1, 2, 3. We see that these roots appear in conjugate pairs:
2eπi/4 = 2e7πi/4 and 2e3πi/4 = 2e5πi/4 .

This gives the way to factor z4 + 16 into two quadratic polynomials of real coeffi-
cients:
z4 + 16 = (z − 2eπi/4 )(z − 2e3πi/4 )(z − 2e5πi/4 )(z − 2e7πi/4 )

= (z − 2eπi/4 )(z − 2e7πi/4 ) (z − 2e3πi/4 )(z − 2e5πi/4 )
= (z2 − 2 Re(2eπi/4 )z + 4)(z2 − 2 Re(2e3πi/4 )z + 4)
√ √
= (z2 − 2 2z + 4)(z2 + 2 2z + 4)

5. Do the following:
(a) Use exponential
√ 2011form to compute
i. (1 + √3i) ;
ii. (1 + 3i)−2011 .
(b) Prove that
1005
2011
∑ 2m (−3)m = 22010
m=0
and
1005
2011
∑ (−3)m = 22010 .
m=0 2m + 1
Solution. Since
√ !
√

1 3 πi
1 + 3i = 2 + i = 2 exp ,
2 2 3
we have
√ 2011

2011 2011πi 2011 2011πi
(1 + 3i) =2 exp =2 exp
3 3

πi
= 22011 exp 670πi +
3
√ !
πi 1 3
= 22011 exp = 22011 + i
3 2 2
√
= 22010 (1 + 3i).
Similarly,
√ √
(1 + 3i)−2011 = 2−2013 (1 − 3i).
By Problem 7 in section 1.1, we have

√ √
22010 (1 + 3i) = (1 + 3i)2011
1005 1005 √

2011 m 2011
= ∑ (−3) + i ∑ (−3)m 3.
m=0 2m m=0 2m + 1
It follows that
1005 1005
2011 2011
∑ 2m (−3) = ∑ 2m + 1 (−3)m = 22010.
m
m=0 m=0
6. Establish the identity
1 − zn+1
1 + z + z2 + · · · + zn = (z 6= 1)
1−z
and then use it to derive Lagrange’s trigonometric identity:
(2n+1)θ
1 sin 2
1 + cos θ + cos 2θ · · · + cos nθ = + (0 < θ < 2π).
2 2 sin θ2
Hint: As for the first identity, write S = 1 + z + z2 + · · · + zn and consider the

difference S − zS. To derive the second identity, write z = eiθ in the first one.
Proof. If S = 1 + z + z2 + · · · + zn , then
S − zS = (1 + z + z2 + · · · + zn )(z + z2 + · · · + zn+1 ) = 1 − zn+1
Thus
1 − zn+1
S= ,
1−z
with z 6= 1. That is,
1 − zn+1
1 + z + z2 + · · · + zn = z 6= 1
1−z
Putting z = eiθ with 0 < θ < 2π in this identity, we obtain
iθ 2iθ inθ 1 − ei(n+1)θ

1+e +e +···+e = .
1 − eiθ
Now the real part of the left-hand side here is evidently
1 + cos θ + cos 2θ + · · · + cos nθ ;
and, in order to find the real part of the right-hand side, we write that side in the form
h i
θ
(2n+1)θ
exp −i 2 − exp i 2
θ

1 − exp [i (n + 1) θ ] exp −i 2
· =
1 − exp (iθ )

exp −i θ2 exp −i θ2 − exp i θ2
which becomes

(2n+1)θ (2n+1)θ
cos θ2 − i sin θ
2 − cos 2 − i sin 2 i
·
−2i sin 2θ i
or
h i h i
θ
(2n+1)θ θ
(2n+1)θ
sin 2 + sin 2 + i cos 2 − cos 2
.
2 sin θ2
The real part of this is clearly

(2n+1)θ
1 sin 2
+ ,
2 2 sin θ2
and we arrive at the Lagrange’s trigonometric identity:
(2n+1)θ
1 sin 2
1 + cos θ + cos 2θ · · · + cos nθ = + (0 < θ < 2π).
2 2 sin θ2

7. Use complex numbers to prove the Law of Cosine: Let ∆ABC be a triangle with
|BC| = a, |CA| = b, |AB| = c and ∠BCA = θ . Then
a2 + b2 − 2ab cos θ = c2 .
Hint: Place C at the origin, B at z1 and A at z2 . Prove that
z1 z2 + z2 z1 = 2|z1 z2 | cos θ .
Proof. Following the hint, we let C = 0, B = z1 and A = z2 . Then a = |z1 |, b = |z2 |

and c = |z2 − z1 |. So
a2 + b2 − c2 = |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 − |z2 − z1 |2

= (z1 z1 + z2 z2 ) − (z2 − z1 )(z2 − z1 )
= (z1 z1 + z2 z2 ) − (z2 − z1 )(z2 − z1 )
= (z1 z1 + z2 z2 ) − (z1 z1 + z2 z2 − z1 z2 − z2 z1 )
= z1 z2 + z2 z1 .
Let z1 = r1 eiθ1 and z2 = r2 eiθ2 . Then
z1 z2 + z2 z1 = r1 eiθ1 r2 eiθ2 + r2 eiθ2 r1 eiθ1

= (r1 eiθ1 )(r2 e−iθ2 ) + (r2 eiθ2 )(r1 e−iθ1 )
= r1 r2 ei(θ1 −θ2 ) + r1 r2 ei(θ2 −θ1 )
= 2r1 r2 cos(θ1 − θ2 ) = 2|z1 ||z2 | cos θ = 2ab cos θ .
Therefore, we have
a2 + b2 − c2 = z1 z2 + z2 z1 = 2ab cos θ
and hence
a2 + b2 − 2ab cos θ = c2 .

2. Functions
2.1 Basic notions

1. Write the following functions f (z) in the forms f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) under Carte-
sian coordinates with u(x, y) = Re( f (z)) and v(x, y) = Im( f (z)):
(a) f (z) = z3 + z + 1
(b) f (z) = z3 − z;
1
(c) f (z) = ;
i−z
(d) f (z) = exp(z2 ).
Solution. (a)
f (z) = (x + iy)3 + (x + iy) + 1

= (x + iy)(x2 − y2 + 2ixy) + x + iy + 1
= x3 − xy2 + 2ix2 y + ix2 y − iy3 − 2xy2 + x + iy + 1
= x3 − 3xy2 + x + 1 + i(3x2 y − y3 + y).
(b)
f (z) = z3 − z = (x + yi)3 − (x + yi)

= (x3 + 3x2 yi − 3xy2 − y3 i) − (x + yi)
= (x3 − 3xy2 − x) + i(3x2 y − y3 − y),
20 Chapter 2. Functions
(c)
1 1
f (z) = =
i − z −x + (1 − y)i
−x − (1 − y)i
= 2
x + (1 − y)2
x 1−y
=− 2 2
−i 2
x + (1 − y) x + (1 − y)2
(d)
f (z) = exp(z2 ) = exp((x + yi)2 )
= exp((x2 − y2 ) + 2xyi)
2 −y2
= ex (cos(2xy) + i sin(2xy))
x2 −y2 2 −y2
=e cos(2xy) − iex sin(2xy)

2. Suppose that f (z) = x2 − y2 − 2y + i(2x − 2xy), where z = x + iy. Use the expressions
z+z z−z
x= and y =
2 2i
to write f (z) in terms of z and simplify the result.
Solution. We have
f (z) = x2 − y2 − 2y + i(2x − 2xy)
= x2 − y2 + i2x − i2xy − 2y
= (x − iy)2 + i(2x + 2iy)
= z2 + 2iz.

3. Suppose p(z) is a polynomial with real coefficients. Prove that
(a) p(z) = p(z);
(b) p(z) = 0 if and only if p(z) = 0;
(c) the roots of p(z) = 0 appear in conjugate pairs, i.e., if z0 is a root of p(z) = 0,
so is z0 .
Proof. Let p(z) = a0 + a1 z + ... + an zn for a0 , a1 , ..., an ∈ R. Then

p(z) = a0 + a1 z + · · · + an zn
= a0 + a1 z + · · · + an zn
= a0 + (a1 )z + · · · + (an )zn
= a0 + a1 z + · · · + an zn = p(z).
If p(z) = 0, then p(z) = 0 and hence p(z) = p(z) = 0; on the other hand, if p(z) = 0,
then p(z) = p(z) = 0 and hence p(z) = 0.
By the above, p(z0 ) = 0 if and only if p(z0 ) = 0. Therefore, z0 is a root of p(z) = 0
if and only if z0 is.
4. Let
z
T (z) = .
z+1
Find the inverse image of the disk |z| < 1/2 under T and sketch it.
Solution. Let D = {|z| < 1/2}. The inverse image of D under T is
1
T −1 (D) = {z ∈ C : T (z) ∈ D} = {|T (z)| < }
2
z 1
= z : < = {2|z| < |z + 1|}.
z + 1 2
Let z = x + yi. Then
2|z| < |z + 1| ⇔ 4(x2 + y2 ) < (x + 1)2 + y2

⇔ 3x2 − 2x + 3y2 < 1
1 2

4
⇔ x− + y2 <
3 9

1 2
⇔ z − <
3 3
So

−1
1 2
T (D) = z : z − <

3 3
is the disk with centre at 1/3 and radius 2/3.
5. Sketch the following sets in the complex plane C and determine whether they are
open, closed, or neither; bounded; connected. Briefly state your reason.
(a) |z + 3| < 1;
(b) | Im(z)| ≥ 1;
(c) 1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2.
Solution. (a) Since {|z + 3| < 1} = {(x + 3)2 + y2 − 1 < 0} and f (x, y) = (x + 3)2 +
y2 − 1 is a continuous function on R2 , the set is open. It is not closed since the only
sets that are both open and closed in C are 0/ and C.
Since
|z| = |z + 3 − 3| ≤ |z + 3| + | − 3| = |z + 3| + 3 < 4
for all |z + 3| < 1, {|z + 3| < 1} ⊂ {|z| < 4} and hence it is bounded.
It is connected since it is a convex set.
Solution. (b) We have
{| Im(z)| ≥ 1} = {|y| ≥ 1} = {y ≥ 1} ∪ {y ≤ −1}.

Since f (x, y) = y is continuous on R2 , both {y ≥ 1} and {y ≤ −1} are closed and

hence {| Im(z)| ≥ 1} is closed. It is not open since the only sets that are both open
and closed in C are 0/ and C.
Since zn = n + 2i ∈ {| Im(z)| ≥ 1} for all n ∈ Z and
p
lim |zn | = lim n2 + 4 = ∞,
n→∞ n→∞
the set is unbounded.
The set is not connected. Otherwise, let p = 2i and q = −2i. There is a polygonal
path
p0 p1 ∪ p1 p2 ∪ ... ∪ pn−1 pn
with p0 = p, pn = q and pk ∈ {| Im(z)| ≥ 1} for all 0 ≤ k ≤ n.
Let 0 ≤ m ≤ n be the largest integer such that pm ∈ {y ≥ 1}. Then pm+1 ∈ {y ≤ −1}.
So Im(pm ) ≥ 1 > 0 and Im(pm+1 ) ≤ −1 < 0. It follows that there is a point p ∈
pm pm+1 such that Im(p) = 0. This is a contradiction since pm pm+1 ⊂ {| Im(z)| ≥ 1}
but p 6∈ {| Im(z)| ≥ 1}. Therefore the set is not connected.
Solution. (c) Since −2 ∈ {1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2} and {|z + 2| < r} 6⊂ {1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2}
for all r > 0, {1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2} is not open. Similarly, −1 is a point lying on its
complement
{1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2}c = {|z + 3| ≥ 2} ∪ {|z + 3| < 1}
and {|z + 1| < r} 6⊂ {1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2}c for all r > 0. Hence {1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2}c is not
open and {1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2} is not closed. In summary, {1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2} is neither
open nor closed.
Since
|z| = |z + 3 − 3| ≤ |z + 3| + | − 3| < 5
for all |z + 3| < 2, {1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2} ⊂ {|z| < 5} and hence it is bounded.
The set is connected. To see this, we let p1 = −3/2, p2 = −3 + 3i/2, p3 = −9/2
and p4 = −3 − 3i/2. All these points lie on the circle {|z + 3| = 3/2} and hence lie
in {1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2}.
It is easy to check that for every point p ∈ {1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2}, ppk ⊂ {1 ≤ |z + 3| < 2}
for at least one pk ∈ {p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 }. So the set is connected.
6. Show that
| sin z|2 = (sin x)2 + (sinh y)2
for all complex numbers z = x + yi.
Proof.
| sin(z)|2 = | sin(x + yi)|2 = | sin(x) cos(yi) + cos(x) sin(yi)|2
= | sin(x) cosh(y) − i cos(x) sinh(y)|2
= sin2 x cosh2 y + cos2 x sinh2 y
= sin2 x(1 + sinh2 y) + cos2 x sinh2 y
= sin2 x + (cos2 x + sin2 x) sinh2 y = (sin x)2 + (sinh y)2 .

7. Show that
| cos(z)|2 = (cos x)2 + (sinh y)2
for all z ∈ C, where x = Re(z) and y = Im(z).
Proof.
| cos(z)|2 = | cos(x + yi)|2 = | cos(x) cos(yi) − sin(x) sin(yi)|2

= | cos(x) cosh(y) − i sin(x) sinh(y)|2
= cos2 x cosh2 y + sin2 x sinh2 y
= cos2 x(1 + sinh2 y) + sin2 x sinh2 y
= cos2 x + (cos2 x + sin2 x) sinh2 y = (cos x)2 + (sinh y)2
8. Show that
tan z1 + tan z2
tan(z1 + z2 ) =
1 − (tan z1 )(tan z2 )
for all complex numbers z1 and z2 satisfying z1 , z2 , z1 + z2 6= nπ + π/2 for any integer
n.
Proof. Since
i(e−iz1 − eiz1 ) i(e−iz2 − eiz2 )

tan z1 + tan z2 = + iz
eiz1 + e−iz1 e 2 + e−iz2
(e−iz1 iz iz
− e )(e + e ) + (e
1 2 −iz2 −iz 2 − eiz2 )(eiz1 + e−iz1 )
=i
(eiz1 + e−iz1 )(eiz2 + e−iz2 )
ei(z1 +z2 ) − e−i(z1 +z2 )
= −2i
and
i(e−iz1 − eiz1 )
−iz
i(e 2 − eiz2 )

1 − (tan z1 )(tan z2 ) = 1 −
eiz1 + e−iz1 eiz2 + e−iz2
(e−iz1 + eiz1 )(e−iz2 + eiz2 ) + (e−iz1 − e−iz1 )(e−iz2 − eiz2 )
=
(e−iz1 + eiz1 )(e−iz2 + eiz2 )
ei(z1 +z2 ) + e−i(z1 +z2 )
=2 ,
we have
tan z1 + tan z2 ei(z1 +z2 ) − e−i(z1 +z2 )

= −i i(z +z ) = tan(z1 + z2 ).
1 − (tan z1 )(tan z2 ) e 1 2 + e−i(z1 +z2 )
Alternatively, we can argue as follows if we assume that the identity holds for z1 and
z2 real. Let
tan z1 + tan z2
F(z1 , z2 ) = tan(z1 + z2 ) − .
1 − (tan z1 )(tan z2 )
We assume that F(z1 , z2 ) = 0 for all z1 , z2 ∈ R with z1 , z2 , z1 + z2 6= nπ + π/2.
Fixing z1 ∈ R, we let f (z) = F(z1 , z). Then f (z) is analytic in its domain
C\({nπ + π/2} ∪ {nπ + π/2 − z1 }).
And we know that f (z) = 0 for z real. Therefore, by the uniqueness of analytic
functions, f (z) ≡ 0 in its domain. So F(z1 , z2 ) = 0 for all z1 ∈ R and z2 ∈ C in its
domain.
Fixing z2 ∈ C, we let g(z) = F(z, z2 ). Then g(z) is analytic in its domain
C\({nπ + π/2} ∪ {nπ + π/2 − z2 }).
And we have proved that g(z) = 0 for z real. Therefore, by the uniqueness of analytic
functions, g(z) ≡ 0 in its domain. Hence F(z1 , z2 ) = 0 for all z1 ∈ C and z2 ∈ C in
its domain.
9. Find all the complex roots of the equation cos z = 3.
Solution. Since cos z = (eiz + e−iz )/2, it comes down to solve the equation eiz +
e−iz = 6, i.e.,
w + w−1 = 6 ⇔ w2 − 6w + 1 = 0
√
if we let w = eiz . The roots of w2 − 6w + 1 = 0 are w = 3 ± 2 2. Therefore, the
solutions for cos z = 3 are
√ √ √
iz = log(3 ± 2 2) ⇔ z = −i(ln(3 ± 2 2) + 2nπi) = 2nπ − i ln(3 ± 2 2)
for n integers.
π
10. Calculate sin +i .
4
Solution.
π 1
sin + i = (ei(π/4+i) − e−i(π/4+i) )
4 2i
1
= (e−1 eπi/4 − ee−πi/4 )
2i
1 −1 π π π π
= e (cos + i sin ) − e(cos − i sin )
2i
√ 4 4 4 4
√
2 1 2 1
= e+ + e− i
4 e 4 e

π
11. Compute cos +i .
3
Solution.
π 1
cos + i = (ei(π/3+i) + e−i(π/3+i) )
3 2
1 −1 πi/3
= (e e + ee−πi/3 )
2
1 −1 π π π π
= e (cos + i sin ) + e(cos − i sin )
2 3 3 3 3
√
1 1 3i 1
= e+ − e−
4 e 4 e
12. Find ii and its principal value.
Solution. We have
ii = ei log i = ei(2nπi+πi/2) = e−2nπ−π/2
for n integers and its principal value given by
ii = ei Log i = ei(πi/2) = e−π/2 .
√
13. Let f (z) be the principal branch of 3 z.
(a) Find f (−i).
Solution.
√
1 1 πi πi 3 i
f (−i) = exp( Log(−i)) = exp( (− )) = exp(− ) = −
3 3 2 6 2 2

(b) Show that
f (z1 ) f (z2 ) = λ f (z1 z2 )

√ √
−1 + 3i −1 − 3i
for all z1 , z2 6= 0, where λ = 1, or .
2 2
Proof. Since
f (z1 ) f (z2 ) 1 1 1
= exp( Log z1 + Log z2 − Log(z1 z2 ))
f (z1 z2 ) 3 3 3
1
= exp( (Log z1 + Log z2 − Log(z1 z2 )))
3
i 2nπi
= exp( (Arg z1 + Arg z2 − Arg(z1 z2 ))) = exp( )
3 3
for some integer n, λ = exp(2nπi/3). Therefore,

1 √
 if n = 3k
λ = −1+2 3i if n = 3k + 1
 −1−√3i

2 if n = 3k + 2
where k ∈ Z.
14. Let f (z) be the principal branch of z−i .

(a) Find f (i).
Solution.
f (i) = i−i = exp(−i Log(i)) = exp(−i(πi/2)) = eπ/2 .

(b) Show that
f (z1 ) f (z2 ) = λ f (z1 z2 )
for all z1 , z2 6= 0, where λ = 1, e2π or e−2π .
Proof. Since
f (z1 ) f (z2 )
= exp(−i Log z1 − i Log z2 + i Log(z1 z2 ))
f (z1 z2 )
= exp(−i(Log z1 + Log z2 − Log(z1 z2 )))
= exp(−i(i Arg z1 + i Arg z2 − i Arg(z1 z2 )))
= exp(Arg z1 + Arg z2 − Arg(z1 z2 ))
= exp(2nπ)
for some integer n, λ = exp(2nπ). And since
−π < Arg(z1 ) ≤ π, −π < Arg(z2 ) ≤ π
and
−π < Arg(z1 z2 ) ≤ π,
we conclude that
−3π < Arg z1 + Arg z2 − Arg(z1 z2 ) < 3π
and hence −3 < 2n < 3. So n = −1, 0 or 1 and λ = e−2π , 1 or e2π .
2.2 Limits, Continuity and Differentiation

1. Compute the following limits if they exist:
iz3 + 1
(a) lim 2 ;
z→−i z + 1
4 + z2
(b) lim .
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Im(z)
(c) lim .
z→0 z
Solution. (a)
iz3 + 1 i(z3 + i3 )
lim = lim
z→−i z2 + 1 z→−i z2 + 1
i(z + i)(z2 − iz + i2 )
= lim
z→−i (z + i)(z − i)
i(z − iz + i2 )
2
= lim
z→−i z−i
limz→−i (z2 − iz + i2 )
=i
limz→−i (z − i)
limz→−i z2 − i limz→−i z + limz→−i i2
=i
limz→−i z − limz→−i i
i((−i) − i(−i) + i2 ) 3
2
= =
−i − i 2
(b)
4 + z2 4 + z−2
lim = lim
z→∞ (z − 1)2 z→0 (z−1 − 1)2
4z2 + 1 limz→0 (4z2 + 1)
= lim =
z→0 (1 − z)2 limz→0 (1 − z)2
4(limz→0 z)2 + limz→0 1
= =1
(limz→0 1 − limz→0 z)2
(c) Since
Im(z) y
lim = lim = −i
Re(z)=0,z→0 z y→0 yi
and
Im(z) 0
lim = lim = 0
Im(z)=0,z→0 z x→0 x
the limit does not exist.

2. Show the following limits:

4z5
(a) lim 5 = 4;
z→∞ z − 42z
z4
(b) lim 2 = ∞;
z→∞ z + 42z
(az + b)3 a3
(c) lim = 3 , if c 6= 0.
z→∞ (cz + d)3 c
Solution. (a)
1 5

4z5 4 z 4
lim 5 = lim = lim = 4.
z→∞ z − 42z 1 5 1 z→0 1 − 42z4
z→0

z − 42 z
(b) Notice that

−1
z4 1/z4

lim 2 ⇐⇒ lim
z→∞ z + 42z z→0 1/z2 + 42/z
−1
1
⇐⇒ lim
z→0 z2 + 42z3
lim z2 + 42z3 = 0.

⇐⇒
z→0
z4
Therefore, lim = ∞.
z→∞ z2 + 42z
(c)
(az + b)3 (a/z + b)3 (a + bz)3 a3
lim = lim = lim = 3.
z→∞ (cz + d)3 z→0 (c/z + d)3 z→0 (c + dz)3 c

3. Show that lim z/z does not exist.

z→0
Hint: Consider what happens to the function at points of the form x + 0i for x → 0,
x 6= 0, and then at points of the form 0 + yi for y → 0, y 6= 0.
Proof. For z = x + 0i, x 6= 0,

z x
= =1→1 as x → 0.
z x
On the other hand, for z = 0 + yi, y 6= 0,
z yi
= = −1 → −1 as y → 0.
z −yi
However, lim z/z must be independent of direction of approach. Hence limit does
z→0
not exist.
4. Show that if f (z) is continuous at z0 , so is | f (z)|.
Proof. Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). Since f (z) is continuous at z0 = x0 + y0 i, u(x, y)
and v(x, y) are continuous at (x0 , y0 ). Therefore,
(u(x, y))2 + (v(x, y))2
is continuous at (x0 , y0 ) since the sums and products of continuous functions are
continuous. It follows that
q
| f (z)| = (u(x, y))2 + (v(x, y))2
is continuous at z0 since the compositions of continuous functions are continuous.

5. Let (
z3 /z2 if z 6= 0
f (z) =
0 if z = 0
Show that
(a) f (z) is continuous everywhere on C;
(b) the complex derivative f 0 (0) does not exist.
Proof. Since both z3 and z2 are continuous on C∗ = C\{0} and z2 6= 0, f (z) = z3 /z2
is continuous on C∗ .
At z = 0, we have
3
z
lim | f (z)| = lim 2 = lim |z| = 0
z→0 z→0 z z→0
and hence limz→0 f (z) = 0 = f (0). So f is also continuous at 0 and hence continuous
everywhere on C.
The complex derivative f 0 (0), if exists, is given by
f (z) − f (0) z3
lim = lim 3 .
z→0 z−0 z→0 z
Let z = x + yi. If y = 0 and x → 0, then
z3 x3
lim = lim = 1.
z=x→0 z3 x→0 x3
On the other hand, if x = 0 and y → 0, then
z3 (−yi)3
lim = lim = −1.
z=yi→0 z3 x→0 (yi)3
So the limit limz→0 z3 /z3 and hence f 0 (0) do not exist.

6. Show that f (z) in problem 5 is actually nowhere differentiable, i.e., the complex
derivative f 0 (z) does not exist for any z ∈ C.
Proof. It suffices to show that C-R equations fail at every z 6= 0:

∂ z3

∂ ∂ ∂
+i f (z) = +i
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂ y z2
3
∂ z3

∂ z
= +i
∂ x z2 ∂ y z2
2
2z3 3iz2 2iz3

3z
= − 3 +i − 2 − 3
z2 z z z
6z2
= 2 6= 0
z
for z 6= 0.
7. Find f 0 (z) when

(a) f (z) = z2 − 4z + 2;
(b) f (z) = (1 − z2 )4 ;
z+1 1
(c) f (z) = (z 6= − );
2z + 1 2
(d) f (z) = e1/z (z 6= 0).
Answer. (a) 2z − 4; (b) −8(1 − z2 )3 z; (c) −1/(2z + 1)2 ; (d) −e1/z /z2 .
8. Prove the following version of complex L’Hospital: Let f (z) and g(z) be two
complex functions defined on |z − z0 | < r for some r > 0. Suppose that f (z0 ) =
g(z0 ) = 0, f (z) and g(z) are differentiable at z0 and g0 (z0 ) 6= 0. Then
f (z) f 0 (z0 )
lim = 0
z→z0 g(z) g (z0 )
[Refer to: problems 1c and 6 in section 3.1; and problem 9 in section 3.2]
Proof. Since f (z) and g(z) are differentiable at z0 , we have
f (z) − f (z0 )
lim = f 0 (z0 )
z→z0 z − z0
and
g(z) − g(z0 )
lim = g0 (z0 ).
z→z0 z − z0
And since g0 (z0 ) 6= 0,
f (z) − f (z0 ) limz→z0 ( f (z) − f (z0 ))/(z − z0 ) f 0 (z0 )
lim = = 0 .
z→z0 g(z) − g(z0 ) limz→z0 (g(z) − g(z0 ))/(z − z0 ) g (z0 )
Finally, since f (z0 ) = g(z0 ) = 0,
f (z) f 0 (z0 )
lim = 0 .
z→z0 g(z) g (z0 )

9. Show that if f (z) satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations at z0 , so does ( f (z))n for
every positive integer n.
Proof. Since f (z) satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations at z0 ,

∂ ∂
+i f (z) = 0
∂x ∂y
at z0 . Therefore,

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
+i ( f (z))n = ( f (z))n + i ( f (z))n
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂ ∂
= ( f (z))n−1 f (z) + i( f (z))n−1 f (z)
∂x ∂y

∂ ∂
= ( f (z))n−1 +i f (z) = 0
∂x ∂y
at z0 .
2.3 Analytic functions

1. Explain why the function f (z) = 2z2 − 3 − zez + e−z is entire.
Proof. Since every polynomial is entire, 2z2 − 3 is entire; since both −z and ez are
entire, their product −zez is entire; since ez and −z are entire, their composition e−z
is entire. Finally, f (z) is the sum of 2z3 − 3, −zez and e−z and hence entire.
2. Let f (z) be an analytic function on a connected open set D. If there are two constants
c1 and c2 ∈ C, not all zero, such that c1 f (z) + c2 f (z) = 0 for all z ∈ D, then f (z) is
a constant on D.
Proof. If c2 = 0, c1 6= 0 since c1 and c2 cannot be both zero. Then we have c1 f (z) =

0 and hence f (z) = 0 for all z ∈ D.
If c2 6= 0, f (z) = −(c1 /c2 ) f (z). And since f (z) is analytic in D, f (z) is anlaytic in
D. So both f (z) and f (z) are analytic in D. Therefore, both f (z) and f (z) satisfy
Cauchy-Riemann equations in D. Hence

∂ ∂
+i (u + vi) = 0
∂x ∂y
and

∂ ∂
+i (u − vi) = 0
∂x ∂y
in D, where f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) with u = Re( f ) and v = Im( f ). It follows that

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
+i u= +i v=0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
and hence ux = uy = vx = vy = 0 in D. Therefore, u and v are constants on D and
hence f (z) ≡ const.
3. Show that the function sin(z) is nowhere analytic on C.
Proof. Since

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
+i sin(z) = sin(z) + i sin(z)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
= cos(z) + i cos(z)
∂x ∂y
= cos(z) + i cos(z)(−i) = 2 cos(z)
sin(z) is not differentiable and hence not analytic at every point z satisfying cos(z) 6=
0. At every point z0 satisfying cos(z0 ) = 0, i.e., z0 = nπ + π/2, sin(z) is not differ-
entiable in |z − z0 | < r for all r > 0. Hence sin(z) is not analytic at z0 = nπ + π/2
either. In conclusion, sin(z) is nowhere analytic.
4. Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be an entire function satisfying u(x, y) ≤ x for all z =
x + yi. Show that f (z) is a polynomial of degree at most one.
Proof. Let g(z) = exp( f (z) − z). Then |g(z)| = exp(u(x, y) − x). Since u(x, y) ≤ x,
|g(z)| ≤ 1 for all z. And since g(z) is entire, g(z) must be constant by Louville’s
theorem. Therefore, g0 (z) ≡ 0. That is, ( f 0 (z) − 1) exp( f (z) − z) ≡ 0 and hence
f 0 (z) = 1 for all z. So f (z) ≡ z + c for some constant c.
5. Show that
3 −3xy2
| exp(z3 + i) + exp(−iz2 )| ≤ ex + e2xy
where x = Re(z) and y = Im(z).
Proof. Note that |ez | = eRe(z) . Therefore,
| exp(z3 + i) + exp(−iz2 )| ≤ | exp(z3 + i)| + | exp(−iz2 )|

= exp(Re(z3 + i)) + exp(Re(−iz2 ))
= exp(Re((x3 − 3xy2 ) + (3x2 y − y3 + 1)i))
+ exp(Re(2xy − (x2 − y2 )i))
3 −3xy2
= ex + e2xy .
6. Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be an entire function satisfying
v(x, y) ≥ x
for all z = x + yi, where u(x, y) = Re( f (z)) and v(x, y) = Im( f (z)). Show that f (z)
is a polynomial of degree 1.
Proof. Let g(z) = exp(i f (z) + z). Then
|g(z)| = | exp((−v(x, y) + iu(x, y)) + (x + iy))| = exp(x − v(x, y)).
Since v(x, y) ≤ x, x − v(x, y) ≤ 0 and |g(z)| ≤ 1 for all z. And since g(z) is entire,
g(z) must be constant by Louville’s theorem. Therefore, g0 (z) ≡ 0. That is, (i f 0 (z) +
1) exp(i f (z) + z) ≡ 0 and hence f 0 (z) = i for all z. So f (z) ≡ iz + c for some constant
c.
7. Show that the entire function cosh(z) takes every value in C infinitely many times.
Proof. For every w0 ∈ C, the quadratic equation y2 − 2w0 y + 1 = 0 has a complex

root y0 . We cannot have y0 = 0 since 02 − 2w0 · 0 + 1 6= 0. Therefore, y0 6= 0 and
there is z0 ∈ C such that ez0 = y0 . Then
ez0 + e−z0 y2 + 1 2w0 y0

cosh(z0 ) = = 0 = = w0 .
2 2y0 2y0
And since cosh(z + 2πi) = cosh(z), cosh(z0 + 2nπi) = w0 for all integers n. There-
fore, cosh(z) takes every value w0 infinitely many times.
8. Determine which of the following functions f (z) are entire and which are not? You
must justify your answer. Also find the complex derivative f 0 (z) of f (z) if f (z) is
entire. Here z = x + yi with x = Re(z) and y = Im(z).
1
(a) f (z) =
1 + |z|2
Solution. Since u(x, y) = Re( f (z)) = (1 + x2 + y2 )−1 and v(x, y) = 0, ux =
2x(1 + x2 + y2 )−2 6= 0 = vy . Hence the Cauchy-Riemann equations fail for f (z)
and f (z) is not entire.
z
(b) f (z) = 2(3 ) (here 2z and 3z are taken to be the principle values of 2z and 3z ,
respectively, by convention)
z
Solution. Let g(z) = 2z and h(z) = 23 . Since both g(z) and h(z) are entire,
f (z) = g(h(z)) is entire and
z
f 0 (z) = g0 (h(z))h0 (z) = 23 3z (ln 2)(ln 3)
by chain rule.
(c) f (z) = (x2 − y2 ) − 2xyi
Solution. Since

∂ ∂
+i f = (2x − 2yi) + i(−2y − 2xi) = 4x − 4yi 6= 0,
∂x ∂y
the Cauchy-Riemann equations fail for f (z) and hence f (z) is not entire.
(d) f (z) = (x2 − y2 ) + 2xyi

Solution. Since

∂ ∂
+i f = (2x − 2yi) + i(2y + 2xi) = 0,
∂x ∂y
the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold for f (z) everywhere. And since fx and fy
are continous, f (z) is analytic on C. And f 0 (z) = fx = 2x + 2yi = 2z.
9. Let CR denote the upper half of the circle |z| = R for some R > 1. Show that
iz

e 1
z2 + z + 1 ≤ (R − 1)2

for all z lying on CR .
Proof. For z ∈ CR , |z| = R and Im(z) ≥ 0. Let z = x + yi. Since y = Im(z) ≥ 0,
|eiz | = |ei(x+yi) | = |e−y+xi | = e−y ≤ 1
for z ∈ CR . And since

√ ! √ !
−1 + 3i −1 − 3i
|z2 + z + 1| = z − z−

2 2

√ √
−1 + 3i −1 − 3i
= z − z −

2 2

√
−1 + 3i
!
−1 − √3i
!
≥ |z| − |z| −

2 2

= (R − 1)(R − 1) = (R − 1)2 ,
we obtain
iz

e
≤ 1
z2 + z + 1 (R − 1)2
for z ∈ CR .
10. Let
(
z2 /|z| if z 6= 0
f (z) =
0 if z = 0
Show that f (z) is continuous everywhere but nowhere analytic on C.

Proof. Since both z and |z| are continuous on C, z2 /|z| is continuous on C∗ . There-
fore, f (z) is continuous on C∗ . To see that it is continuous at 0, we just have to show
that
z2
lim f (z) = lim = f (0) = 0.
z→0 z→0 |z|
This follows from

2
z |z|2
lim = lim = lim |z| = 0.
z→0 |z| z→0 |z| z→0
Therefore, f (z) is continuous everywhere on C.

To show that f (z) is nowhere analytic, it suffices to show that the Cauchy-Riemann
equations fail for f (z) on C∗ . This follows from
2
∂ ∂ z
+i
∂x ∂y |z|

2z xz 2
2iz yz2

= − +i − −
|z| |z|3 |z| |z|3
(4z − x − iy)z2 3z
= = 6= 0
|z|3 |z|
for z 6= 0. Consequently, f (z) is nowhere analytic.
11. Find where

i i+z
tan−1 (z) = Log
2 i−z
is analytic?
Solution. The branch locus of tan−1 (z) is

i+z w−1
z: = w ∈ (−∞, 0] = z : z = i , w ∈ (−∞, 0] .
i−z w+1
For w ∈ (−∞, 0],
w−1 2
= 1− ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ (1, ∞)
w+1 w+1
so tan−1 (z) is analytic in
C\ {z : Re(z) = 0, Im(z) ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)} .

2.3.1 Harmonic functions

1. Verify that the following functions u are harmonic, and in each case give a conjugate
harmonic function v (i.e. v such that u + iv is analytic).
(a) u(x, y) = 3x2 y + 2x2 − y3 − 2y2 ,
(b) y(x, y) = ln(x2 + y2 ).
Solution. (a) If u(x, y) = 3x2 y + 2x2 − y3 − 2y2 , then
ux = 6xy + 4x, uy = 3x2 − 3x2 − 4y

uxx = 6y + 4, uyy = −6y − 4
Thus
∆u = uxx + uyy = 6y + 4 + (−6y − 4) = 0.
Hence, u is harmonic.
The harmonic conjugate of u will satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations and have
continuos partials of all orders. By Cauchy-Riemann equations
ux = vy , vx = −uy ,
we have that vy = 6xy + 4x. Thus

Z
v= (6xy + 4x)dy = 3xy2 + 4xy + g(x).
Thus
vx = 3y2 + 4y + g0 (x)
Since vx = −uy ,
3y2 + 4y + g0 (x) = −3x2 + 3y2 + 4y

g0 (x) = −3x2
g(x) = −x3
Therefore, the harmonic conjugate is
v(x, y) = 3xy2 + 4xy − x3 .
(b) If u(x, y) = ln(x2 − y2 ), then

2x 2y
ux = , uy =
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
2(y2 − x2 ) 2(x2 − y2 )
uxx = , uyy =
(x2 + y2 )2 (x2 + y2 )2
Thus
2(y2 − x2 ) 2(x2 − y2 ) 2
∆u = uxx + uyy = + 2 x + y2 = 0.
x2 + y2 x + y2
Hence, u is harmonic.
Similarly to the previous part, by Cauchy-Riemann equations
ux = vy , vx = −uy ,
2x
we have that vy = . Thus
x2 + y2
2x y
Z
v= dy = 2 arctan + g(x)
x2 + y2 x
So we have
−2y
vx = + g0 (x)
x2 + y2
Since vx = −uy ,
−2y 0 −2y
+ g (x) =
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
0
g (x) = 0
g(x) = c c ∈ R
Hence the harmonic conjugate is

y
v(x, y) = 2 arctan
x
Notice that u is defined on C \ {0} and v is not defined if x = 0.
3. Complex Integrals
3.1 Contour integrals

1. Evaluate the following integrals:
Z 2 2
(a) t 2 + i dt;
Z1π/4
(b) e−2it dt;
Z0∞
(c) tezt dt when Re(z) < 0.
0
Solution.
(a)
Z 2 2 Z 2
2
t + i dt = (t 4 + 2it 2 + i2 )dt
1 1
2
t 5 2it 3 26 14
= + − t = + i
5 3 1 5 3
(b)
π/4
e−2it
Z π/4
−2it
e dt = −
0 2i 0
1+i 1 i
= = −
2i 2 2
40 Chapter 3. Complex Integrals
(c)
1 ∞
Z ∞ Z
tezt dt = td(ezt )
0 z 0
1
Z ∞
zt ∞ zt

= te 0 − e dt
z 0

1 zt 1 zt
= lim te − lim e − 1
z t→∞ z t→∞
1
= 2
z
where
lim tezt = lim ezt = 0
t→∞ t→∞
because
t 1
lim |tezt | = lim tet Re(z) = lim = − lim =0
t→∞ t→∞ t→∞ e−xt t→∞ xe−xt
by L’Hospital (see Problem 8 in section 2.2), and

1
lim |ezt | = lim et Re(z) = lim =0
t→∞ t→∞ t→∞ e−xt
as x = Re(z) < 0.
R
2. Find the contour integral γ zdz for
(a) γ is the triangle ABC oriented counterclockwise, where A = 0, B = 1 + i and
C = −2;
(b) γ is the circle |z − i| = 2 oriented counterclockwise.
Solution. (a)
Z Z Z Z
zdz = zdz + zdz + zdz
γ AB BC CA
Z 1
= t(1 + i)d(t(1 + i))
0
Z 1
+ (1 − t)(1 + i) − 2td((1 − t)(1 + i) − 2t)
0
Z 1
+ −2(1 − t)d(−2(1 − t))
0
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
= 2tdt + ((2i − 4) + 10t)dt + 4(t − 1)dt
0 0 0
= 1 + (2i − 4) + 5 − 2 = 2i
(b)
Z 2π Z 2π
i + 2eit d(i + 2eit ) = 2i(−i + 2e−it )eit dt = 8πi.
0 0

3.1 Contour integrals 41
3. Compute the following contour integral

Z
zdz,
L
where L is the boundary of the triangle ABC with A = 0, B = 1 and C = i, oriented

counter-clockwise.
Solution.
Z Z Z Z
zdz = zdz + zdz + zdz
L AB BC CA
Z 1 Z 1
= tdt + (1 − t) + tid((1 − t) + ti)
0 0
Z 1
+ (1 − t)id((1 − t)i)
0
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
= tdt + (−1 + i) ((1 − t) − ti)dt − (1 − t)dt = i
0 0 0
4. Evaluate the contour integral

Z
f (z)dz
C
using the parametric representations for C, where
z2 − 1
f (z) =
z
and the curve C is
(a) the semicircle z = 2eiθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π);
(b) the semicircle z = 2eiθ (π ≤ θ ≤ 2π);
(c) the circle z = 2eiθ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π).
Solution.
(a)
Z π 2iθ
4e − 1
Z π
f (z)dz = d(2eiθ ) = (2e2iθ − i)0 = −πi
C 0 2eiθ
(b)
Z 2π 2iθ
4e − 1
Z 2π
f (z)dz = d(2eiθ ) = (2e2iθ − i)π = −πi
C π 2eiθ
(c) Adding (a) and (b), we have −2πi.

5. Redo previous Problem 4 using an antiderivative of f (z).

Solution. For (a),
−2 !
z2
Z
f (z)dz = − lim Log(z) − Log(2)
C 2 2 z→−2
Im(z)>0
= −(ln 2 + πi − ln 2) = −πi.
For (b),
2 !
z2
Z
f (z)dz = − Log(2) − lim Log(z)
C 2 −2 z→−2
Im(z)<0
= −(ln 2 − (ln 2 − πi)) = −πi.
6. Let CR be the circle |z| = R (R > 1) oriented counterclockwise. Show that
Log(z2 )
Z
π + ln R
dz < 4π
C
R z2 R
and then
Log(z2 )
Z
lim dz = 0.
R→∞ CR z2
Proof. Using expression (1.1) in Problem 5, we have
| Log(z2 )| ≤ ln |z2 | + π = 2 ln R + π

for |z| = R > 1. Therefore,
Log(z2 )
Z
π + 2 ln R
dz ≤ 2πR
C
R z2 R2

π/2 + ln R π + ln R
= 4π < 4π .
R R
And since

π + ln R 1
lim 4π = 4π lim =0
R→∞ R R→∞ R
by L’Hospital (see Problem 8 in section 2.2),
Log(z2 )
Z
lim dz = 0.
R→∞ CR z2

7. Without evaluating the integral, show that

Z
dz 9π
C z2 + z + 1 ≤ 16

where C is the arc of the circle |z| = 3 from z = 3 to z = 3i lying in the first quadrant.
Proof. Since
|z2 + z + 1| ≥ |z2 | − |z| − 1 = |z|2 − |z| − 1 = 5
for |z| = 3,

1 1
z2 + z + 1 ≤ 5 .

Therefore,
Z
dz 6π 1 3π 9π
≤ = < .
C z2 + z + 1 4 5 10 16
3.2 Cauchy Integral Theorem and Cauchy Integral Formula

1. Let C be the boundary of the triangle with vertices at the points 0, 3i and −4 oriented
counterclockwise. Compute the contour integral
Z
(ez − z)dz.
C
z is closed and ez is entire.

R
Solution. By Cauchy Integral Theorem, C e dz = 0 since C
Therefore,
Z Z Z Z Z
z
(e − z)dz = − zdz = − zdz − zdz − zdz
C C p1 p2 p2 p3 p3 p1
Z 1 Z 1
=− (−3it)d(3it) − (−3i(1 − t) − 4t)d(3i(1 − t) − 4t)
0 0
Z 1
− (−4)(1 − t)d((−4)(1 − t))
0
9 7
= − − − 12i + 8 = −12i
2 2
where p1 = 0, p2 = 3i and p3 = −4.
2. Compute
Z 1
zi dz
−1
where the integrand denote the principal branch
zi = exp(i Log z)
of zi and where the path of integration is any continuous curve from z = −1 to z = 1
that, except for its starting and ending points, lies below the real axis.
Solution. Note that zi+1 /(i + 1) is an anti-derivative of zi outside the branch locus
(−∞, 0]. So
zi+1 zi+1
Z 1
i
z dz = − lim
−1 i + 1 1 Im(z)<0
z→−1 i + 1
1 exp((i + 1)(−πi))
= −
i+1 i+1
1 + eπ 1 + eπ
= = (1 − i)
i+1 2

3. Apply Cauchy Integral Theorem to show that
Z
f (z)dz = 0
C
when C is the unit circle |z| = 1, in either direction, and when
z3
(a) f (z) = 2 ;
z + 5z + 6
tan z
(b) f (z) = e ;
(c) f (z) = Log(z + 3i).
R
Solution. By Cauchy Integral Theorem, |z|=1 f (z)dz = 0 if f (z) is analytic on and
inside the circle |z| = 1. Hence it is enough to show that f (z) is analytic in {|z| ≤ 1}.
(a) f (z) is analytic in {z 6= −2, −3} and hence analytic in {|z| ≤ 1}.
(b) f (z) is analytic in {z : cos z = 0} = {z = nπ + π/2, n ∈ Z}. Since |nπ + π/2| >
1 for all integers n, f (z) is analytic in {|z| ≤ 1}.
(c) Log(z) is analytic in C\(−∞, 0] and hence Log(z + 3i) is analytic in C\{z :
z = x − 3i, x ∈ (−∞, 0]}. Since |x − 3i| > 1 for all x real, f (z) is analytic in
{|z| ≤ 1}.

4. Let C1 denote the positively oriented boundary of the curve given by |x| + |y| = 2
and C2 be the positively oriented circle |z| = 4. Apply Cauchy Integral Theorem to
show that
Z Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz
C1 C2
when
z+1
(a) f (z) = ;
z2 + 1
z+2
(b) f (z) = ;
sin(z/2)
sin(z)
(c) f (z) = 2 .
z + 6z + 5
R R
Solution. By Cauchy Integral Theorem, C1 f (z)dz = C2 f (z)dz if f (z) is analytic
on and between C1 and C2 . Hence it is enough to show that f (z) is analytic in
{|x| + |y| ≥ 2, |z| ≤ 4}.
(a) f (z) is analytic in {z 6= ±i}. Since ±i ∈ {|x| + |y| < 2}, f (z) is analytic in
{|x| + |y| ≥ 2, |z| ≤ 4}.
(b) f (z) is analytic in {z : sin(z/2) 6= 0} = {z 6= 2nπ : n ∈ Z}. Since 2nπ ∈ {|x| +
|y| < 2} for n = 0 and |2nπ| > 4 for n 6= 0 and n ∈ Z, f (z) is analytic in
{|x| + |y| ≥ 2, |z| ≤ 4}.
(c) f (z) is analytic in {z 6= −1, −5}. Since −1 ∈ {|x| + |y| < 2} for n = 0 and
| − 5| > 4, f (z) is analytic in {|x| + |y| ≥ 2, |z| ≤ 4}.

5. Let C denote the positively oriented boundary of the square whose sides lie along
Z x = ±2 and y = ±2. Evaluate each of these integrals
the lines
zdz
(a) ;
ZC z + 1
cosh z
(b) 2
dz;
ZC z + z
tan(z/2)
(c) dz.
C z − π/2
Solution. (a) By Cauchy Integral Formula,

zdz
Z
= 2πi(−1) = −2πi.
C z+1
(b) By Cauchy Integral Theorem,

cosh z cosh z cosh z
Z Z Z
2
dz = 2
dz + 2
dz
C z +z |z|=r z + z |z+1|=r z + z
for r = 1/2. By Cauchy Integral Formula,

cosh z cosh(z)
Z
2
dz = 2πi = 2πi
|z|=r z + z z + 1 z=0
and

cosh z cosh z
Z
2
dz = 2πi = −2πi cosh(−1).
|z+1|=r z + z z z=−1
Hence
cosh z
Z
2
dz = 2πi(1 − cosh(−1)).
C z +z
(c) Note that tan(z/2) is analytic in {z 6= (2n + 1)π : n ∈ Z} and hence analytic
inside C. Therefore,
tan(z/2)
Z
dz = 2πi tan(π/4) = 2πi
C z − π/2
by Cauchy Integral Formula.

6. Find the value of the integral g(z) around the circle |z − i| = 2 oriented counterclock-
wise when
1
(a) g(z) = 2 ;
z +4
1
(b) g(z) = 2 .
z(z + 4)
Solution. (a) Since −2i 6∈ {|z − i| ≤ 2} and 2i ∈ {|z − i| ≤ 2},
(z + 2i)−1
Z Z
π
g(z)dz = dz = 2πi(2i + 2i)−1 =
|z−i|=2 |z−i|=2 z − 2i 2
by Cauchy Integral Formula.
(b) By Cauchy Integral Theorem,
Z Z Z
g(z)dz = g(z)dz + g(z)dz
|z−i|=2 |z|=r |z−2i|=r
for r < 1/2. Since

1
Z
πi
g(z)dz = 2πi 2 =
|z|=r z + 4 z=0
2
and

1
Z πi
g(z)dz = 2πi =−
|z−2i|=r z(z + 2i) z=2i
4
by Cauchy Integral Formula,

Z
πi
g(z)dz =
|z−i|=2 4

7. Compute the integrals of the following functions along the curves C1 = {|z| = 1}
and C2 = {|z − 2| = 1}, both oriented counterclockwise:
1
(a) ;
2z − z2
sinh z
(b) .
(2z − z2 )2
Solution. (a)
dz (2 − z)−1
Z Z
2
= dz = 2πi(2 − 0)−1 = πi
|z|=1 2z − z |z|=1 z
(b)
sinh z (sinh z)(2 − z)−2

Z Z
2 2
dz = dz
|z|=1 (2z − z ) |z|=1 z2

−2 0
πi
= 2πi((sinh z)(2 − z) ) =
z=0 2
8. Show that if f is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and z0 is not on C,
then
f (m) (z) f (z)

Z Z
(n − 1)! n
dz = (m + n − 1)! m+n
dz
C (z − z0 ) C (z − z0 )
for all positive integers m and n.
Proof. If z0 lies outside C, then
f (m) (z) f (z)

Z Z
n
dz = m+n
dz = 0
C (z − z0 ) C (z − z0 )
by Cauchy Integral Theorem, since f (m) z/(z −z0 )n and f (z)/(z −z0 )m+n are analytic
on and inside C.
If z0 lies inside C, then
f (m) (z)
Z
(m) (n−1)
= f (m+n−1) (z0 )

(n − 1)! n
dz = ( f (z)) z=z
C (z − z0 ) 0
and
f (z)
Z
(m + n − 1)! m+n
dz = f (m+n−1) (z0 )
C (z − z 0 )
by Cauchy Integral Formula. Therefore,
f (m) (z) f (z)

Z Z
(n − 1)! n
dz = (m + n − 1)! m+n
dz.
C (z − z0 ) C (z − z0 )

9. Let f (z) be an entire function. Show that f (z) is a constant if | f (z)| ≤ ln(|z| + 1) for
all z ∈ C.
Proof. For every z0 ∈ C, we have

1 f (z)
Z
0
f (z0 ) = 2
dz
2πi |z−z0 |=R (z − z0 )
for all R > 0. Since

f (z) ln(|z| + 1) ln(R + |z0 | + 1)
(z − z0 )2 ≤ ≤

R2 R2
for |z − z0 | = R,

0
1 Z f (z) ln(R + |z0 |) + 1
| f (z0 )| = dz
2
≤ .
2πi |z−z 0 |=R (z − z 0 ) R
And since
ln(R + |z0 | + 1) 1
lim = lim = 0,
R→∞ R R→∞ R + |z0 | + 1
by L’Hospital (see Problem 8, section 2.2), we conclude that | f 0 (z0 )| = 0 and hence
f 0 (z0 ) = 0 for every z0 ∈ C. Therefore, f (z) is a constant.
10. Let CN be the boundary of the square
{|x| ≤ Nπ, |y| ≤ Nπ},
where N is a positive integer. Show that

dz
Z
lim =0
N→∞ CN z3 cos z
Proof. When z = x + yi ∈ CN , either x = ±Nπ or y = ±Nπ. When x = ±Nπ,
| cos z|2 = (cos x)2 + (sinh y)2 ≥ (cos x)2 = (cos(Nπ))2 = 1
When y = ±Nπ,
| cos z|2 = (cos x)2 + (sinh y)2 ≥ (sinh y)2 = (sinh(Nπ))2 > 1
Therefore, | cos z| ≥ 1 when z ∈ CN . We also have |z| ≥ Nπ when z ∈ CN . Therefore,

1 1
z3 cos z ≤ N 3 π 3

and
Z
dz 1 8Nπ 8
Z
C z3 cos z ≤ N 3 π 3 C |dz| = N 3 π 3 = N 2 π 2

N N
Since
8
lim =0
N→∞ N 2 π 2
we conclude
dz
Z
lim =0
N→∞ CN z3 cos z

11. Let CN be the boundary of the square

n π πo
|x| ≤ Nπ + , |y| ≤ Nπ +
2 2
oriented counterclockwise, where N is a positive integer. Show that
dz
Z
lim = 0.
N→∞ CN z2 sin z
[Refer to: problem 6 in section 4.3]
Proof. When z = x + yi ∈ CN , either x = ±(Nπ + π/2) or y = ±(Nπ + π/2). When

x = ±(Nπ + π/2),
| sin z|2 = (sin x)2 + (sinh y)2 ≥ (sin x)2 = (sin(Nπ + π/2))2 = 1
When y = ±(Nπ + π/2),
| sin z|2 = (sin x)2 + (sinh y)2 ≥ (sinh y)2

= (sinh(Nπ + π/2))2 ≥ (sinh(3π/2))2 > 1.
Therefore, | sin z| ≥ 1 when z ∈ CN . We also have |z| ≥ Nπ + π/2 when z ∈ CN .
Consequently,

1 1
z2 sin z ≤ (N + 1/2)2 π 2

and
Z
dz 1 8(N + 1/2)π 8
Z
C z2 sin z (N + 1/2)2 π 2 C |dz| = (N + 1/2)2 π 2 = (N + 1/2)π .
≤
N N
And since
8
lim =0
N→∞ (N + 1/2)π
we conclude
dz
Z
lim =0
N→∞ CN z2 sin z

12. Compute the contour integral

z2011
Z
2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1
dz,
Cz
where C is the circle |z| = 2 oriented counter-clockwise.
Solution. First, we show that all roots of
z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1 = 0
lie inside |z| < 2. Otherwise, suppose that
z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1 = 0
for some |z| ≥ 2. Then

1 1 1
1 + + 2 + 2011 = 0
z z z
and hence

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 = − − 2 − 2011 ≤ + 2 + 2011 .
z z z |z| |z| |z|
When |z| ≥ 2,
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 2 + 2011 ≤ + + 2011 < 1.
|z| |z| |z| 2 4 2
This is a contradiction. Therefore, all roots of
z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1 = 0
lie inside |z| < 2. It follows that
z2011 z2011
Z Z
2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1
dz = 2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1
dz
Cz |z|=R z
for all R > 2 by CIT.

We have
z2011 1 z2009 − z + 1
= 1 − + .
z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1 z z(z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1)
Since
z2009 − z + 1 R2009 + R + 1

≤
z(z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1) R(R2011 − R2010 − R2009 − 1)
for |z| = R,
z2009 − z + 1 2π(R2009 + R + 1)
Z

dz ≤
|z|=R z(z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1) R2011 − R2010 − R2009 − 1
and hence
z2009 − z + 1
Z
lim 2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1)
dz = 0.
R→∞ |z|=R z(z
And we have
dz
Z Z
dz = 0 and = 2πi.
|z|=R |z|=R z
Therefore,
z2011
Z
2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1
dz = −2πi.
Cz
13. Calculate
z2008
Z
2009 + z + 1
dz
Cz
where C is the circle |z| = 2 oriented counter-clockwise.
Solution. First, we prove that all zeroes of z2009 + z + 1 lie inside the circle |z| = 2.
Otherwise, z2009 + z + 1 = 0 for some |z| ≥ 2. Then
1 1
z2009 + z + 1 = 0 ⇒ 1 + + =0
z2008 z2009
On the other hand,

1 + 1 + 1 ≥ 1 − 1 − 1 ≥ 1 − 1 − 1 > 0

z 2008 z 2009 |z|2008 |z|2009 22008 22009
for |z| ≥ 2. Contradiction. So all zeroes of z2009 + z + 1 lie inside the circle |z| = 2
and hence z2008 /(z2009 + z + 1) is analytic in |z| ≥ 2. Therefore,
z2008 z2008
Z Z
2009 + z + 1
dz = 2009 + z + 1
dz
|z|=2 z |z|=R z
for all R > 2 by Cauchy Integral Theorem.

We observe that
z2008 1 z+1
− = − .
z2009 + z + 1 z z(z2009 + z + 1)
For |z| = R > 2,

z+1 R+1
z(z2009 + z + 1) ≤ R(R2009 − R − 1)

and hence
Z
z + 1 2π(R + 1)
|z|=R z2009 + z + 1 ≤ R2009 − R − 1 .
dz

It follows that
z+1
Z
lim dz = 0.
R→∞ |z|=R z2009 + z + 1
Therefore,
z2008 z2008
Z Z
2009 + z + 1
dz = lim 2009 + z + 1
dz
|z|=2 z R→∞ |z|=R z
dz
Z
= lim = 2πi.
R→∞ |z|=R z
14. Let C be the circle |z| = 1 oriented counter-clockwise.

(a) Compute
1
Z
dz
C z2 − 8z + 1
(b) Use or not use part (a) to compute
1
Z π
dθ
0 4 − cos θ
Solution. The function

1 1
2
= √ √
z − 8z + 1 (z − 4 − 15)(z − 4 + 15)
√
has a singularity in |z| < 1 at z = 4 − 15. Therefore,
1 1
Z
dz = 2πi lim√ √ √
C z2 − 8z + 1 z=4− 15 (z − 4 − 15)(z − 4 + 15)

1 πi
= 2πi √
√ =−
√
z − 4 − 15 z=4− 15
15
That is,
1 deiθ
Z Z π
2
dz = 2iθ − 8eiθ + 1
C z − 8z + 1 −π e
eiθ
Z π
=i 2iθ − 8eiθ + 1
dθ
−π e
1
Z π
=i iθ −iθ − 8
dθ
−π e + e
i π 1
Z
=− dθ
2 −π 4 − cos θ
1
Z π
= −i dθ
0 4 − cos θ
Therefore,
1
Z π
π
dθ = √
0 4 − cos θ 15

15. Compute the integral

dx
Z π
.
−π 2 − (cos x + sin x)
Solution. Let z = eix . Then dz = ieix dx, dx = −idz/z and hence

dx dx
Z π Z π
=
−π 2 − (cos x + sin x) −π 2 − (eix + e−ix )/2 − (eix − e−ix )/(2i)
−idz
Z
=
|z|=1 2z − (z2 + 1)/2 − (z2 − 1)/(2i)
dz
Z
= (i − 1)
|z|=1 z2 − 2(1 + i)z + i
dz
Z
= (i − 1)
|z|=1 (z − z1 )(z − z2 )
2πi(i − 1) √
= = 2π
z2 − z1
√ √ √ √
where z1 = (1 + 2/2) + (1 + 2/2)i and z2 = (1 − 2/2) + (1 − 2/2)i.

16. Let f (z) be an entire function satisfying

| f (z1 + z2 )| ≤ | f (z1 )| + | f (z2 )|
for all complex numbers z1 and z2 . Show that f (z) is a polynomial of degree at most
1.
Proof. We have
n n
∑ f (zk ) = f (z1) + f (z2) + ∑ f (zk )
k=1 k=3
n
= f (z1 + z2 ) + ∑ f (zk )
k=3
n
= f (z1 + z2 ) + f (z3 ) + ∑ f (zk )
k=4
n
= f (z1 + z2 + z3 ) + ∑ f (zk )
k=4
!
n
= . . . = f (z1 + z2 + . . . + zn ) = f ∑ xk .
k=1
Therefore,
!
n n
∑ f (zk ) = f (z1) + f (z2) + . . . + f (zn) = f (z1 + z2 + . . . + zn) = f ∑ xk
k=1 k=1
for all complex numbers z1 , z2 , . . . , zn . Particularly, this holds for z1 = z2 = . . . =

zn = z/n:
z
nf = f (z)
n
for all z ∈ C and all positive integer n. Let M be the maximum of | f (z)| for |z| = 1.
Then
z
| f (z)| = n f ≤ nM

n
for all z satisfying |z| = n.
By Cauchy Integral Formula,
1 f (z)
Z
00
f (z0 ) = 3
dz
πi |z|=n (z − z0 )
for |z0 | < n. Since

f (z) | f (z)| nM
(z − z0 )3 = |z − z0 |3 ≤ (n − |z0 |)3

for |z| = n and |z0 | < n,

2
Z
1 f (z) ≤ 2n M .

dz
πi |z|=n (z − z0 )3 (n − |z0 |)3
And since
2n2 M 2M/n
lim 3
= lim = 0,
n→∞ (n − |z0 |) n→∞ (1 − |z0 |/n)3
we conclude that f 00 (z0 ) = 0 for all z0 . Therefore, f 0 (z) ≡ a is a constant and

f (z) = az + b is a polynomial of degree at most 1.
17. Let f (z) be an entire function satisfying that | f (z)| ≤ |z|2 for all z. Show that
f (z) ≡ az2 for some constant a satisfying |a| ≤ 1.
Proof. For every z0 ∈ C, we have

3! f (z)
Z
000
f (z0 ) = 4
dz
2πi |z−z0 |=R (z − z0 )
for all R > 0. Since

f (z) |z|2 (R + |z0 |)2

(z − z0 )4 ≤ R4 ≤

R4
for |z − z0 | = R,
6(R + |z0 |)2

000
3! Z f (z)
| f (z0 )| = dz
4
≤ .
2πi |z−z 0 |=R (z − z0 ) R3
And since
6(R + |z0 |)2 |z0 | 2

6
lim = lim 1+ = 0,
R→∞ R3 R→∞ R R
we conclude that | f 000 (z0 )| = 0 and hence f 000 (z0 ) = 0 for every z0 ∈ C. Therefore,
f 000 (z) ≡ 0, f 00 (z) ≡ 2a, f 0 (z) ≡ 2az + b and f (z) ≡ az2 + bz + c for some constants
a, b and c.
Since | f (z)| ≤ |z|2 , |az2 + bz + c| ≤ |z|2 for all z. Take z = 0 and we obtain |c| ≤ 0.
Hence c = 0. Therefore, |az2 + bz| ≤ |z|2 and hence |az + b| ≤ |z| for all z. Take
z = 0 again and we obtain |b| ≤ 0. Hence b = 0. So |az2 | ≤ |z|2 and hence |a| ≤ 1.
In conclusion, f (z) = az2 with a satisfying |a| ≤ 1.
18. Let f (z) be a complex polynomial of degree at least 2 and R be a positive number
such that f (z) 6= 0 for all |z| ≥ R. Show that
dz
Z
= 0.
|z|=R f (z)
[Refer to: problem 5 in section 4.3]
Proof. Let f (z) = a0 + a1 z + · · · + an zn , where an 6= 0 and n = deg f . Since f (z) 6= 0
for |z| ≥ R, 1/ f (z) is analytic in |z| ≥ R. Hence
dz dz
Z Z
=
|z|=R f (z) |z|=r f (z)
for all r ≥ R by Cauchy Integral Theorem.
Since
| f (z)| ≥ |an ||z|n − |an−1 ||z|n−1 − · · · − |a0 |
we have

1 1
f (z) ≤ |an |rn − |an−1 |rn−1 − · · · − |a0 |

for |z| = r sufficiently large. It follows that

Z
dz 2πr
|z|=r f (z) ≤ |an |rn − |an−1 |rn−1 − · · · − |a0 |

And since n ≥ 2,
2πr
lim
r→∞ |an |r n − |an−1 |r n−1 − · · · − |a0 |
2π
= lim n−1
=0
r→∞ n|an |r − (n − 1)|an−1 |rn−1 − · · · − |a1 |
by L’Hospital. Hence
dz dz
Z Z
= lim = 0.
|z|=R f (z) r→∞ |z|=r f (z)

3.3 Improper integrals

xdx
Z ∞
.
0 x3 + 1
Solution. Consider the contour integral of z/(z3 + 1) along LR = [0, R], CR = {z =

Reit : 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π/3} and MR = {te2πi/3 : 0 ≤ t ≤ R}. By Cauchy Integral Formula,
zdz zdz zdz zdz
Z Z Z Z
3
+ 3
− 3
=
LR z + 1 CR z + 1 MR z + 1 |z−eπi/3 |=1/2 z3 + 1
zdz 2πi exp(πi/3)
Z
=
|z−eπi/3 |=1/2 z3 + 1 (exp(πi/3) + 1)(exp(πi/3) − exp(−πi/3))
2π exp(πi/3)
= √ .
(exp(πi/3) + 1) 3
For z lying on CR ,

z R
z3 + 1 ≤ R3 − 1

and hence
Z
zdz 2πR
C z3 + 1 ≤ 3(R3 − 1)

R
It follows that
zdz
Z
lim =0
R→∞ CR z3 + 1
And
Z R
zdz xdx
Z
3
= exp(4πi/3)
MR z + 1 0 x3 + 1
Therefore, we have
xdx 2π exp(πi/3)
Z ∞
(1 − exp(4πi/3)) = √
0 x3 + 1 (exp(πi/3) + 1) 3
and hence
xdx 2π
Z ∞
= √ .
0 x3 + 1 3 3

3.3 Improper integrals 57

cos x
Z ∞
dx.
0 x4 + 1
Solution. Since cos x/(x4 + 1) is even,

cos x 1 cos x
Z ∞ Z ∞
dx = dx.
0 x4 + 1 2 −∞ x4 + 1
Actually, we have
cos x 1 eix
Z ∞ Z ∞
4
dx = 4
dx
0 x +1 2 −∞ x + 1
since eix = cos x + i sin x.

Consider the contour integral of eiz /(z4 + 1) along the path LR = [−R, R] and CR =
{|z| = R, Im(z) ≥ 0}, oriented counterclockwise. By Cauchy Integral Theorem, we
have
eiz eiz
Z Z
4
dz + 4
dz
LR z + 1 CR z + 1
eiz eiz
Z Z
= 4
dz + 4
dz
|z−eπi/4 |=1/2 z + 1 |z−e3πi/4 |=1/2 z + 1

√ √
eiz 2πiei( 2+i 2)/2
Z
dz =
4
|z−eπi/4 |=1/2 z + 1 (eπi/4 − e3πi/4 )(eπi/4 − e−πi/4 )(eπi/4 − e−3πi/4 )
√ √
π(1 − i) exp((− 2 + i 2)/2)
= √
2 2
and similarly,
√ √
eiz π(1 + i) exp((− 2 − i 2)/2)
Z
4
dz = √
|z−e3πi/4 |=1/2 z + 1 2 2
Therefore,
√
Z
eiz
Z
eiz πe− 2/2 √ √
4
dz + 4
dz = √ (cos( 2/2) + sin( 2/2)).
LR z + 1 CR z + 1 2
For z lying on CR , y = Im(z) ≥ 0 and hence |eiz | = e−y ≤ 1. Hence
iz
e 1
z4 + 1 ≤ R4 − 1

and it follows that

eiz
Z
πR
C z4 + 1 ≤ R4 − 1
dz

R
Since
πR
lim = 0,
R→∞ R4 − 1
we conclude that
eiz
Z
lim 4
dz = 0.
R→∞ CR z + 1
Therefore,
cos x 1 ∞ eix
Z ∞ Z
dx = dx
0 x4 + 1 2 −∞ x4 + 1
1 eiz
Z
= lim dz
2 R→∞ LR z4 + 1
√ √ ! √ !!
πe− 2/2 2 2
= √ cos + sin .
2 2 2 2

4. Series
4.1 Taylor and Laurent series

1. Find the Taylor series of the following functions and their radii of convergence:
(a) z sinh(z2 ) at z = 0;
(b) ez at z = 2;
z2 + z
(c) at z = −1.
(1 − z)2
Solution. (a) Since ez = ∑∞ n

n=0 z /n!,
2 2
!
2 ez − e−z
z sinh(z ) = z
2
!
z ∞
z2n ∞
z2n
=
2 ∑ n! − ∑ (−1)n n!
n=0 n=0
∞
1 − (−1)n z2n+1
= ∑ 2
n=0 n!
∞
z4m+3
= ∑
m=0 (2m + 1)!
where we observe that (1 − (−1)n )/2 = 0 if n = 2m is even and 1 if n = 2m + 1

is odd. Since f (z) is entire, the radius of convergence is ∞.
60 Chapter 4. Series
(b) Let w = z − 2. Then z = w + 2 and

∞ 2
∞
wn e (z − 2)n
ez = ew+2 = e2 ew = e2 ∑ = ∑ n! .
n=0 n! n=0
Since f (z) is entire, the radius of convergence is ∞.
(c) Let w = z + 1. Then
z2 + z w2 − w 3 2
= = 1 − + .
(1 − z)2 (2 − w)2 2 − w (2 − w)2
We have
3 3 1 3 ∞ wn ∞
3wn
− =− = − ∑ n = − ∑ n+1
2−w 2 1 − (w/2) 2 n=0 2 n=0 2
and
0 0
2 2 1
= =
(2 − w)2 2−w 1 − (w/2)
!0
∞
wn nwn−1
∞
= ∑ 2n = ∑ n
n=0 n=0 2
∞
(n + 1)wn
= ∑ 2n+1 .
n=0
Therefore,
z2 + z ∞
3wn ∞
(n + 1)wn
= 1 − ∑ n+1 ∑ 2n+1 .
+
(1 − z)2 n=0 2 n=0
∞
(n − 2)(z + 1)n
= ∑ .
n=1 2n+1
Since f (z) is analytic in |z + 1| < 2 and has a singularity at z = 1, the radius of
convergence is 2.

2. Find the Taylor series of (cos z)2 at z = π.
Solution. Let w = z − π. Then

(cos z)2 = (cos(z + π))2 = (cos w)2
2
e + e−iw
iw
1
= = (e2iw + e−2iw + 2)
2 4
1 ∞ n
(2i) wn 1 ∞ (−2i)n wn 1
= ∑ + ∑ +
4 n=0 n! 4 n=0 n! 2
1 1 ∞ (2i)2n w2n 1 ∞
(−1)n 22n−1 w2n
= + ∑ = +∑
2 2 n=0 (2n)! 2 n=0 (2n)!
∞
(−1)n 22n−1 w2n ∞
(−1)n 22n−1 (z − π)2n
= 1+ ∑ = 1+ ∑
n=1 (2n)! n=1 (2n)!

3. Let f (z) be a function analytic at 0 and g(z) = f (z2 ). Show that g(2n−1) (0) = 0 for
all positive integers n.
(z) = ∑∞ n
Proof. Since f (z) is analytic at 0, f√ n=0 an z in some disk |z| < r. Therefore,
g(z) = f (z2 ) = ∑∞ 2n
n=0 an z in |z| < r and hence
∞
g(m) (0) m ∞
∑ m! z = ∑ anz2n
m=0 n=0
And since the power series representation of an analytic function is unique, we must
have g(m) (0) = 0 for m is odd, i.e., m = 2n − 1 for all positive integers n.
1
4. Find a power-series expansion of the function f (z) = about the point 4i, and
3−z
calculate the radius of convergence.
Solution. Notice that

1 1
=
3−z (3 − 4iz) − (z − 4i)
1 1
= ·
3 − 4i z − 4i
1−
3 − 4i
z − 4i n
∞

1 z − 4i
= ∑ 3 − 4i for 3 − 4i < 1

3 − 4i n=0
That is, for |z − 4i| < |3 − 4i| < 5. Thus

1 ∞
(z − 4i)n
= ∑ n+1
3−z n=0 (3 − 4i)
with radius of convergence 5.
5. Find a Laurent-series expansion of the function f (z) = z−1 sinh(z−1 ) about the point
0, and classify the singularity at 0.
Solution. For g(z) = sinh z we know that
(
(n) sinh z, when n is even;
g (z) =
cosh z, when n is odd
Thus
(
sinh(0) = 0, when n is even;
g(n) (0) =
cosh(0) = 1, when n is odd
In this case, the Maclaurin series for g(z) = sinh z is:
z3 z5
z+ + +···
3! 5!
The Laurent series for g(z−1 ) = sinh z−1 is:

1 1 1
+ 3 + 5 +···
z 3!z 5!z
Thus Laurent series for f (z) = z−1 g(z−1 ) = z−1 sinh z−1 is
1 1 1
2
+ 4 + 6 +···
z 3!z 5!z
Notice that f (z) = z−1 sinh z−1 is analytic for z 6= 0, which means that z = 0 is an
isolated singularity and is, in fact, an essential singularity.

6. Consider the function

sin z
f (z) = .
cos(z3 ) − 1
Classify the singularity at z = 0 and calculate the residue.
Solution. Notice that f has an isolated singularity at z = 0. Thus, expanding numer-
ator and denominator in Taylor series we have
z3 z5 z7
z− + − +···
f (z) = 3! 5! 7!
z6 z12 z18
− + − ···
2! 4! 6!
z2 z4 z6

z 1− + − +···
3! 5! 7!
= 6 2z6 2z12

z
− 1− + −···
2! 4! 6!
z2 z4 z6
−2 1 − + − +···
= · 3! 5! 7!
z5 2z 6 2z12
1− + −···
4! 6!
z2 z4 z6

−2 1
= 1− + − +··· ·
z5 3! 5! 7! 2z6 2z12
1− + −···
4! 6!
Let
2 2z6 2z12
g(z) = − + −···
4! 6! 8!
Thus we have
z2 z4 z6

−2 1
f (z) = 5
1− + − +··· · (4.1)
z 3! 5! 7! 1 − z6 g(z)
where g(z) is analytic and nonzero at z = 0, in fact, g(0) = 1/12. So for ε sufficiently
small, if |z| < ε, then |g(z)| < 1. Thus for |z| < min{ε, 1}, we can expand
1
1 − z6 g(z)
in a geometric series. Hence

z2 z4 z6

−2 6 12 2

f (z) = 1 − + − + · · · 1 + z g(z) + z (g(z)) + · · ·
z5 3! 5! 7!

−2 2 2 2z 6 12 2

= + − + + · · · 1 + z g(z) + z (g(z)) + · · ·
z5 3!z3 5!z 7!
−2 −1
So the residue of f at z = 0 is = .
5! 60
7. Find the Laurent series of the function
z+4
f (z) =
z2 (z2 + 3z + 2)
in
(a) 0 < |z| < 1;
(b) 1 < |z| < 2;
(c) |z| > 2;
(d) 0 < |z + 1| < 1.
Solution. We write f (z) as a sum of partial fractions:

z+4 5 2 3 1
=− + 2+ − .
z2 (z2 + 3z + 2) 2z z z + 1 2(z + 2)
For 0 < |z| < 1,
∞
3
= 3 ∑ (−1)n zn
z+1 n=0
and
1 1 1 1 ∞ (−1)n zn
− =− =− ∑ .
2(z + 2) 4 1 + (z/2) 4 n=0 2n
Therefore,
5 2 ∞
1 ∞ (−1)n zn
f (z) = − + 2 + 3 ∑ (−1)n zn − ∑
2z z n=0 4 n=0 2n
∞
2 5
= − + ∑ (−1)n(3 − 2−n−2)zn
z2 2z n=0
For 1 < |z| < 2,

3 3 1 3 ∞ (−1)n
= = ∑
z + 1 z 1 + (1/z) z n=0 zn
and
1 1 1 1 ∞ (−1)n zn
− =− =− ∑ .
2(z + 2) 4 1 + (z/2) 4 n=0 2n
Therefore,
5 2 3 ∞ (−1)n 1 ∞ (−1)n zn
f (z) = − + 2+ ∑ − ∑
2z z z n=0 zn 4 n=0 2n
3(−1)n 1
∞
1 ∞
= ∑ n+1 − 2 + − ∑ (−1)n 2−n−2 zn .
n=2 z z 2z n=0
For 2 < |z| < ∞,

3 3 1 3 ∞ (−1)n
= = ∑
z + 1 z 1 + (1/z) z n=0 zn
and
1 1 1 1 ∞ (−1)n 2n
− =− =− ∑ .
2(z + 2) 2z 1 + (2/z) 2z n=0 zn
Therefore,
5 2 3 ∞ (−1)n 1 ∞ (−1)n 2n
f (z) = − + 2+ ∑ − ∑
2z z z n=0 zn 2z n=0 zn
∞
(−1)n+1 (3 − 2n−2 )
= ∑ .
n=3 zn
For 0 < |z + 1| < 1, we let w = z + 1 and then

z+4 5 2 3 1
= + + − .
z2 (z2 + 3z + 2) 2(1 − w) (1 − w)2 w 2(w + 1)
For 0 < |w| < 1,
5 5 ∞
= ∑ wn ,
2(1 − w) 2 n=0
0 !
∞ ∞
2 2
(1 − w)2
=
1−w
= ∑ 2wn = ∑ 2(n + 1)wn
n=0 n=0
and
1 1 ∞
− = − ∑ (−1)n wn .
2(w + 1) 2 n=0
Therefore,
∞
9 (−1)n

3
f (z) = + ∑ 2n + − wn
w n=0 2 2
∞
9 (−1)n

3
= + ∑ 2n + − (z + 1)n .
z + 1 n=0 2 2

8. Write the two Laurent series in powers of z that represent the function
1
f (z) =
z(1 + z2 )
in certain domains and specify these domains.
Solution. Since f (z) is analytic at z 6= 0, ±i, it is analytic in 0 < |z| < 1 and 1 <
|z| < ∞.
For 0 < |z| < 1,

1 1 1
f (z) = =
z(1 + z2 ) z 1 − (−z2 )
1 ∞ ∞
= ∑ (−1)n z2n = ∑ (−1)n z2n−1
z n=0 n=0
and for 1 < |z| < ∞,

1 1 1
f (z) = =
z(1 + z2 ) z3 1 − (−z−2 )
1 ∞ ∞
= 3 ∑ (−1)n z−2n = ∑ (−1)n z−2n−3
z n=0 n=0
9. Let
z2
f (z) = 2
z − 3z + 2
Find the Laurent series of f (z) in each of the following domains:
(a) 1 < |z| < 2
(b) 1 < |z − 3| < 2
Solution. First, we write f (z) as a sum of partial fractions:
z2 3z − 2 4 1
2
= 1+ = 1+ −
z − 3z + 2 (z − 2)(z − 1) z−2 z−1
In 1 < |z| < 2,
z2 2 1 1
= 1 − −
z2 − 3z + 2 1 − z/2 z 1 − 1/z
∞
−n n 1 ∞ −n
= 1−2 ∑ 2 z − ∑ z
n=0 z n=0
∞ ∞
= −1 − ∑ 21−n zn − ∑ z−n
n=1 n=1
In 1 < |z − 3| < 2,
z2 4 1
2
= 1+ −
z − 3z + 2 (z − 3) + 1 2 + (z − 3)

4 1 1 1
= 1+ −
z − 3 1 + 1/(z − 3) 2 1 + (z − 3)/2
∞
4 −n 1 ∞
= 1+ ∑
z − 3 n=0
(−1)n
(z − 3) − ∑ (−1)n2−n(z − 3)n
2 n=0
∞ ∞
1
= + 4 ∑ (−1)n+1 (z − 3)−n − ∑ (−1)n 2−n−1 (z − 3)n
2 n=1 n=1
10. Let
z2
f (z) =
z2 − z − 2
Find the Laurent series of f (z) in each of the following domains:
(a) 1 < |z| < 2
(b) 0 < |z − 2| < 1
Solution. First, we write f (z) as a sum of partial fractions:

z2 z+2 4 1
2
= 1+ = 1+ −
z −z−2 (z − 2)(z + 1) 3(z − 2) 3(z + 1)
In 1 < |z| < 2,
z2 2 1 1 1
2
= 1− −
z −z−2 3 1 − z/2 3z 1 + 1/z
2 ∞ 1 ∞
= 1 − ∑ 2−n zn − ∑ (−1)n z−n
3 n=0 3z n=0
1 1 ∞ 1−n n 1 ∞
= − ∑ 2 z + ∑ (−1)n z−n
3 3 n=1 3 n=1
In 0 < |z − 2| < 1,
z2 4 1 1
2
= 1+ −
z −z−2 3(z − 2) 3 3 + (z − 2)
4 1 1
= 1+ −
3(z − 2) 9 1 + (z − 2)/3
4 1 ∞
= 1+ − ∑ (−1)n 3−n (z − 2)n
3(z − 2) 9 n=0
∞
8 4
= + + ∑ (−1)n+1 3−n−2 (z − 2)n
9 3(z − 2) n=1

11. Find the Laurent series of

1
z 2
e −1
√
in z up to z6 and show the series converges in 0 < |z| < 2π.
Solution. Let f (z) = 1/(ez − 1). Since

∞
zn ∞
zn ∞
zn
ez − 1 = ∑ n! − 1 = ∑ n! = z ∑ (n + 1)!
n=0 n=1 n=0
ez − 1 has a zero at 0 of multiplicity one and hence f (z) has pole at 0 of order 1. So
the Laurent series of f (z) is given by
∞
a−1
f (z) = ∑ an zn = + a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + a3 z3 + ∑ an zn
n=−1 z n≥4
in 0 < |z| < r for some r > 0.

Since (ez − 1) f (z) = 1, we have
!
1= a−1 + a0 z + a1 z2 + a2 z3 + a3 z4 + ∑ an−1 zn
n≥5
!
z z2 z3 z4 zn
1+ + + + +∑ .
2 6 24 120 n≥5 (n + 1)!
Comparing the coefficients of 1, z, z2 , z3 and z4 on both sides, we obtain



 a−1 = 1

 a −1

 a0 + =0
2




 a0 a−1
a1 + + =0
2 6

 a1 a0 a−1
a2 + + + =0


2 6 24



a3 + a2 + a1 + a0 + a−1 = 0



2 6 24 120
Solving it, we have a−1 = 1, a0 = −1/2, a1 = 1/12, a2 = 0 and a3 = −1/720.
Hence
1 1 z z3
f (z) = − + − + ∑ an zn
z 2 12 720 n≥4
and
1 2 1 1 z2 z6
2 = f (z ) = − + − + ∑ an z2n .
ez − 1 z2 2 12 720 n≥4
Note that f (z) is analytic in {z : ez − 1 6= 0} = {z 6= 2nπi}. So it is analytic

√ in
2
0 < |z| < 2π. Therefore, f (z ) is√ 2
analytic in 0 < |z | < 2π, i.e., 0 < |z| < 2π. So
the series converges in 0 < |z| < 2π.
4.2 Classification of singularities

1. For each of the following complex functions, do the following:
• find all its singularities in C;
• write the principal part of the function at each singularity;
• for each singularity, determine whether it is a pole, a removable singularity, or
an essential singularity;
• compute the residue of the function at each singularity.
1
(a) f (z) =
(cos z)2
Solution. f (z) is singular at cos z = 0, i.e., z = nπ +π/2. Let w = z−nπ −π/2.
Then
1 1 1
2
= 2
= .
(cos z) (cos(w + nπ + π/2)) (sin w)2
Since sin w has a zero of multiplicity one at w = 0, f (z) has a pole of order 2
at z = nπ + π/2. So
1 a−2 a−1
2
= 2 + + ∑ an wn .
(sin w) w w n≥0
Since
!2
∞
(−1)n w2n+1 ∞
(sin w)2 = ∑ = w2 + ∑ bn wn
n=0 (2n + 1)! n=4
we have
! !
∞
a−2 a−1 2
1= 2
+ + ∑ an wn w + ∑ bn w n
.
w w n≥0 n=4
Comparing the coefficients of 1 and w on both sides, we obtain a−2 = 1 and

a−1 = 0. So the principal part of f (z) at z = nπ + π/2 is
1
(z − nπ − π/2)2
with residue 0.

3 1
(b) f (z) = (1 − z ) exp
z
z
Solution. Since e = ∑∞ n
n=0 z /n!,
∞
3 1 1
(1 − z ) exp = (1 − z3 ) ∑ n
z n=0 n!z
∞ ∞
1 1
=∑ n
−∑ n−3
n=0 n!z n=0 n!z
∞ ∞ 3 3−n
1 1 z
= − −
∑ n!zn ∑ n!zn−3 ∑ n!
n=0 n=4 n=0
∞ ∞ 3 3−n
1 1 z
= 1+ ∑ n
−∑ n
−∑
n=1 n!z n=1 (n + 3)!z n=0 n!
∞ 3 3−n
1 1 1 z
=∑ − n
+ 1 − ∑
n=1 n! (n + 3)! z n=0 n!
Therefore, f (z) has an essential singularity at z = 0 with principal part

∞
1 1 1
∑ n! − (n + 3)! zn
n=1
and residue
1 1 23
Res f (z) = − = .
z=0 1! 4! 24

sin z
(c) f (z) = 2010
z
Solution. Since
sin z 1 ∞ (−1)n z2n+1
= ∑ (2n + 1)!
z2010 z2010 n=0
∞
(−1)n z2n−2009
= ∑ (2n + 1)!
n=0
1004
(−1)n z2n−2009 ∞
(−1)n z2n−2009
= ∑ + ∑
n=0 (2n + 1)! n=1005 (2n + 1)!
f (z) has a pole of order 2009 at z = 0 with principal part

1004
(−1)n z2n−2009
∑ (2n + 1)!
n=0
and with residue

sin z (−1)1004 1
Res 2010
= = .
z=0 z (2 · 1004 + 1)! 2009!

ez
(d) f (z) =
1 − z2
Solution. Since 1 − z2 = (1 − z)(1 + z), f (z) has poles of order 1 at 1 and −1.
Therefore,
ez ez

e
Res = = −
z=1 1 − z2 (1 − z2 )0 z=1 2
and
ez ez

1
Res = = .
z=−1 1 − z2 (1 − z2 )0 z=−1 2e
And the principal parts of f (z) at z = 1 and z = −1 are
e 1
− and
2(z − 1) 2e(z + 1)
respectively.

2 1
(e) f (z) = (1 − z ) exp
z
Solution. The function has a singularity at 0 where
∞
2 1 1
(1 − z ) exp = (1 − z2 ) ∑ n
z n=0 (n!)z
∞ ∞
1 1
=∑ n
−∑ n−2
n=0 (n!)z n=0 (n!)z
∞ ∞
1 1 2 1
= 1+ ∑ n
− ∑ n−2
− (z + z + )
n=1 (n!)z n=3 (n!)z 2
∞ ∞
1 1 1
= −z2 − z + + ∑ − ∑
2 n=1 (n!)zn n=1 (n + 2)!zn
∞
1 1 1
2
= −z − z + + ∑ − z−n
2 n=1 n! (n + 2)!
So the principal part is

∞
1 1
∑ n! − (n + 2)! z−n
n=1
the function has an essential singularity at 0 and

1 1 5
Res f (z) = − =
z=0 1! 3! 6

1
(f) f (z) =
(sin z)2
Solution. The function has singularities at kπ for k ∈ Z. At z = kπ, we let
w = z − kπ and then
!−1
1 1 ∞
(−1)n w2n+1
= = ∑
(sin z)2 (sin w)2 n=0 (2n + 1)!
!−1
1 ∞
(−1)n w2n
= 2 ∑
w n=0 (2n + 1)!
!−1
1 ∞
(−1)n+1 w2n
= 2 1− ∑
w n=1 (2n + 1)!
!m
1 ∞ ∞
(−1)n+1 w2n
= 2 ∑ ∑
w m=0 n=1 (2n + 1)!
!
∞
1
= 2 1 + ∑ an wn
w n=2
So the principal part at kπ is

1
(z − kπ)2
the function has a pole of order 2 at kπ and
Res f (z) = 0
z=kπ

1 − cos z
(g) f (z) =
z2
!
1 − cos z 1 ∞
(−1)n z2n 1 ∞ (−1)n+1 z2n
= 1 − ∑ = ∑ (2n)!
z2 z2 n=0 (2n)! z2 n=1
∞
(−1)n+1 z2n−2
= ∑
n=1 (2n)!
So the principal part is 0, the function has a removable singularity at 0 and
Res f (z) = 0
z=0

ez
(h) f (z) =
z(z − 1)2
Solution. The function has two singularities at 0 and 1. At z = 0,
! !
ez 1 ∞ zn ∞
n
= ∑ n! ∑ (n + 1)z
z(z − 1)2 z n=0 n=0
!
∞
1 n
= 1 + ∑ an z
z n=1
So the principal part at 0 is 1/z, the function has a pole of order 1 at 0 and
Res f (z) = 1
z=0
At z = 1, we let w = z − 1 and then

! !
ez e1+w e ∞
wn ∞
= =
z(z − 1)2 (1 + w)w2 w2 ∑ ∑ (−1)nwn
n=0 n! n=0
! !
e wn ∞ ∞
= 2 1+w+ ∑ 1 − w + ∑ (−1)n wn
w n=2 n! n=2
!
∞
e
= 1 + ∑ an wn
w2 n=2
So the principal part at 1 is

e
(z − 1)2
the function has a pole of order 2 at 1 and
Res f (z) = 0
z=1

(i) f (z) = tan z
Solution. The function has singularities at {cos z = 0} = {z = kπ + π/2 : k ∈ Z.
At z = kπ + π/2, we let w = z − kπ − π/2 and then
π π cos w
tan z = tan w + kπ + = tan w + =−
2 2 sin w
Since sin w has a zero of multiplicity 1 at w = 0, tan z has a pole of order 1 at
z = kπ + π/2. Therefore
cos w
cos w
Res tan z = Res − =− = −1
z=kπ+π/2 w=0 sin w (sin w)0 w=0
and the principal part of tan z at z = kπ + π/2 is
1 1
− =− .
w z − kπ − π/2


2 1
(j) f (z) = (1 − z ) sin
z
(−1)n
∞
2 1
(1 − z ) sin = (1 − z2 ) ∑ 2n+1
z n=0 ((2n + 1)!)z
∞
(−1)n ∞
(−1)n
= ∑ 2n+1
− ∑ 2n−1
n=0 ((2n + 1)!)z n=0 ((2n + 1)!)z
∞
(−1)n ∞
(−1)n
= −z + ∑ 2n+1
− ∑ 2n−1
n=0 ((2n + 1)!)z n=1 (2n + 1)!)z
(−1)n
∞ ∞
(−1)n+1
= −z + ∑ 2n+1
− ∑ 2n+1
n=0 ((2n + 1)!)z n=0 ((2n + 3)!)z
∞
1 1
= −z + ∑ (−1) n
+ z−2n−1
n=0 (2n + 1)! (2n + 3)!
So the principal part is

∞
1 1
∑ (−1) (2n + 1)! + (2n + 3)! z−2n−1.
n
n=0
Therefore, the function has an essential singularity at 0 and

1 1 7
Res f (z) = + = .
z=0 1! 3! 6

ez
(k) f (z) =
z2011
ez 1 ∞
zn
=
z2011 z2011 ∑ n!
n=0
n−2011 2010 n−2011
∞
z z ∞
zn−2011
= ∑ = ∑ + ∑ n!
n=0 n! n=0 n! n=2011
Therefore, the principal part of f (z) at z = 0 is

2010 n−2011
z
∑ n!
n=0
and f (z) has a pole of order 2011 and residue

1
Res f (z) =
z=0 2010!
at z = 0.
cos z
(l) f (z) =
z2 − z3
Solution. The function has singularities at {z2 − z3 = 0} = {z = 0, 1}. At

z = 0, z2 − z3 has a zero of multiplicity 2 and hence f (z) has a pole of order 2.
Suppose that the Laurent series of f (z) at z = 0 is given by
cos z a−2 a−1
= + + ∑ an zn .
z2 − z3 z2 z n≥0
Hence
!
a−2 a−1 ∞
(−1)n z2n
(z2 − z3 ) + + ∑ an zn = cos z = 1 + ∑ .
z2 z n≥0 n=1 (2n)!
Comparing the coefficients of 1 and z on both sides, we obtain that a−2 = 1

and a−1 − a−2 = 0 and hence a−1 = a−2 = 1. So the principal part of f (z) at
z = 0 is
1 1
+
z2 z
with residue
Res f (z) = 1.
z=0
At z = 1, z2 − z3 has a zero of multiplicity 1 and hence f (z) has a pole of order

1. Hence

cos z cos z
Res 2 3 = 2 3 0 = − cos(1)
z=1 z − z (z − z ) z=1
and the principal part of f (z) at z = 1 is
cos(1)
− .
z−1

4.3 Applications of residues

1. Calculate
8−z
Z
dz,
C z(4 − z)
where C is the circle of radius 7, centre 0, negatively oriented.
Solution. Observe that

8−z 8 − 2z + z 2 1 2 1
f (z) = = = + = −
z(4 − z) z(4 − z) z (4 − z) z (z − 4)
The function f has two singularities on C, z = 0 and z = 4. Both are inside C. At

z = 4, −1/(z − 4) is analytic and then
Res f (z) = 2
z=0
Similarly, since 2/z is analytic at z = 4,

Res f (z) = −1
z=4
From Cauchy’s residue theorem, and considering that C is negatively oriented, we

have that

8−z
Z
dz = −2πi Res f (z) + Res f (z)
C z(4 − z) z=0 z=4
= −2πi(2 − 1) = −2πi

dθ
Z π
.
0 2 − cos θ
Solution. Since 1/(2 − cos θ ) is even,

dθ 1 dθ
Z π Z π
= .
0 2 − cos θ 2 −π 2 − cos θ
Let z = eiθ . Then cos θ = (z + z−1 )/2 and dθ = −iz−1 dz. Hence
dθ 1 dθ
Z π Z π
=
0 2 − cos θ 2 −π 2 − cos θ
−idz
Z
= −1
|z|=1 2z(2 − (z + z )/2)
dz
Z
=i 2
.
|z|=1 z − 4z + 1
The function
1 1
2
= √ √
z − 4z + 1 (z − 2 − 3)(z − 2 + 3)
√
has a singularity in |z| < 1 at z = 2 − 3. Therefore,
dz 1
Z
= 2πi Res√
|z|=1 z2 − 4z + 1 z=2− 3 z2 − 4z + 1

1 πi
= 2πi 2
√ = − √ .
(z − 4z + 1)0 z=2− 3
3
Therefore,
dθ
Z π
π
=√
0 2 − cos θ 3

3. Let a, b ∈ R such that a2 > b2 . Calculate the integral

dθ
Z π
.
0 a + b cos θ
π
Answer: √
a2 − b2
4. Evaluate the contour integral of the following functions around the circle |z| = 2011
oriented counterclockwise:
1
(a) ;
sin z
1
(b) 2z .
e − ez
Solution. (a) f (z) = 1/ sin z is analytic in {z 6= nπ : n ∈ Z}. It has a pole of order

one at nπ since (sin z)0 |z=nπ = cos(nπ) = (−1)n 6= 0. So
1 1
Res = = (−1)n .
z=nπ sin z cos(nπ)
Therefore,
dz 1
Z
= 2πi ∑ Res
|z|=2011 sin z |nπ|<2011
z=nπ sin z
= 2πi ∑ (−1)n = 2πi.

|n|≤640
(b) f (z) = 1/(e2z − ez ) is analytic in
{e2z − ez 6= 0} = {ez 6= 1} = {z 6= 2nπi : n ∈ Z}.
Since (e2z − ez )0 |z=2nπi = 1 6= 0, f (z) has a pole of order one at 2nπi. So

1 1
Res 2z = = 1.
z=2nπi e − ez 2e2z − ez z=2nπi
Therefore,
dz 1
Z
= 2πi ∑ Res
|z|=2011 e2z − ez |2nπi|<2011
z=2nπi e2z − ez
= 2πi ∑ 1 = 2πi ∑ 1 = 1282πi.

|2nπi|<2011 |n|≤320

5. Let
f (z) = (z − a1 )(z − a2 )...(z − an )
be a complex polynomial with n ≥ 2 distinct roots a1 , a2 , ..., an .
(a) Prove that
n
dz 1
Z
= 2πi ∑
|z|=R f (z) k=1 ∏ j6=k (ak − a j )
for R > |ak | (k = 1, 2, ..., n).

(b) Use (a) and Cauchy Integral Theorem to prove that
n
1
∑ ∏ j6=k (ak − a j ) = 0
k=1
for all distinct complex numbers a1 , a2 , ..., an .
Proof. By Residue theorem,

n
dz 1
Z
= 2πi ∑ Res .
|z|=R f (z) k=1
z=ak f (z)
At each ak , 1/ f (z) has a pole of order one and

−1
1 ∏ j6=k (z − a j ) 1
Res = Res = .
z=ak f (z) z=ak z − ak ∏ j6=k (ak − a j )
Therefore,
n
dz 1
Z
= 2πi ∑ .
|z|=R f (z) k=1 ∏ j6=k (ak − a j )
Since deg( f (z)) = n ≥ 2,

dz
Z
=0
|z|=R f (z)
by Problem 18 in Section 3.2. Therefore,
n
1
∑ ∏ j6=k (ak − a j ) = 0.
k=1

6. Use Cauchy Integral Theorem or Residue Theorem to show that
N
1 dz 1 (−1)n
Z
= + 2 ∑ 2 2
2πi CN z2 sin z 6 n=1 n π
and conclude that

π2 ∞
(−1)n+1 1 1 1
=∑ 2
= 1− 2 + 2 − 2 +···
12 n=1 n 2 3 4
Solution. The function f (z) = 1/(z2 sin z) has singularities at z = nπ for n ∈ Z. So

n
1 dz 1
Z
2
= ∑ Res 2
2πi CN z sin z n=−N z=nπ z sin z
by Residue Theorem.
At z = nπ for a nonzero integer n,

2
z 6= 0 and (sin z)0 6= 0.

nπ nπ
Therefore, 1/(z2 sin z) has a pole of order 1 at nπ for n 6= 0. It follows that
(−1)n

1 1 1
Res 2 = 2 = =
z=nπ z sin z z (sin z)0 z=nπ n2 π 2 cos(nπ) n2 π 2
for n 6= 0.
At z = 0, z2 sin z has a zero multiplicity 3 and hence 1/(z2 sin z) has a pole of order
3. Suppose that the Laurent series of f (z) at z = 0 is given by
a−3 a−2 a−1
+ 2 + + ∑ an zn .
z3 z z n≥0
Then
!
a−3 a−2 a−1
z2 sin z + 2 + + ∑ an zn
z3 z z n≥0
! !
z2
= 1 − + ∑ bn zn a−3 + a−2 z + a−1 z2 + ∑ an zn = 1.
3! n≥3 n≥3
Comparing the coefficients of 1, z and z2 on both sides, we have



 a−3 = 1

a−2 = 0

 a
a−1 − −3 = 0
6
Solving the equation, we obtain a−1 = 1/6, a−2 = 0 and a−3 = 1. So
1 1
Res = .
z=0 z2 sin z 6
Therefore,
n
1 dz 1
Z
2
= ∑ Res 2
2πi CN z sin z n=−N z=nπ z sin z
1 n=−1 (−1)n n=N (−1)n
= + ∑ 2 2 +∑ 2 2.
6 n=−N n π n=1 n π
We observe that
(−1)n (−1)−n
=
n2 π 2 (−n)2 π 2
and hence we obtain
N
1 dz 1 (−1)n
Z
= + 2 ∑ 2 2.
2πi CN z2 sin z 6 n=1 n π
By Problem 11 in section 3.2, we have

1 dz
Z
lim =0
N→∞ 2πi CN z2 sin z
Consequently,
1 ∞
(−1)n
+2 ∑ 2 2 = 0
6 n=1 n π
That is,
π2 ∞
(−1)n ∞
(−1)n+1
=−∑ 2
= ∑ n2 .
12 n=1 n n=1
4.3.1 Improper integrals

cos x
Z ∞
1. Compute the integral dx
−∞ x4 + x2 + 1
Solution. since eix = cos x + i sin x,
eix
Z ∞
cos x
Z ∞
4 2
dx = Re 4 2
dx
−∞ x + x + 1 −∞ x + x + 1
Actually, we have
cos x eix
Z ∞ Z ∞
4 2
dx = 4 2
dx
−∞ x + x + 1 −∞ x + x + 1
in this case since sin x/(x4 + x2 + 1) is odd.

Consider the contour integral of eiz /(z4 + z2 + 1) along the path LR = [−R, R] and
CR = {|z| = R, Im(z) ≥ 0}, oriented counterclockwise. By CIT or residue theorem,
we have
eiz eiz
Z Z
4 2
dz + 4 2
dz
LR z + z + 1 CR z + z + 1
n
eiz
= 2πi ∑ Res 4 2
z=zk z + z + 1
k=1
where z1 , z2 , . . . , zn are the singularities of eiz /(z4 + z2 + 1) inside the region {|z| <
R, Im(z) > 0}.
We find the singularities of eiz /(z4 + z2 + 1) by solving z4 + z2 + 1 = 0: we observe
that (z2 − 1)(z4 + z2 + 1) = z6 − 1. So the function has four singularities ±eπi/3 and
±e2πi/3 . Two of them eπi/3 and e2πi/3 lie above the real axis. Therefore,
eiz eiz
Z Z
4 2
dz + 4 2
dz
LR z + z + 1 CR z + z + 1
eiz eiz

= 2πi Res 4 2 + Res 4 2 .
z=eπi/3 z + z + 1 z=e2πi/3 z + z + 1
Since all zeros of z4 + z2 + 1 have multiplicity one, all poles of
eiz /(z4 + z2 + 1)
have order one. Therefore,

√
eiz eiz

exp((− 3 + i)/2)
Res 4 2 = 4 2 = √
z=eπi/3 z + z + 1 (z + z + 1)0 z=eπi/3 3i − 3
and
√
eiz eiz

exp((− 3 − i)/2)
Res 4 2 = 4 2 0
= √ .
z=e2πi/3 z +z +1 (z + z + 1) z=e2πi/3
3i + 3
Hence
eiz eiz √

1 1
Z Z
π
4 2
dz + 4 2
dz = 3 cos + 3 sin .
LR z + z + 1 CR z + z + 1 3 2 2

iz

e 1
z4 + z2 + 1 ≤ R4 − R2 − 1

and it follows that
eiz
Z
πR
C z4 + z2 + 1 ≤ R4 − R2 − 1
dz

R
Since
πR
lim = 0,
R→∞ R4 − R2 − 1
we conclude that
eiz
Z
lim 4 2
dz = 0.
R→∞ CR z + z + 1
Therefore,
cos x eix
Z ∞ Z ∞
4 2
dx = 4 2
dx
−∞ x + x + 1 −∞ x + x + 1
eiz
Z
= lim dz
R→∞ LR z4 + z2 + 1
π √

1 1
= 3 cos + 3 sin .
3 2 2

sin x
Z ∞
dx.
−∞ x2 + 2x + 2
Solution. since eix = cos x + i sin x,

eix
Z ∞
sin x
Z ∞
2 2
dx = Im 2 2
dx
−∞ x + 2x + 2 −∞ x + 2x + 2
Consider the contour integral of eiz /(z2 + 2z2 + 2) along the path LR = [−R, R] and
CR = {|z| = R, Im(z) ≥ 0}, oriented counterclockwise.
Since eiz /(z2 + 2z + 2) has two isolated singularities at −1 ± i with −1 + i lying
inside the curve LR ∪CR , we have
eiz eiz
Z Z
2 2
dz + 2 2
dz
LR z + 2z + 2 CR z + 2z + 2
eiz
= 2πi Res 2
z=−1+i z + 2z + 2
eiz

= 2πi 2
(z + 2z + 2)0 z=−1+i
2πi exp(−i − 1) π
= = (cos(1) − i sin(1))
2i e
by Cauchy Integral Theorem or residue theorem.
eiz

1
z2 + 2z2 + 2 ≤ R2 − 2R2 − 2

and it follows that

eiz
Z
πR
C z2 + 2z + 2 ≤ R2 − 2R2 − 2
dz

R
Since
πR
lim = 0,
R→∞ R2 − 2R2 − 2
we conclude that
eiz
Z
lim 2 2
dz = 0.
R→∞ CR z + 2z + 2
Therefore,
eix
Z
sin x
Z ∞ ∞
2 2
dx = Im 2 2
dx
−∞ x + 2x + 2 −∞ x + 2x + 2
eiz
Z
= Im lim dz
R→∞ LR z2 + 2z2 + 2
π
= − sin(1).
e

Bibliography
[1] Brown, J. W. & Churchill, R. V. (2009). Complex Variables and Applications. 8th
Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
[2] Needham, T. (1997). Visual Complex Analysis. New York: The Clarendon Press,
Oxford University Press.
[3] Spiegel, M. R. (1981). Theory and problems of Complex variables. Singapore:

McGraw-Hill.
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Complex Analysis: Problems with solutions

Book · August 2016

Juan Carlos Ponce Campuzano

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First e-book version, August 2015. Last update 21/04/2021

1.1 Basic algebraic and geometric properties

2. Reduce the quantity

Proof. Let z = x + yi with x = Re(z) and y = Im(z). Then

Re(iz) = Re(−y + xi) = −y = − Im(z)

(z1 z2 )z3 = z1 (z2 z3 )

Proof. Let zk = xk + iyk for k = 1, 2, 3. Then

(z1 z2 )z3 = ((x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i))(x3 + y3 i)

z1 (z2 z3 ) = (x1 + y1 i)((x2 + y2 i))(x3 + y3 i))

(z1 z2 )z3 = z1 (z2 z3 )

6. Let f be the map sending each complex number

Show that f (z1 z2 ) = f (z1 ) f (z2 ) for all z1 , z2 ∈ C.

Proof. Let zk = xk + yk i for k = 1, 2. Then

z1 z2 = (x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 + x1 y2 )

On the other hand,

Therefore, f (z1 z2 ) = f (z1 ) f (z2 ).

7. Use binomial theorem

Solution. By binomial theorem,

√ 2011 2011 2011 √ k 2011 2011 k/2 k

Since ik = (−1)m for k = 2m even and ik = (−1)m i for k = 2m + 1 odd,

Proof. Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 with x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ R. Thus

Since z1 z2 is real and non-zero, z1 6= 0, z2 6= 0, and

Thus, since z2 6= 0, then

|z1 − z2 |2 + |z1 + z2 |2 = 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 )

Solution. Note that

0 ≤ (| Re z| − | Im z|)2 = | Re z|2 − 2| Re z|| Im z| + | Im z|2 .

3. Sketch the curves in the complex plane given by

Solution. Let z = x + yi.

|z − 1| = |z + i| ⇔ |(x − 1) + yi| = |x + (y + 1)i|

the curve is the line x + y = 0.

Proof. When |z| = R > 1,

|z4 + iz| ≥ |z4 | − |iz| = |z|4 − |i||z| = R4 − R

|z2 + z + 1| ≤ |z2 | + |z| + |1| = |z|2 + |z| + 1 = R2 + R + 1

by triangle inequality. Hence

On the other hand,

|z4 + iz| ≤ |z4 | + |iz| = |z|4 + |i||z| = R4 + R

Proof. Since Log(z) = ln |z| + i Arg(z) for −π < Arg(z) ≤ π,

| Log(z)| = | ln |z| + i Arg(z)| ≤ |ln |z|| + |i Arg(z)| ≤ |ln |z|| + π.

1.3 Exponential and Polar Form, Complex roots

2. Find the principal argument and exponential form of

3. Find all the complex roots of the equations:

Solution. (a) The roots are

Solution. The four roots of z4 + 16 are given by

2eπi/4 = 2e7πi/4 and 2e3πi/4 = 2e5πi/4 .

By Problem 7 in section 1.1, we have

6. Establish the identity

Hint: As for the first identity, write S = 1 + z + z2 + · · · + zn and consider the

S − zS = (1 + z + z2 + · · · + zn )(z + z2 + · · · + zn+1 ) = 1 − zn+1