SYN CH - 1 and 2
SYN CH - 1 and 2
SYN CH - 1 and 2
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Networking
Advantages of Networking
LAN and WAN
Requirements for LAN.
Protocols
TCP /IP
IP Address v4/v6
Installation of Windows 7
Installation of Windows server 2008 R2
Advantages of Networking
It is used to connecting two or more computers to the share
resources. It reduce the cost , It manage the resources
It can be share the data
It can be share the Internet and Printer etc.
LAN (Local Area Network)
Connecting two or more computers in a network by using physical media (cable) which are
located in the single room /building.
we can access the data within a LAN
WAN (Wide Area Network)
It is used to connect two different locations for accessing the data.
Connecting two or more computers or LANs by using remote media which are located in remote
places.
Remote Medias
Telephone line
Leased Line
ISDN Line
VPN
Requirements for LAN
Server , Clients
Network Adapters
Cables
Selecting of Topology
Selecting of Protocols
Selecting of O.S
SERVER
SERVER: which provide the resources to all the clients in a network and applies the
permissions to all the clients in a network for accessing the resources.
Example of server operating systems
Windows 2000 server , Windows 2003 server , Windows 2008 server , Windows 2008
R2 server Windows 2012 server , Windows 2012R2 server
Client
Client: which can access the resources from the server with certain rights and permissions.
Example of client operating systems
Windows 2000 Professional ,Windows XP ,Windows Vista ,Windows 7 ,Windows 8
Think of the seven layers as the assembly line computer . At each layer, certain
things happen to the data that prepare it for the next layers . The seven layers,
which separate into two steps, are
Application sets
Layer 7: Application - This is the layer that actually interacts with the operating system
or application whenever the user chooses to transfer files ,read messages or perform
other network -related activities
Layer 6: Presentation - Layer 6 takes the data provided by the Application layer and converts it
into a standard format that the other layers understand .
Layer 5: Session- Layer 5 establishes ,maintains and ends communication with the receiver device
Layer 4: Transport set Transport- This layer maintains flow control or data provides for error
checking and recovery of data between the devices. Flow control means that the transport
layers looks to see if data is coming from more than one application and integrates each
application's data into a single stream for the physical network
Layer 3: Network - The way that the data will be sent to the recipient device
is determined in this layer. Logical protocols, routing and addressing are handled
here.
Layer 2:Data - in this layer, the appropriate physical protocol is assigned to the
data . Also the types of network and the packet sequencing is defined.
Layer 1: Physical- this is the level of the actual hardware. it defines the physical
characteristics of the network such as connections ,voltage levels and timing .
10BASE5 coaxial cable (50ohm) Baseband signaling and max. 500m length
Switching :- A technique how data finds a path from its source to its destination
o A circuit-switching network defines a static path from one point to another; so long as
the two points are connected, all data traveling between those two points will take the
same path.
it's unnecessary to include adddressing information in the packet with the data.
because there's only one path, the data can't get lost.
o In a packet-switching network, on the other hand, there is no direct connection from
point A to point B. Rather than a direct connection, the packet-switching network has a
mesh of paths between the two points
A packet-switching network has no permanent physical path determining how
data moves from point to point.
Circuit switching is faster because there is less overhead required, but packet switching is more
flexible and so less vulnerable to "traffic jams."
Evaluation in terms of
o Speed, Bandwidth, and Throughput
Circuit Switching
A ``dedicated'' circuit is set up for each connection. The communicating parties use this fixed
circuit during the conversation.
Once the communication is finished, the circuit can be released for other uses.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
1. Connection set-up and tear-down introduces extra overhead (thus initial delay)
2. User pay for circuit, even when not sending data
3. Other users can't use the circuit even if it is free of traffic (statistics show that during a typical
phone conversation, 64-73% of the time one speaker talking, 3-7% of the time both spearkers
talking, 20-33% of the time both speakers silent).
Circuit-switched is a type of network in which a physical path is obtained for and dedicated to a
single connection between two end-points in the network for the duration of the connection.
Ordinary voice phone service is circuit-switched. The telephone company reserves a specific
physical path to the number you are calling for the duration of your call. During that time, no one
else can use the physical lines involved.
Phone networks use circuit switching: an end-to-end circuit must be set up before the call can
begin. A fixed share of network resources is reserved for the call, and no other call can use those
resources until the original connection is closed. This means that a long silence between two
teenagers uses the same resources as an active negotiation between two fast-talking lawyers. One
advantage of circuit-switching is that it enables performance guarantees such as guaranteed
maximum delay, which is essential for real-time applications like voice conversations. It is also
much easier to do detailed accounting for circuit-switched network usage.
Packet Switching
Packet switching refers to protocols in which messages are broken up into small packets before
they are sent. Each packet is transmitted individually across the net, and may even follow
different routes to the destination. Thus, each packet has a header information about the source,
destination, packet numbering, etc. At the destination the packets are reassembled into the
original message. Most modern Wide Area Networks (WANs) protocols, such as TCP/IP, X.25
and Frame Relay, are based on packet switching technologies.
Packet switching's main difference from Circuit Switching is that that the communication lines
are not dedicated to passing messages from the source to the destination. In Packet Switching,
different messages (and even different packets) can pass through different routes, and when there
is a "dead time" in the communication between the source and the destination, the lines can be
used by other routers.
Circuit Switching is ideal when data must be transmitted quickly, must arrive in sequencing
order and at a constant arrival rate. Thus, when transmitting real time data, such as audio and
video, Circuit Switching networks will be used. Packet Switching is more efficient and robust for
data that is bursty in its nature, and can withstand delays in transmission, such as e-mail
messages, and Web pages.
In this way, packets arrive at the destination in the correct sequence, and it is guaranteed that
essentially there will not be errors. This approach is slower than Circuit Switching, since
different virtual circuits may compete over the same resources, and an initial setup phase is
needed to initiate the circuit. As in Circuit Switching, if an intermediate node fails, all virtual
circuits that pass through it are lost.
The most common forms of Virtual Circuit networks are X.25 and Frame Relay, which are
commonly used for public data networks (PDN).
Datagram Packet Switching Networks
This approach uses a different, more dynamic scheme, to determine the route through the network
links. Each packet is treated as an independent entity, and its header contains full information about the
destination of the packet. The intermediate nodes examine the header of the packet, and decide to
which node to send the packet so that it will reach its destination. In the decision two factors are taken
into account:
The shortest way to pass the packet to its destination - protocols such as RIP/OSPF are used to
determine the shortest path to the destination.
Finding a free node to pass the packet to - in this way, bottle necks are eliminated, since packets
can reach the destination in alternate routes.
Thus, in this method, the packets don't follow a pre-established route, and the intermediate nodes (the
routers) don't have pre-defined knowledge of the routes that the packets should be passed through.
Packets can follow different routes to the destination, and delivery is not guaranteed (although packets
usually do follow the same route, and are reliably sent). Due to the nature of this method, the packets
can reach the destination in a different order than they were sent, thus they must be sorted at the
destination to form the original message. This approach is time consuming since every router has to
decide where to send each packet.
The main implementation of Datagram Switching network is the Internet which uses the IP
network protocol.
Consists of data terminal equipment (DTE), data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE), and
packet-switching exchange (PSE).
DTE
o End systems that communicate across the X.25 network. They are usually terminals,
personal computers, or network hosts, and are located on the premises of individual
subscribers
DCE
o Communications devices, such as modems and packet switches, that provide the
interface between DTE devices and a PSE, and are generally located in the carrier's
facilities.
PSE
o Switches that compose the bulk of the carrier's network. They transfer data from one
DTE device to another through the X.25 PSN
X.25 uses the following three protocols, which map to the bottom three layers of the OSI
reference model:
Aynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) has been accepted universally as the transfer mode of
choice for Broadband Integrated Services Digital Networks(BISDN).
ATM can handle any kind of information i.e. voice, data, image, text and video in an integrated
manner.
ATM provides a good bandwidth flexibility and can be used efficiently from desktop computers
to local area and wide area networks.
No processing like error control is done on the information field of ATM cells inside the network
and it is carried transparently in the network. Cell sequence integrity is preserved per virtual
channel.
Networking Devices
1) Cable
o UTP
o Coaxial
2) Repeater
o A repeater receives a signal, regenerates it, and passes it on. It can regenerate and
retime network signals at the bit level to allow them to travel a longer distance on the
media.
o The Four Repeater Rule for 10-Mbps Ethernet should be used as a standard when
extending LAN segments. This rule states that no more than four repeaters can be used
between hosts on a LAN. This rule is used to limit latency added to frame travel by each
repeater. Too much latency on the LAN increases the number of late collisions and
makes the LAN less efficient.
3) HUB
o Hubs are actually multiport repeaters. In many cases, the difference between the two
devices is the number of ports that each provides. While a typical repeater has just two
ports, a hub generally has from four to twenty-four ports
o Hubs are most commonly used in Ethernet 10BASE-T or 100BASE-T networks, although
there are other network architectures that use them as well.
o Using a hub changes the network topology from a linear bus, where each device plugs
directly into the wire, to a star. With hubs, data arriving over the cables to a hub port is
electrically repeated on all the other ports connected to the same network segment,
except for the port on which the data was sent.
Passive – A passive hub serves as a physical connection point only. It does not
manipulate or view the traffic that crosses it. It does not boost or clean the signal. A
passive hub is used only to share the physical media. As such, the passive hub does
not need electrical power.
Active – An active hub must be plugged into an electrical outlet because it needs
power to amplify the incoming signal before passing it out to the other ports.
Intelligent – Intelligent hubs are sometimes called smart hubs. These devices
basically function as active hubs, but also include a microprocessor chip and
diagnostic capabilities. Intelligent hubs are more expensive than active hubs, but are
useful in troubleshooting situations.
o Sometimes hubs are called concentrators, because hubs serve as a central connection
point for an Ethernet LAN.
4) Bridges
o There are times when it is necessary to break up a large LAN into smaller, more
easily managed segments
This decreases the amount of traffic on a single LAN and can
extend the geographical area past what a single LAN can support.
o The devices that are used to connect network segments together include
bridges, switches, routers, and gateways. Switches and bridges operate at
the Data Link layer of the OSI model.
o The function of the bridge is to make intelligent decisions about whether or
not to pass signals on to the next segment of a network.
o When a bridge receives a frame on the network, the destination MAC
address is looked up in the bridge table to determine whether to filter,
flood, or copy the frame onto another segment.
If the destination device is on the same segment as the frame, the
bridge blocks the frame from going on to other segments. This
process is known as filtering.
If the destination device is on a different segment, the bridge
forwards the frame to the appropriate segment.
If the destination address is unknown to the bridge, the bridge
forwards the frame to all segments except the one on which it was
received. This rocess is known as flooding.
o If placed strategically, a bridge can greatly improve network performance.
5) Switch
o A switch is sometimes described as a multiport bridge
o While a typical bridge may have just two ports linking two network segments,
the switch can have multiple ports depending on how many network segments
are to be linked.
o Although there are some similarities between the two, a switch is a more
sophisticated device than a bridge. A bridge determines whether the frame
should be forwarded to the other network segment based on the destination
MAC address.
o A switch has many ports with many network segments connected to them. A
switch chooses the port to which the destination device or workstation is
connected. Ethernet switches are becoming popular connectivity solutions
because, like bridges, switches improve network performance by improving
speed and bandwidth.
o Switching is a technology that alleviates congestion in Ethernet LANs by
reducing the traffic and increasing the bandwidth. Switches can easily
replace hubs because switches work with existing cable infrastructures.
This improves performance with a minimum of intrusion into an existing
network.
6) Router
o Routers are responsible for routing data packets from source to
destination within the LAN, and for providing connectivity to the WAN.
Within a LAN environment the router contains broadcasts, provides local
address resolution services, such as ARP and RARP, and may segment
the network using a subnetwork structure. In order to provide these
services the router must be connected to the LAN and WAN.
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the primary virtual-circuit transport protocol for
the Internet suite.
Provides reliable, in-sequence delivery of a full-duplex stream of octets.
TCP is used by those applications needing reliable, connection-oriented transport service,
e.g., mail (SMTP), file transfer (FTP), and virtual terminal service (Telnet).
Connection-oriented means that a connection must be established before hosts can
exchange data.
Reliability is achieved by assigning a sequence number to each segment transmitted.
o An acknowledgment is used to verify that the data was received by the other host.
o For each segment sent, the receiving host must return an acknowledgment (ACK)
within a specified period for bytes received. If an ACK is not received, the data is
retransmitted.
Figure 2 TCP and UDP headers
UDP does not guarantee delivery, preservation of sequence, or protection against duplication.
UDP enables a procedure to send messages to other procedures with a minimum of protocol
mechanism.
o Some transaction-oriented applications make use of UDP; one example is SNMP (Simple
Network Management Protocol), the standard network management protocol for
TCP/IP networks.
o Because it is connectionless, UDP has very little to do. Essentially, it adds a port
addressing capability to IP.
IP ADDRESS
IP Addressing
Each host on a TCP/IP network is assigned a unique 32-bit logical address that is
divided into two main parts:
the network number and the host number. The network number identifies a network
and must be assigned by
the Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) if the network is to be part of
the Internet. An Internet
Service Provider (ISP) can obtain blocks of network addresses from the InterNIC
and can itself assign address
space as necessary. The host number identifies a host on a network and is assigned
by the local network
administrator.
IP Address Format
The 32-bit IP address is grouped eight bits at a time, separated by dots, and represented in
decimal format
(known as dotted decimal notation). Each bit in the octet has a binary weight (128, 64, 32,
16, 8, 4, 2, 1). The
minimum value for an octet is 0, and the maximum value for an octet is 255. Illustrates
the basic format of an IP address.
An IP address consists of 32 bits, grouped into four octets.
IP Address Classifications
IP addressing supports five different address classes: A, B,C, D, and E. Only classes
A, B, and C are available for commercial use. The left-most (high-order) bits indicate
the network class. Provides reference information about the five IP address classes.
IP Address Modes
Public IP Address
Private IP Address
Public IP Address
Public IP addresses which
are assigned to public
sites.
Public IP Addresses which
is configured through ISP
These are Routable IP(By using these IP
Addresses we can access Internet ) Ex
:Madawalabu University has its own IP
Ex: www.mwu.edu.eth : 213.55.96.152
Ex:www.google.com:173.194.44.17
Private IP Addresses
Class A :10.X.X.X
Class B : 172.16.X.X to 172.32.X.X
Class B : 169.254.X.X (used for
Microsoft family operating systems) Class
C : 192.168.X.X
SUBNET MASK
A subnet mask is used to identify the number of network ID portion and the Host ID
portion.
A sample subnet mask consists of all binary 1s and 0s.
Default subnet mask for each class
Ans : 255.255.255.11000000
=255.255.255.192
a) 22 =4
b) 26 - 2(2n-2)= 64-2=62
c) VS= 256-x =256-192=64
d)
So, 0+64=64,
64+64=128
128+64=192
So, We have to start from 0 (this is the rule we have to start from 0) upto 192
So,
Subnet 0 64 128 192
1st Host ID 1 65 129 193
Last Host ID 62 126 190 254
Broadcast 63 127 191 255
address
NOTE : For more example and Class – C, B , A – subnetting and VLASM Mathematics –
please follow the class .
ARP is used to convert an IP address to a physical address such as an Ethernet address (also known as
a MAC address). ARP has been implemented with many combinations of network and data link layer
technologies, such as IPv4,
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) : ICMP is one of the main
protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is used by network devices, like
routers, to send error messages indicating, for example, that a requested
service is not available or that a host or router could not be reached.